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MEWAR INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY,

KM 21 ABUJA-KEFFI ROAD, NASARAWA, NIGERIA

COURSE: PHY 101: General Physics I

INSTRUCTOR: Mr. Jumare Fidelis Asengi
CONTACT DETAILS: email: [email protected]
Mobile Number:+2349025916040
OFFICE HOURS: 10 am – 4 pm on Weekdays

How to reach me: My office is always open during school hours. Alternatively, you can reach me via email as I
always check my email. I’ll ensure that I respond to your inquiries within 24 hours, or sooner.

CATALOG DESCRIPTION: “A handy introduction to General Physics and Mechanics in Physics.”

ABOUT THIS COURSE: You are welcome to General Physics. This semester, we will be having intensive
discussions about the inter-relating theories and concepts relating to the observable physical environment we live
in. We will also study their components and applications of Physics in modern-day Mechanics.

This course will be delivered through a series of lectures and as such, my responsibility is to support and facilitate
students’ understanding of the practical and natural instances of the principles we will be studying and their
applications. Generally, we would be studying Space and Time, Frames of Reference, Units and Dimension,
Kinematics; The Fundamental Laws of Mechanics, Statics and Dynamics; Work, Kinetic and Potential energy.
Conservation Laws. System of particles, Centre of mass. Rotational motion. torque, vector product, moment,
rotation of coordinate axes and angular momentum, polar coordinates. conservation of angular momentum;
Circular motion. Moments of inertia, gyroscopes and precession. gravitation: Newton’s Law of Gravitation,
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion, Gravitational Potential Energy, Escape velocity, Satellites motion and orbits.
Students will be given lots of opportunities to practice from the in-class discussion, readings assignments, and
individual and group projects.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of the semester and upon completion of all learning activities, my
students should be able to:

1. Explain the Units and Dimensions relating to Mechanics in Physics.

2. Understand and explain Newton’s Laws, Space, Time, and Frames of Reference.
3. Understand and explain the Fundamental Laws of Mechanics, Statics and Dynamics (Kinematics)
4. Understand and explain Momentum, Collision and Conservation Laws.
5. Understand and explain Circular and Rotational motions.
6. Explain Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Teaching Philosophy: I personally aim to inspire my students to learn. I serve as a guide and have a blend of
Constructivism and Humanism as my teaching philosophy. I tend to focus on bringing out the best from the
students I lecture, as I shape their worldview using our learning experiences. I relate our academic journey to
real-life experiences to draw out ethical implications for situations beyond the classroom. Since this university’s
instructional focus is on learning rather than teaching, students are expected to take more responsibility for their
learning than might be required in a more traditional lecture format. I will be here to help every step of the way.
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Lecturer’s Expectation
I expect all my students to conduct themselves ethically by the academic standards laid out in the Students’
Handbook
Students’ Expectation
All my students are to expect that I will guide and inspire their learning process through the duration of this
course by giving my undivided attention in responding to all questions regarding this course. I will show up for
lectures and will be available to answer questions outside the classroom so long as I am contacted appropriately
using the above methods.
Required Course Materials:
Required materials will be provided on the learning management system and will be uploaded to the Telegram
Group for this class. Texts, Images and Videos regarding this Course will be made available on respective
platforms.
 H. D. Young, R. A. Freedman, A. L. Ford, “Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics 12th Edition”,
Pearson Education Inc., 2008. ISBN-13:978-0-321-50121-9
Recommended class readings will be given weekly

COURSE REQUIREMENTS, GRADING, & ASSESSMENT: Students will earn a passing grade upon
successful completion of the following
1. Weekly Lectures (5 Marks). To earn full points from this learning activity, you must attend weekly
classes.
2. Assignments (10 Marks)
3. Class Projects and Presentations (5 Marks)
4. Mid Semester Examination (20 Marks)
5. Final Examination (60 Marks)

Submission Deadlines. Late assignments will not be accepted. Assignments must be submitted on/or before the
due date, unless there is a genuine reason due to unforeseen circumstances. In this case prior permission must be
obtained in time from the instructor.

Collaboration. Students can collaborate with peers on learning activities. However, it is not acceptable for
students to copy another person’s work or idea. Any act of copying or cheating will attract a failing grade of F in
addition to disciplinary measure.

Academic Honesty: Academic trustworthiness is anticipated in this course. Thus, all practice of dishonesty,
cheating, unapproved teamwork, misrepresentation of citations, slanting and falsification of data and refusing to
accurately acknowledge literature characterize academic deceitfulness, and will be given a failing grade of "F" in
addition to other punitive sanctions. Note that every student is accountable for abiding with the ¨academic
honesty" code (Statement on Academic Honesty by faculty Senate). Every student is encouraged to review the
Student Code of Statement on Academic Honesty by faculty Senate and clarification of plagiarism. Again,
academic dishonesty attracts a failing grade of "F" in addition to disciplinary measures. Every student should
recognize the gravity of academic dishonesty in the form of misrepresentation of scholarly ideas, plagiarism, and
cheating. Contact the instructor if you require clarifications regarding references, citations, and academic ethics.
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CLASS SCHEDULE
SESSION & DATE, READINGS, ASSIGNMENT & DISCUSSION

WEEK 1: UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• What are physical quantities?
• What the fundamental quantities of mechanics are, and the unit physicists use to measure them.
• What the derived quantities of mechanics are, and the unit physicists use to measure them.
Sub Topics: units, dimensions, physical quantities, fundamental and derived quantities

WEEK 2: SCALARS AND VECTORS

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The difference between scalars and vectors, and how to add and subtract vectors.
• What the components of a vector are, and how to use them in calculations.
• What unit vectors are, and how to use them with components to describe vectors.
• Two ways of multiplying vectors.

Sub Topics: Scalar and Vector quantities, Vector Addition, Components of Vectors, Unit Vectors, 3D Vectors,
Vector Product

WEEK 3: RECTILINEAR MOTION

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• Understand Frame of Reference, Position and displacement of vectors
• How to describe straight-line motion in terms of average velocity, instantaneous velocity, average acceleration
and instantaneous acceleration.
• How to solve problems involving straight-line motion with constant acceleration, including free-fall problems.

Sub Topics: Position, Displacement, Time and Average Velocity, Instantaneous Velocity, Average and
Instantaneous Acceleration, Motion with Constant Acceleration and Equations of motion, Freely Falling Bodies

WEEK 4: Continuation of week 3

WEEK 5: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTIONS

Learning Goals:
By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• What the concept of force means in physics, and why forces are vectors.
• The significance of the net force on an object, and what happens when the net force is zero.
• The relationship among the net force on an object, the objects mass and its acceleration.
• How the forces that two bodies exert on each other are related.

Sub Topics: Force and Interactions, Newton’s First Law, Newton’s Second, Mass and Weight, Newton’s Third
Law, Impulse and momentum.

WEEK 6: WORK, KINETIC ENERGY AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Learning Goals: By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• What it means for a force to do work on a body, and how to calculate the amount of work done.
• The definition of the kinetic energy (energy of motion) of a body, and what it means physically.
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• Potential Energy
• How the total work done on a body changes the body’s kinetic energy and how to use this principle to solve
problems in mechanics.

Sub Topics: Work, Kinetic Energy and the Work–Energy, Theorem, Work and Energy with Varying Forces,
Power

WEEK 7: CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

Learning Goals: By studying this chapter, you will be able to explain:
• The meaning of the momentum of a particle, and how the impulse of the net force acting on a particle causes its
momentum to change.
• The conditions under which the total momentum of a system of particles is constant (conserved).
• How to solve problems in which two bodies collide with each other.
• The important distinction among elastic, inelastic and completely inelastic collisions.
• How to analyse situations such as rocket propulsion in which the mass of a body changes as it moves.

Sub Topics: Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum, Elastic and inelastic Collisions.

WEEK 10-11
This week we will be working on our previous knowledge and make revisions of topics previously considered.
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UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

In physics, the concepts of units, dimensions and physical quantities are fundamental and interrelated, but they
refer to different aspects of measurements and the properties being measured.
A Physical Quantity is the physical property of a material or system that can be quantified by measurement or it
describes physical properties of an object by measurement. It is described by a numerical value and unit
(magnitudes and units). Example: Length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, etc.
Units and dimensions in physics are used to measure and describe physical quantities. They provide a
standardized way of expressing measurements and ensure consistency and accuracy in scientific calculations and
experiments.
Units are standardized quantities used to measure physical quantities. They provide a reference for expressing the
numerical value of a physical quantity. Units are used to quantify the magnitude of a physical quantity.
The Three Base Units in Physics are:
1. Meter: The unit of length is the mater (m). It is used to measure the size or extent of an object or a distance
between two points.

2. Kilogram: The unit of mass is kilogram (Kg). It is a measure of amount of matter in an object.

3. Second: The unit of time is second (s). It is used to measure the duration or interval between events or actions.

Some Typical Lengths of the Universe

1 Diameter of earth
2 Earth from the sun
3 Human red blood cells
4 Radius of an atom
5 Radius of an atomic nucleus
Unit Prefix
1 Kilometer = 1 km = meters = m
1 kilogram = 1 kg = grams = g
1 kilowatt = 1 kW = Watts = W
Multiples of 10 and their prefixes
Length
1 nanometer = 1nm =
1 micrometer = 1µm =
1 millimeter = 1 mm =
1 centimeter = 1 cm =
1 kilometer = 1 km =
Time
1 nanosecond = 1ns =
1 microsecond = 1µs = s
1 millisecond = 1 ms=
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Mass

1 microgram = 1µg =
1 milligram= 1mg =
1 gram = 1g=
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
Fundamental Quantities: These are basic quantities that are independent of other quantities and cannot be defined in
terms of other quantities.

Fundamental Units: These are basic units upon which other units depend. They are units of fundamental quantities.

Quantity Abbreviation Units Abbreviation

Length L Meter m
Mass M Kilogram Kg
Time t second S
Electric Current i Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Amount of a substance n mole Mol

Derived Quantities and Units

Derived quantities and units are those obtained some simple combinations of the fundamental quantities and units.
They are thus dependent on the fundamental quantities and units.

Derived Quantities Derivation Derived Units

Area (A) Length breadth
Volume (V) Length breadth height
Density (ρ) Mass volume Kg.
Velocity (V) Displacement time
Acceleration (a) Change in velocity time
Force (F) Mass acceleration Newton (N)
Energy or work (w) Force distance Joules or (Nm)
Power (P) Work done time J. or watt
Momentum (ρ) Mass velocity Kg.
Pressure (P) Force area or pascal (Pa)
Frequency (f) No of oscillation time Hertz (Hz) or per second (

DIMENSIONS:

Dimensions are the quantitative aspects of physical quantities that define the nature of the quantity. They
represent the basic types of quantities involved in a measurement. The seven basic dimensions in the international
system of units (SI) are: Length (L), Mass (M), Time (T), Electric current (I), Thermodynamic temperature ,
Amount of a substance (N), Luminous intensity (J)
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Dimensional Formula:

In physics, the dimensions of physical quantities refer to the types of units or measures used to describe them,
indicating how they relate to fundamental physical dimensions like length, mass and time.

Any quantity which can be measured in units of length is said to have the dimension of length (L). so also for
mass (M) and time (T). They are usually enclosed in a space brackets i.e [M] , [L] and [T] respectively for mass,
length and time dimension.

1. The dimension of velocity can be calculated as follows

2. The dimension of Area:

3. The dimension of volume:

4. The dimension of acceleration:

5. The dimension of force:

6. The dimension of pressure:

Exercise 1

Derive the dimension of the following:

i) Work ii) Momentum iii) Power

Relationship between Units, Dimensions and Physical Quantities

1. Physical Quantity: The measureable property (e.g. force)

2. Dimension: The nature of the physical quantity in terms of basic dimensions (e.g. force has the dimension of
[MLT-2])
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3. Units: The specific measurement standard (e.g. Newton for force)

We will recall that physical quantities are physical properties or features of a material or a system that can be
quantified by measurement. These physical quantities can be classified into scalar quantities and vector
quantities.

Scalar Quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude but no direction. Such as, temperature, mass, and
time. These quantities can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided like ordinary numbers.

Vector Quantities on the other hand, have both magnitude and direction. Examples of vector quantities include
displacement, velocity and force. Vector quantities cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided in the
same way as scalars. Instead vector addition and subtraction involve considering booth magnitude and direction.

VECTORS AND VECTOR ADDITION

Some physical quantities, such as time, temperature, mass and density, can be described completely by a single
number with a unit. But many other important quantities in physics have a direction associated with them and
cannot be described by a single number. A simple example is the motion of an aeroplane. To describe this motion
completely, we must say not only mention how fast the plane is moving, but also in what direction. To fly from
Adelaide to Sydney, a plane has to head east, not south. The speed of the aeroplane combined with its direction of
motion together constitute a quantity called velocity. Another example is force, which in physics means a push or
pull exerted on a body. Giving a complete description of a force means describing both how hard the force pushes
or pulls on the body and the direction of the push or pull.
When a physical quantity is described by a single number, we call it a scalar quantity. In contrast, a vector
quantity has both a magnitude (the ‘how much ’or ‘how big’ part) and a direction in space.

When you write a symbol for a vector, always write it with an arrow on top. If you don’t distinguish between
scalar and vector quantities in your notation, you probably won’t make the distinction in your thinking either, and
hopeless confusion will result. We usually represent a vector quantity such as displacement by a single letter,
such as .

Types of Vectors
Zero or Null Vector: this is a type of vector where the initial and terminal points are coincident.
Unit Vector: this is a vector whose magnitude is a unity and is denoted by .
Co-initial Vectors: These are vectors that have the same starting point.
Like and Unlike Vectors: The vectors having the same direction are called like vectors. On the contrary, the
vectors having opposite direction with respect to each other are called unlike vectors.
Co-planar vectors: These are three or more vectors lying on the same plane or parallel to the same plane.
Collinear or Parallel Vectors: are vectors that lie along the same line or parallel lines.
Non-Collinear Vectors: These are vectors that do not lie on the same plane.
Negative Vector: These are vectors that have same magnitude but opposite in direction.

Addition of Vector

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two vectors from the terminal point of (a), vector (b) is drawn. Then, the vector from the
initial point of (a) to the terminal point of (b) is called the sum of vectors (a) and (b) and is denoted by (a + b).
c=a+b
Properties of Vector Addition
1. Vector addition is commutative i.e.
2. Vector addition is associative i.e.
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( +
3. Vector addition is distributive i.e.
4. Additive inverse property i.e.

Finding Components of Vectors

We can find the components along the x and y axis of vector if we know the magnitude of the vector and its
direction.

(A)

(ϴ is measured from the positive x-axis, rotating toward the positive y-axis)

(C) (D)

Fig.1
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Example 1

(a) What are the x- and y- components of the vector in the fig.? The magnitude of the vector is D = 3m
and the angle α = (b) what are the x- and y- components of vector in fig? The magnitude of the
vector is E = 4.50m and the angle β =37o
Solution

Using trigonometry:
(a)

(b)

Exercise 2

A force of 250N acts at an angle of 30o to the positive x-axis. Resolve this force into components parallel to
the x- and y- axes

Exercise 3

A force of 12N acts at an angle of 230o to the positive x- axis. Resolve this force into components parallel to
the x- and y- axes.

Exercise 4

A force of 320N acts at an angle of 330o anticlockwise from the positive x-axes. Resolve this force into
components parallel to the x- and y- axes.
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Finding the Magnitude and direction of a Vector from its components

We can find the magnitude and direction of a vector if we know its components i.e and

Example 2

A cross-country skier skis 1.00 km north and then 2.00 km east on a horizontal snow field. How far and in
what direction is she from the starting point?

Solution

Displacement =
Direction =
Thus, we can describe the direction as east of north or north of east.

Exercise 5

A river flows from south to north at 5km/h. On this river, a boat is heading east to west perpendicular to
the current at 7km/h. As viewed by an eagle hovering at rest over the shore, how fast and in what direction
is this boat travelling?

Exercise 6

A cross country skier skis 1.00km north and then 2.00km east on a horizontal snow field. How far and in
what direction is she from the starting point?
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Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1, with no units. Its only purpose is to point i.e. to describe a
direction in space. Unit vectors provide a convenient notation for many expressions involving components of
vectors. We will always include a caret or ‘hat’ ( ) in the symbol for a unit vector to distinguish it from ordinary
vectors whose magnitude may or may not be equal to 1.

Fig.2

In an x-y coordinate system we can define a unit vector that points in the direction of the positive x-axis and a unit
vector those points in the direction of the positive y-axis.fig

Similarly, we can write a vector in terms of its components as

When two vectors and are represented in terms of their components fig. b, we can express the vector sum
using the unit vectors as follows.

Product of Vectors

1. Scalar or Dot Product of two vectors can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the two vectors and
the cosine of the angle between them. The scalar product of two vectors is denoted by

Fig.3

Scalar product of is:

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Scalar Product Using Components.

We can calculate the scalar product directly if we know the x, y, and z components of
Scalar products of the unit vectors will be worked out first. Since all have a magnitude of 1
and are perpendicular to each other.

Now,

Example 3

Find the scalar product of the two vectors given the magnitude of the vector .

Solution

Or
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Example 4

Find the angle between the two vectors.

Solution

Exercise 7

Find the angle between two vectors and

Vector A extend from an origin to a point having polar coordinate (7,70o) and vector B extend from the
origin to a point having polar coordinate (4,130o). find A.B

Vector / Cross Product of two vectors can be defined as the product of the magnitudes of the original vectors and
the sine of the angle between them.

Properties of Scalar Product

1.

2. The vector product is anti-commutative:

3. The vector product is distributive over vector addition:

2. Vector or Cross Product of two vectors can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the two vectors and
the sine of the angle between them. The scalar product of two vectors is denoted by
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Vector Product Using Components

We can calculate the vector product directly if we know the x, y, and z components of

Here,
since they are parallel to each other. And

If

The vector product can also be expressed in determinant form as.

Prorperties of Vector Product

1. The magnitude of a vector preoduct is equal to the product of the magnitude of the two input vectors multiplied
by the sine of the angle between them.

2. The vector product is anti-commutative, meaning that

3. The vector product is distributive over vector addition, meanig that

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Example 5

Two vectors are given as and Find the resultant vector

Solution

Again

Exercise 8

Calculate the vector product of a and b given that a = 2i + j + k and b = I – j – k

Exercise 9

Calculate the vector product of i – j and i + j

Exercise 10

Compare the components for the following vector equations

a)

b)
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FRAME OF REFERENCE
Any measurement of position, distance or speed must be made with respect to a frame of reference. For example,
a person walks toward the front of a train at 5km/h. The train is moving 80km/h with respect to the ground, so the
walking person’s speed relative to the ground is 85km/h.
When specifying the motion of an object, it is important to specify not only the speed but also the direction of
motion. Often we can specify a direction by using the cardinal points, North, East, South and West and by ‘up’
and ‘down’. At times we draw a set of co-ordinates axes.

Example 6
Sally and John are on a train that is moving east at 50km/h relative to the ground. John is walking
east at 3km/h and sally is walking west at4km/h.
a) What is john’s velocity with respect to the ground?
b) What is Sally’s velocity with respect to the ground?
c) What is john’s velocity with respect to Sally?
d) What is Sally’s velocity with respect to John?

Solution

c)
a)
d)

b)

RECTILINEAR MOTION
If the position of an object changes with respect to time and its surroundings, the body is said to be in motion.
Mathematically, motion can be described with displacement, velocity, and acceleration in a particular frame of
reference. The motion of a particle can be classified on the basis of its trajectory, the simplest being motion along
a straight line namely rectilinear motion. The displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors are restricted to
one dimension. Rectilinear motion has three types: uniform motion (zero acceleration), uniformly accelerated
motion (non-zero constant acceleration), and motion with non-uniform acceleration. Examples of rectilinear
motion are free-fall under gravity and the simple harmonic motion of a mass attached to a spring.
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POSITION, DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT:

The position of a particle is a vector quantity which points from the origin to the particle. Its magnitude is given
by the distance between them. When the particle is set into motion, it follows a path so that the position changes
with time. Displacement is the vector difference of the position after an interval of time and it points from the
initial position to the final position. Distance is the total path traversed along the trajectory whereas displacement
is the shortest path.

Position (r) can be define as the location of an object at any giving time

Distance is how far, to what extend an object travels. And it’s always positive.

Displacement is the change in position of the object and in what direction the object travels.

If the position of the particle changes from to in time , the displacement is given by,

Example 7

If Audu travels 10m east and 3m west, what is his total distance traveled and his displacement?

Solution 10m

West 0m East
3m

Distance = 10m + 3m = 13m

Displacement = 10m – 3m = 7m

Or using number line

Example 8

A man walking 70m to the east and then turning around walking back (west) a distance of 30m. Calculate
his total distance covered and his displacement.

Solution
Total distance: 70m + 30m
Displacement = 70m – 30m = 40m

Exercise 11

An ant starts at X = 20cm on a piece of graph and walks along the X- axis to X = -20cm. It then turns
around and walks back to X = -10cm. What is the ant’s displacement and the total distance traveled?
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Speed tells us how fast an object is moving. For example, if a car travels at a speed of 30m/s, it means every
second, the car travels a distance of 30m. Average speed is the ratio of the total distance covered at a particular
time.

Where S = speed, d = distance and t = time

Average Velocity (Velocity)

Velocity is simply speed with direction. Speed tells us how fast an object is moving and velocity tells how fast
and in what direction the object is moving.

The velocity of a particle is the rate at which its position changes with time. The position of a particle in a
particular reference frame is given by a position drawn from the origin of that frame to the particle. Let us
consider a particle at point A at an initial time and its position in the x-y plane is described by initial position
vector . Let the particle be at point B at a final time and its position is described by final position . The
displacement vector describing the change in position of the particle as it moves from A to B is Δr = r2 – r1 and
the elapsed time for the motion between these points is Δt = t2 – t1. The average velocity for the particle during
this interval is defined by
.

Instantaneous Velocity
If the average velocity of a particle is measured for a number of different time intervals and it is not
constant. Then this particle is said to move with variable velocity. So, we must seek to determine a velocity
of the particle at any given instant of time, called the instantaneous velocity.
If is the displacement in a small interval of time following the time t, the velocity at the time t is the
limiting value approached by as both approach zero. That is, if we let represent the
instantaneous velocity.

In the notation of the calculus, the limiting value of as approaches zero is written as and is called the
derivative of r with respect to t. we have then
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Example 9
A cheetah is crouched 10m to the east of an observer’s vehicle. At time t=0, the cheetah charges an
antelope and begins to run along a straight line. During the first 2.0s of the attack, the cheetah’s
coordinate x varies with time according to the equation

(i) Find the displacement of the cheetah between and

(ii) Find the average velocity during the same time interval.
(iii) Find the instantaneous velocity at time by taking
(iv) Derive a general expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time, and from
it find
Solution
(i)

Also,

(ii)

(iii) Instantaneous velocity at time by taking

Using the displacement equation given,

Instantaneous velocity at time by taking

Using the displacement equation given,

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Instantaneous velocity at time by taking

Using the displacement equation given,

(iv) General expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time,

m/s2

and from it find

Exercise 12

Calculate the instantaneous velocity of a particle traveling along a straight line for time t = 3s with a
function

Exercise 13

The motion of the car is provided by the function Compute its instantaneous velocity
at time t = 5s.
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Average acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration

Acceleration tells you how fast the speed/velocity is changing and the average acceleration for a finite time
interval is defined as:

Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration is defined as the derivative of v with respect to t.

Positive acceleration points in the direction of the +x-axis, while negative acceleration points in the opposite
direction. Negative acceleration does not mean a deceleration. The word ‘deceleration’ means only a slowing
down; it tells us nothing about direction. Note when v and a have the same sign, the body speeds up; when they
have opposite signs, the body slows down.

Example 10

A sparrow, while going back to its nest accelerates to 6m/s from 3m/s in 5s. What can we say about it s
average acceleration?
Solution
, ,

Example 11
The equation for instantaneous acceleration is given by
Solution

At t = 3s

Exercise 14

Suppose the x-velocity of the car in at any time t is given by the equation

(a) Find the change in x-velocity of the car in the time interval between t1 = 1.0s and t2 = 3.0s (b)
Find the average x-acceleration in this time interval. (c) Find the instantaneous x-acceleration at time
t1 = 1.0s by taking to be first 0.1 s, then 0.01 s, then 0.001 s. (d) Derive an expression for the
instantaneous x-acceleration at any time, and use it to find the x-acceleration at
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MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

The simplest kind of accelerated motion is straight-line motion with constant acceleration. In this, case the
velocity changes at the same rate throughout the motion. This is a very special situation yet one that occur often
in nature. A falling body has a constant acceleration if the effects of the air are not important. The same is true for
a body sliding on an incline or a long rough horizontal surface. Constant acceleration motion refers to motion
where the speed increases by the same amount each second.

Equations of motion at constant acceleration

We can derive the equations for the position (x) and the velocity (Vx) as a function of time (t)

If acceleration

Let and be any time (t)

The above equation can be transformed to

The equation above is the expression of the final velocity in terms of the initial velocity, the acceleration
(constant) and the time.

Average velocity is

In substituting for

The equation (d) above is for the final position in term of the initial position, initial velocity, the acceleration and
time.

If we express the equation

Summary of the Equations of Motion at constant acceleration

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Example 12

A motorcyclist heading east through a small New South Wales town accelerates after he passes the
signpost marking the town limits. His acceleration is a constant . At time t = 0, He is 5.0m east
of the sign post, moving east at 15m/s. (a) Find his position and velocity at time t = 2.0 s (b) Where is
the motorcyclist when his velocity is 25 m/s?

Solution
a) Position

Velocity

b)

Or

Exercise 15

A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5m/s to 46.1m/s in 2.47s. Determine the acceleration of the
car and the distance traveled.

Exercise 16

Rocket – powered sleds are used to test the human response to acceleration. If a rocket – powered sled
is accelerated to a speed of 444m/s in 1.83s, then what is the acceleration and what is the distance that
the sled travels?

Exercise 17

An airplane accelerates down a runway at 3.20m/ for 32.8s until is finally lifts off the ground.
Determine the distance traveled before takeoff.
 25

FREE FALLING BODY

Free fall of an object is defined when the object is only under the influence of the force of gravity and no other
force is acting on it. In reality, an object when undergoes free fall, it also experiences other forces like air
resistance, etc. Galileo proposed that all bodies at a particular location fall with the same downward acceleration
regardless of their size or weight. The constant acceleration of free falling bodies is called the acceleration due to
gravity.

The equations of motion at constant acceleration are also applicable to free falling bodies.

Example 13

A girl drops a pebble into a dry well and hears the pebble hitting the floor of the well after 4s. What
is the depth of the well?

Solution

Data:

Exercise 18

Rejoe throws her mother’s crustal vase vertically upward with an initial velocity of 26.2m/s.
Determine the height to which the vase will rise above its initial height.

Exercise 19

Ado drops a pile of roof shingles from the top of a roof located 8.52m to the ground. Determine the
time required for the shingles to reach the grounmd?
 26

NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
Newtonian mechanics is based on the three fundamental laws called Newton’s laws of motion.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. Newton’s first law of motion (Law of inertia)

This law states that an object at rest will continue to remain in its state of rest and an object in motion will
continue moving in a straight line with a constant velocity, unless acted upon by an external force or a net force
(non zero).

Part A: An object at rest will continue at rest unless acted on by a net force (non zero).

Let’s say we have a 5kg block resting on a surface, that block will continue to remain in that position except you
apply a force on it. If the applied force is strong enough, the ball will begin to slide on that surface. A force is
required to accelerate an object, if no force is applied, the object will remain at rest.

Part B: An object will remain in motion unless acted on by a net force (non zero).

Suppose you roll a ball on a carpet floor, that ball will eventually come to a stop and that is because there is net
force (friction) acting on the ball. If friction is reduced by replacing the carpeted floor with an icy surface, the ball
will travel further, slows down and eventually comes to a stop. This is because the friction is lesser in this case
compared to the other. If we can eliminate friction and air resistance completely, the ball will continue moving
and will not stop but this can only be achieved in space.

If a ball A is moving to the right at constant speed, is there net force acting on it? No, because the velocity is
constant.

How about ball B moving at straight to the right at the rate of 20m/s, 1s later at the rate of 25m/s. is there a net
force? Yes, because the ball is accelerating. Any time an object is accelerating or changing speed there is a net
force.

Again, ball C is moving at constant speed of 20m/s but its turning towards the left, is there a net force? Yes,
because the ball is changing direction and any time a moving object is changing direction, there is acceleration
and that acceleration is perpendicular to the object and the net force is always in the direction of the acceleration.

2. Newton’s second law of motion

This law states that the force acting on an object is equal to the mass of that object multiplied by its acceleration.

Again,
 27

Momentum is simply mass in motion

Example 14

A table has a mass of 15kg, what is its momentum?

Solution

m = 15kg, v = 0:

Example 15

Supposing we apply a force of 40N to accelerate a block of 5kg resting on a frictionless surface, what will
be the acceleration acting on the block and in what direction?

Exercise 20

Which of these has more momentum?

a. A car moving at a speed of 30km/hr

b. A train moving at a speed of 30km/hr

 28

Example 16

Suppose we apply a force of 35N on a block of 8kg that is resting on a surface, if motion is been
opposed by a frictional force of 19N, a) Calculate the net force b) calculate the acceleration and
determine the direction of the acceleration.

Solution

Accelerating towards the left (west)

Let’s look at what happens to the moving object in these three cases.

a.

If the object is moving (velocity vector) in same

direction as the force, the object speeds up
(accelerates)

b.

If the object is moving (velocity vector) in the

opposite direction as the applied force, the object
slows down (decelerates)
 29

c.

Any time the velocity vector is perpendicular to the

applied force, the speed will not change rather; the
object is going to change its direction by turning in
the direction of the force.
Fig.4

Exercise 21

What average force is required to accelerate a 5kg block from rest to a final speed of 50m/s in
9s?

Exercise 22

A 1500kg car moving at a speed of 45mph comes to stop after traveling a distance of 200m. what
was the average force exerted by the brakes on the car?

3. Newton’s third law

This law states that, for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. This means whenever an
object (A) exerts a force on another object (B), the second object (B) exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first object (A).

Question: An astronaut holding a ball in space will throw the ball in what direction in order to accelerate him in
the right direction?

Answer: He will have to throw the ball in the left direction to feel an equal magnitude of force that will
accelerate him in the right direction.

When a rocket launches out of space, it expels a gas, so as the gas is expelled downward, an upward force is
created based on Newton’s third law and that upward force causes the rocket to accelerate upward.

Example 17

Lucy (60kg) pushes Aisha (90kg) with a force of 540N directed east. a) What magnitude of force
does Aisha exert on Lucy? b) What acceleration does each person experience?

Solution

a)
b)
 30
Exercise 23

A care travels on the road with a constant velocity. a) What is the horizontal force acting on the
car? b) What is the acceleration on the car? c) If the frictional force acting on the car is 1500N,
what is the applied force?

KINETIC ENERGY (KE) AND POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)

The word Kinetic has to do with motion, kinetic energy is simply energy in motion. A massive ball moving with a
velocity of 5m/s has kinetic energy but a block at rest does not have kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy is the energy that an object possesses due to its motion. It is directly proportional to the mass of
the object and the square of its velocity. The formula for kinetic energy (KE) is:

Where, m = mass (kg) of the object and v = velocity (m/s) of the object

Potential energy is the energy stored in an object due to its position, condition, or configuration. There are
several types of potential energy, but the most common ones include gravitational potential energy and elastic
potential energy.

Gravitational potential energy (PE) is the energy an object possesses because of its height above the ground.
The formula for gravitational potential energy is:

Where, m = mass of the object, g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/ approximately on earth) and h = the
height of the object above the reference point

Between object A and B, which of them has a greater gravitational potential energy?

Fig.5

Object B has a greater gravitational potential energy because it can fall a greater distance than object A
 31

Work (W) is defined as the transfer of energy when a force is applied to an object causing it to move. The amount
of work done is calculated by the formula.

Where w = work done, F is the magnitude of the force applied, d is the displacement of the object and is the
angle between the force and the direction of the displacement. Work is measured in joules (J)

Example 18

a) Supposing we have a 10kg ball located 50m above the ground, how much potential energy willthe ball
possess at that position?

Solution

b) If the ball is released to fall to the ground, just before it touches the ground, what will be the potential
energy of the ball at that position and the kinetic energy?

Solution

As the ball is released from that height, the potential energy starts decreasing while the kinetic energy
increases as it falls towards the ground. At the position just before it touches the ground, the PE = 0 and
KE = 4900J

c) At the position just before the ball touches the ground, how fast is the ball moving?

Solution

Example 19

A box is pushed across a floor with a constant force of 50N. The box moves a distance of 3m in the
direction of the force. Calculate the work done on the box.

Solution

Data:
 32

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

The principle of the conservation of linear momentum can be stated in three different ways as follows:

1) The total momentum of an isolated or closed system of colliding bodies remains constant.

2) If two or more bodies collide in a closed system, the total momentum after the collision after the collision is
equal to the total momentum before the collision.

3) In any system of colliding bodies, the total momentum is always conserved provided that there are no external
forces acting on the system.

NB

When we say a closed system or isolated system we mean the system in which no external forces acts. Here, the
only forces acting in a closed system of colliding bodies are those due to collision.

The principle of conservation of linear momentum follows from Newton’s second and third law of motion.
Consider two bodies A and B of masses moving towards each other with velocities
respectively.

Fig.6

After collision, the bodies might stick and move together in a particular direction (either right or left), they might
also separate and move in opposite direction or lastly separate and move in the same direction.

Elastic and Inelastic collision

Elastic collision is an encounter between two bodies in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
Here, after collision the balls separated after collision and move in the same direction.

Fig.7
 33

Where,

Inelastic Collision in contrast to an elastic collision is one in which momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is
not conserved due to the action of internal friction. In the case, the bodies stick and move together with the same
velocity after collision.

Fig.8
 34

Example 20
A body A of mass 5kg moving with a velocity of 30m/s collides with another body B moving in the
opposite direction with a velocity of 20m/s. [Let
a) Calculate the mass of B if both bodies now moves in the direction of A at a velocity of 10m/s
b) Calculate the common velocity assuming they stick and move together in the direction of A
Solution
Data

a)

b)

(5

Exercise 24

Two billiards balls collide. Ball 1 moves with a velocity of 6m/s, and ball 2 is at rest. After the collision,
Ball 1 comes to a complete stop. What is the velocity of ball 2 after the collision? Is this collision elastic
or inelastic? The mass of each ball is 0.20kg.