Participant Handbook

Sector
Electronics

Sub-Sector
Semiconductor
& Components
Occupation
Product Design
Reference ID: ELE/Q1405,
Version 2.0, NSQF Level 5

IoT Hardware Analyst

Scan this QR Code to access eBook

Participant Handbook

Published by
Electronics Sector Skill Council of India (ESSCI)
155, 2nd Floor, ESC House, Okhla Industrial Area-Phase 3, New Delhi- 110020, India
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.essc-india.org
Phone: +91 8447738501

All Rights Reserved ©2022

First Edition, August 2022

Copyright © 2022
Electronics Sector Skill Council of India (ESSCI)
155, 2nd Floor, ESC House, Okhla Industrial Area-Phase 3, New Delhi- 110020, India
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.essc-india.org
Phone: +91 8447738501
This book is sponsored by Electronics Sector Skill Council of India (ESSCI)
Under Creative Commons Licence: CC-BY-SA
Attribution-ShareAlike: CC BY-SA

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long as they credit you and license their new creation under the identical terms. This license is of-
ten compared to “copyleft” free and open source software licenses. All new works based on yours
will carry the same license, so many derivatives will also allow commercial use. This is the license
used by Wikipedia and is recommended for materials that would benefit from incorporating con-
tent from Wikipedia and similarly licensed projects.
Disclaimer
The information contained herein has been obtained from sources reliable to ESSCI. ESSCI disclaims all warranties
to the accuracy, completeness or adequacy of such information. ESSCI shall have no liability for errors, omissions, or
inadequacies, in the information contained herein, or for interpretations thereof. Every effort has been made to trace
the owners of the copyright material included in the book. The publishers would be grateful for any omissions
brought to their notice for acknowledgements in future editions of the book. No entity in ESSCI shall be
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 IoT Hardware Analyst

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Participant Handbook

COMPLIANCE TO
QUALIFICATION PACK - NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL
STANDARDS

Electronics Sector Skill Council of India

“IoT Hardware Analyst” ELE/Q1405, NSQF Level 5

Date of Issuance: Sep 9th 2022

Valid up to*: June 2ND 2025

Electronics Sector Skill Council of India

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Acknowledgements
This participant’s handbook meant for IoT Hardware Analyst is a sincere attempt to ensure the availability
of all the relevant information to the existing and prospective job holders in this job role. We have
compiled the content with inputs from the relevant Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) and industry members
to ensure it is the latest and authentic. We express our sincere gratitude to all the SMEs and industry
members who have made invaluable contributions to the completion of this participant’s handbook.
We’d also like to thank all the experts and organizations who have helped us by reviewing the content
and providing their feedback to improve its quality.
This handbook will help deliver skill-based training in the field of IoT hardware assembly and testing. We
hope that it will benefit all the stakeholders, such as participants, trainers, and evaluators. We have made
all efforts to ensure the publication meets the current quality standards for the successful delivery of QP/
NOS-based training programs. We welcome and appreciate any suggestions for future improvements to
this handbook.

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Participant Handbook

About this book

This participant handbook has been designed to serve as a guide for participants who aim to obtain the
required knowledge and skills to undertake various activities in the role of an IoT Hardware Analyst.
Its content has been aligned with the latest Qualification Pack (QP) prepared for the job role. With a
qualified trainer’s guidance, the participants will be equipped with the following for working efficiently
in the job role:
• Knowledge and Understanding: The relevant operational knowledge and understanding to
perform the required tasks.
• Performance Criteria: The essential skills through hands-on training to perform the required
operations to the applicable quality standards.
• Professional Skills: The Ability to make appropriate operational decisions about the field of work.
The handbook details the relevant activities to be carried out by an IoT Hardware Analyst. After studying
this handbook, job holders will be adequately skilled to carry out their duties efficiently according to the
applicable quality standards. The handbook is aligned with the following National Occupational Standards
(NOS) detailed in the IoT Hardware Analyst QP:
1. ELE/N1407: Create requirement specifications and detailed design documents
2. ELE/N1408: Design circuit and PCB layout for the IoT system
3. ELE/N1409: Build and test the complete IoT system
4. ELE/N9905: Work effectively at the workplace
5. ELE/N1002: Apply health and safety practices at the workplace
The handbook has been divided into an appropriate number of units and sub-units based on the content
of the relevant QP. We hope it will facilitate easy and structured learning for the participants. We sincerely
hope that participants will obtain enhanced knowledge and skills after studying this handbook and make
career progress in the relevant and senior job roles.

Symbols Used

Key Learning Steps Exercise Notes Unit

Outcomes Objectives

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Table of Contents
S. No. Modules and Units Page No.

1. Introduction and Orientation to the Role of an IoT Hardware Analyst 1

Unit 1.1 – About Electronics Industry 3

Unit 1.2 – About Role of an IoT Hardware Analyst 9

Process of Creating Requirement Specifications and Detailed Design

2. 11
Documents (ELE/N1407)

Unit 2.1 – IOT System 13

Unit 2.2 – IOT Design Requirements and Specifications 25

Process of Designing Circuit and PCB Layout for the IoT System (ELE/
3. 33
N1408)

Unit 3.1 – PCB Layout Designing for IoT System 35

Unit 3.2 – Building Prototype of PCB Design 55

4. Process of Building and Testing the Complete IoT System (ELE/N1409) 65

Unit 4.1 – Building an IoT System 67

Unit 4.2 – Testing an IoT System 74

5. Work Effectively at the Workplace (ELE/N9905) 93

Unit 5.1 – Effective Communication and Coordination at Work 95

Unit 5.2 – Working Effectively and Maintaining Discipline at Work 101

Unit 5.3 – Maintaining Social Diversity at Work 111

6. Basic Health and Safety Practices (ELE/N1002) 117

Unit 6.1 – Workplace Hazards 119

Unit 6.2 – Fire Safety 131

Unit 6.3 – First Aid 134

Unit 6.4 – Waste Management 137

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Participant Handbook

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1. Introduction and
Orientation to
the Role of an IoT
Hardware Analyst

Unit 1.1 - About Electronics Industry

Unit 1.2 - About Role of an IoT Hardware Analyst

Bridge Module
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, participants will be able to:
1. Describe about electronics industry
2. List applications of electronics industry
3. Describe trends and challenges in electronics industry
4. Describe IOT design requirements
5. Describe components of IoT design document
6. List requirements of an IoT System

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Unit 1.1: About Electronics Industry

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe about electronics industry
2. List applications of electronics industry
3. Describe trends and challenges in electronics industry

1.1.1 Introduction
The electronics industry is the economic sector that produces electronic devices. It emerged in the
20th century and is today one of the largest global industries. Contemporary society uses a vast array of
electronic devices built-in automated or semi-automated factories operated by the industry.
Electronics industry, the business of creating, designing, producing, and selling devices such as radios,
televisions, stereos, computers, semiconductors, transistors, and integrated circuits etc. The electronics
industry transformed factories, offices, and homes, emerging as a key economic sector that rivalled the
chemical, steel, and auto industries in size.
The electronics sector produces electronic equipment and consumer electronics and manufactures
electrical components for a variety of products. Common items in the electronics sector include mobile
devices, televisions, and circuit boards. Industries within the electronics sector include telecommunications,
networking, electronic components, industrial electronics, and consumer electronics.

Growth in the Electronics Sector

The electronics sector is growing rapidly as a result of increasing demand from emerging market
economies. As a result, many countries are increasingly producing more electronics, and investment in
the foreign production of electronics has increased dramatically.
Electronics sector growth is accelerated by increased consumer spending around the world. As developing
economies grow, consumer demand for electronics also grows. Countries that produce electronics
now have strong consumer bases that can afford new electronic products. At the same time, increased
competition is driving the costs of electronics production down, making products even cheaper for
individuals.
The supportive role of the electronics sector in providing equipment and components for other industries
is also a factor of growth as consumers demand more automobiles, energy-efficient homes, and medical
technologies.

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1.1.2 Application of Electronics in Different Fields

The various electronics applications are:
• Consumer Electronics: The devices and equipment meant for daily use are known as customer
electronics; this industry is widely applicable to the common people. Some of its applications
included office gadgets like computers, scanners, calculators, FAX machines, projectors etc.
It also includes home appliances like washing machines, refrigerators, microwaves, TVs, vacuum
cleaners, video games, loudspeakers etc. and some advanced storage devices such as HDD
jukebox, DVDs etc.
• Industrial applications of electronics: Electronics engineering has a huge impact on the smooth
functioning of the industries as it is used in various systems, grids and processing units. For example,
smart electric systems collect information from the communication technology department, and
several machines use automation and motor control systems using electronics; also, it is used in
extracting 3D images from 2D using image processing systems.
• Robotics and artificial intelligence: Apart from image processing that involves computer graphics,
electronic systems are also used in artificial intelligence and robotics technologies for inspection,
navigation and assembly. Virtual reality and face gesture recognition are computer-based, and
these developments have been possible because of electronics engineering.
• Medical applications: For data recording and physiological analysis, advanced, sophisticated
instruments are being developed using the latest technologies and electronics engineering, and
these instruments are very useful in diagnosing diseases and for healing purposes.
• Electronics play a vital role in the functioning of medical instruments; for instance, the stethoscope
is used to listen to the inner sounds of the human or animal body, a glucose metre for checking
sugar levels, a pacemaker for dropping and increasing heartbeat count and so on.
• Defence and Aerospace: Electronics technology has been used extensively in the defence and
aeronautical systems, which include missile launching systems, cockpit controllers, military
radars, aircraft systems, rocket launchers for space and many more.
• Automobiles: Electronics are widely used in the latest automobile technologies, like anti-collision
units, anti-lock braking systems, traction controls, window regulators and several electronic
control units.

1.1.3 Electronic Industry Trends and Challenges

The electronics sector appears to be overgrowing, owing to increased demand from developing countries.
Before the virus outbreak, due to increased demand, electronics production skyrocketed, accompanied
by a surge in investment.
The global electronic products market is expected to be worth nearly $1,191.2 billion in 2020, with a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 5.4 percent since 2015. The increase is primarily due to the
increasing demand for various electronic products as employees and students have transitioned to online.

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Consumer Electronics Market size was valued at over USD 1 trillion in 2020 and is estimated to grow at a
CAGR of more than 8% from 2021 to 2027. Rapidly increasing internet penetration across the globe will
drive the market growth.
Consumer electronics are electronic equipment for non-commercial use. Consumer electronics include
devices that provide one or more functionalities such as computers, laptops, mobile devices, smart
wearables, television sets, refrigerators, smartphones, and home appliances.
Continuous investments by market players in R&D for the development of new consumer electronic
products with enhanced features will fuel the industry growth of consumer electronics.

Challenges in Electronic Industry

Regardless of its merits, the electronic industry faces disruptive forces that will test its business model
and ability to survive and thrive.
The global electronic industries are the fastest-growing sector, worth trillions of dollars, and play a critical
role in driving consumers to purchase innovative and smart electronic products. The global market for
electronic components is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of about 4.8
percent from 2020 to 2025.
Electronic industries have always been at the forefront of the most recent technological innovations to
reduce costs and improve efficiency with such a large future market potential. Many SMEs have found it
challenging to keep up with the trends/changes as technology has advanced faster.
For example, top players such as Apple, Samsung, Microsoft, and Intel, to name a few, are investing heavily
in new cutting-edge technology to expand their technological capabilities and remain competitive. They
are the leading example of an IR4.0 (industrial Revolution 4.0) Eco-friendly system.
The integration of digital tools and technologies has increased revenue and productivity, improved product
quality, reduced waste, and operational costs, and met the most recent customer/global demands.

Electronic Industry Trends

Here are some predictions for the specific trends that are likely to have the most significant impact in
2022. The most important trends in 2022 will likely focus on the convergence of technology trends as
tools emerge that let us combine them in new and amazing ways.
1. The 5G Optimization: 5G is laying the groundwork for a fully digitalized and connected world.
We have seen many new field trials and an increasing number of commercial rollouts over the
last two years. Furthermore, we are seeing 5G being adopted in various industries, ranging from
manufacturing to healthcare.
With its high output and ultralow latency, 5G can access many high-value areas such as 3D robotic
control, virtual reality monitoring, and remote medical control that previous technologies could
not. 5G is redefining and accelerating industries like automotive, entertainment, computing, and
manufacturing. It will eventually change the way we work and live.
2. Digitization, data, and virtualization: Many of us witnessed the virtualization of our offices and
workplaces in 2020 and 2021, as remote working arrangements were quickly implemented.

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Participant Handbook

This was simply a crisis-driven acceleration of a much longer-term trend. In 2022, we’ll be more
familiar with the concept of a “metaverse” - persistent digital worlds that exist alongside the
physical world we live in.
3. Concentrate on Software Quality Standards: The focus on quality will be the trend for 2022
and beyond. Software solutions will be integrated into our daily lives and the majority of the
goods and appliances we use. As a result, software must meet the quality standards of the
manufacturing industry.
4. Teleworking: Teleworking will continue to grow in 2022, bringing advances in software
development. Companies worldwide will need to support hybrid forms of team management
and collaboration to increase the productivity of their workforces. As the trend of conducting
online meetings and video sales calls continues, this new standard will grow even more in 2022.
5. Green, Clean, and Lean Energy: Renewable energy was the only type of energy that saw an
increase in use during the pandemic. As industries shut down and people stayed at home, global
non-renewable energy consumption decreased, resulting in an 8% reduction in emissions. As a
result, increased investment in renewable energy generation is expected in the coming years.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), 40% more renewable energy was generated
and used in 2020 than the previous year. This trend is expected to continue through 2022. Overall,
the cost of generating renewable energy from various sources, such as onshore and offshore
wind, solar, and tidal, has decreased by 7 to 16%. This will be highly beneficial to countries and
businesses attempting to meet emissions targets such as becoming carbon neutral or even carbon
negative.

Fig 1.1.1: Trends in electronics industry

Electronics manufacturing trends for 2022

1. Advanced Materials: The semiconductor industry has been reliant on silicon for decades, but
there is a limit to how far you can etch, lithograph, and pattern a silicon material. As a result,

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

innovation to increase the performance of integrated circuits is coming from new materials and
architectures. Startups and scaleups are developing silicon alternatives and other semiconductor
materials or composites for high performance and efficiency.
2. Organic Electronics: Organic Electronics offer massive advantages over traditional inorganic
electronics. They are cost-effective, flexible, indissoluble, optically transparent, lightweight, and
consume low power. In addition, the rise in awareness for sustainable development and eco-
friendly manufacturing attracts manufacturers to opt for organic electronics. Designing circuits
with microbial components or producing devices with biodegradable and recyclable materials is
seen to be the next electronics manufacturing trend.
3. Artificial Intelligence: AI-powered solutions are gaining popularity in every sector. AI impacts the
growth of semiconductor manufacturing in two ways, one is by building demand for innovative
AI-capable electronics components, and two, enhancing the product manufacturing and design
processes. The conventional methods have limitations to reshaping product development cycles,
improving product design processes, and reducing defects. But the application of AI is solving all
these limitations.
4. Internet of Things: The rapid growth of the Internet of Things represents an unprecedented
opportunity for the electronics manufacturing industry. It re-evaluates the fabrication process
and manages practices that are found to be difficult to achieve with conventional approaches.
In other ways, the IoT enables electronic manufacturing machines to self-process and store data
while being digitally connected. Continuous improvements in the fabrication of sensors are also
required since sensors are the key components that enable IoT applications. Further, the transition
to 5G-enabled devices requires flawless, innovative chips with more efficient architectures at
lower costs.
5. Embedded Systems: Embedded systems are an unavoidable part of any electronic device
nowadays and it has a crucial role in deciding the speed, security, size, and power of the devices.
Since we are in the transition phase of a connected world, there is high demand for embedded
systems. So the designing and manufacturing sector of such systems is undergoing numerous
innovations to improve performance, security, and connectivity capabilities.
6. Printed Electronics: Printing electronics components on a semiconductor substrate is the most
effective way to reduce the overall cost of the manufacturing process. So, manufacturers are
always trying to tackle this challenge by searching for new technologies and advancements in
conventional printing technologies. Unlike traditional semiconductors that use tiny wires as circuits,
printed electronics rely on conductive inks and often flexible films. Further, the advancements in
printing technologies allow the flexible hybrid electronics field to obtain enough momentum.
Therefore, startups and scaleups are developing solutions for advanced printing technologies.
7. Advanced IC Packaging: In recent years, chip packaging has become a hot topic along with chip
design. The traditional way to scale a device based on Moore’s law has limitations nowadays. The
other way to get the benefits of scaling is to put multiple complex devices in an advanced package.
So, semiconductor manufacturers develop new advanced IC packaging technologies to provide
greater silicon integration in increasingly miniaturized packages. This also enables manufacturers
to offer customization and improve yields by vertically stacking modular components.

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Participant Handbook

8. Additive Manufacturing: 3D Printing in electronics manufacturing eliminates the need for flat
circuit boards. It enables new innovative designs and shapes that cannot be produced through
conventional means. 3D printers also fabricate electronic components as a single, continuous part,
effectively creating fully functional electronics that require little or no assembly. Consequently,
the implementation of this electronics manufacturing trend speeds up prototyping, offers mass
customization, and decentralizes parts production. In general, 3D printing technology made
possible electronic components production in terms of 3D design and not only 2D, with new
ways of stacking the circuits.

Notes

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Unit 1.2: About Role of an IoT Hardware Analyst

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. List role and responsibilities of an IoT hardware Analyst

1.2.1 Role and Responsibilities of IoT Hardware Analyst

IoT Hardware Analyst prepares complete blueprint of the hardware including schematics and layout. The
individual also prepares quality and verification requirements and perform PCB testing in compliance
with regulatory standards and records them in a design document. The individual will also be responsible
for working and efficient functioning of the system.
Responsibilities of an IoT Hardware Analyst
1. To research, build, test, and document state-of-the-art IoT solutions with integrated electronics
and firmware development.
2. To test IoT device software that includes monitoring, execution, and self-healing processes.
3. To design innovative IoT services that communicate with server-side technologies.
4. To learn the functioning of and implement new state-of-the-art tools/techniques to showcase
experience in quick prototyping methods and structured implementation.
5. To design and develop platform solutions for cloud-to-edge IoT applications with customizable
configuration abilities for deployment to different clients with different needs.
6. To work with dynamic IoT, Computer Vision, and MEAN technology stack to find solutions to
complex real-world problems.
7. To plan and build efficient tools to optimize support QA, deployment, and support services.

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Notes

10
2. Process of Creating
Requirement
Specifications and
Detailed Design
Documents

Unit 2.1 – IOT System

Unit 2.2 – IOT Design Requirements and Specifications

ELE/N1407
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Describe IOT
2. List advantages and disadvantages of IOT
3. List components and applications of IOT
4. Describe IOT design requirements
5. Describe components of IoT design document
6. List requirements of an IoT System

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Unit 2.1: IOT System

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe IOT
2. List advantages and disadvantages of IOT
3. List components and applications of IOT

2.1.1 IoT (Internet of Things)

IoT (Internet of Things) is an advanced automation and analytics system which exploits networking,
sensing, big data, and artificial intelligence technology to deliver complete systems for a product or
service. These systems allow greater transparency, control, and performance when applied to any
industry or system.
IoT systems have applications across industries through their unique flexibility and ability to be suitable in
any environment. They enhance data collection, automation, operations, and much more through smart
devices and powerful enabling technology.

IoT - key features

The most important features of IoT include -
1. AI: IoT essentially makes virtually anything “smart”, meaning it enhances every aspect of life with
the power of data collection, artificial intelligence algorithms, and networks.
2. Connectivity: New enabling technologies for networking, and specifically IoT networking, mean
networks are no longer exclusively tied to major providers. Networks can exist on a much smaller
and cheaper scale while still being practical. IoT creates these small networks between its
system devices.
3. Sensors: IoT loses its distinction without sensors. They act as defining instruments which
transform IoT from a standard passive network of devices into an active system capable of real-
world integration.
4. Active Engagement: Much of today›s interaction with connected technology happens through
passive engagement. IoT introduces a new paradigm for active content, product, or service
engagement.
5. Small Devices: Devices, as predicted, have become smaller, cheaper, and more powerful over
time. IoT exploits purpose-built small devices to deliver its precision, scalability, and versatility.

IoT - Advantages
The advantages of IoT are -
• Improved Customer Engagement: Current analytics suffer from blind-spots and significant flaws

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in accuracy; and as noted, engagement remains passive. IoT completely transforms this to achieve
richer and more effective engagement with audiences.
• Technology Optimization: The same technologies and data which improve the customer
experience also improve device use, and aid in more potent improvements to technology. IoT
unlocks a world of critical functional and field data.
• Reduced Waste: IoT makes areas of improvement clear. Current analytics give us superficial insight,
but IoT provides real-world information leading to more effective management of resources.
• Enhanced Data Collection: Modern data collection suffers from its limitations and its design for
passive use. IoT breaks it out of those spaces, and places it exactly where humans really want to
go to analyze our world. It allows an accurate picture of everything.

IoT - Disadvantages
Though IoT delivers an impressive set of benefits, it also presents a significant set of challenges. It’s some
major issues are -
• Security: IoT creates an ecosystem of constantly connected devices communicating over networks.
The system offers little control despite any security measures. This leaves users exposed to various
kinds of attackers.
• Privacy: The sophistication of IoT provides substantial personal data in extreme detail without
the user’s active participation.
• Complexity: Some find IoT systems complicated in terms of design, deployment, and maintenance
given their use of multiple technologies and a large set of new enabling technologies.
• Flexibility: Many are concerned about the flexibility of an IoT system to integrate easily with
another. They worry about finding themselves with several conflicting or locked systems.
• Compliance: IoT, like any other technology in the realm of business, must comply with regulations.
Its complexity makes the issue of compliance seem incredibly challenging when many consider
standard software compliance a battle.

2.1.2 IoT - Technology and Protocols

IoT primarily exploits standard protocols and networking technologies. However, the major enabling
technologies and protocols of IoT are RFID, NFC, low-energy Bluetooth, low-energy wireless, low-energy
radio protocols, LTE-A, and WiFi-Direct. These technologies support the specific networking functionality
needed in an IoT system in contrast to a standard uniform network of common systems.
• NFC and RFID: RFID (radio-frequency identification) and NFC (near-field communication) provide
simple, low energy, and versatile options for identity and access tokens, connection bootstrapping,
and payments.
i. RFID technology employs 2-way radio transmitter-receivers to identify and track tags
associated with objects.

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

ii. NFC consists of communication protocols for electronic devices, typically a mobile device and
a standard device.
• Low-Energy Bluetooth: This technology supports the low-power, long-use need of IoT function
while exploiting a standard technology with native support across systems.
• Low-Energy Wireless: This technology replaces the most power hungry aspect of an IoT system.
Though sensors and other elements can power down over long periods, communication links (i.e.,
wireless) must remain in listening mode. Low-energy wireless not only reduces consumption, but
also extends the life of the device through less use.
• Radio Protocols: ZigBee, Z-Wave, and Thread are radio protocols for creating low-rate private
area networks. These technologies are low-power, but offer high throughput unlike many similar
options. This increases the power of small local device networks without the typical costs.
• LTE-A: LTE-A, or LTE Advanced, delivers an important upgrade to LTE technology by increasing not
only its coverage, but also reducing its latency and raising its throughput. It gives IoT a tremendous
power through expanding its range, with its most significant applications being vehicle, UAV, and
similar communication.
• WiFi-Direct: WiFi-Direct eliminates the need for an access point. It allows P2P (peer-to-peer)
connections with the speed of WiFi, but with lower latency. WiFi-Direct eliminates an element of
a network that often bogs it down, and it does not compromise on speed or throughput.

2.1.3 Components of an IoT System

IoT Hardware includes a wide range of devices such as devices for routing, bridges, sensors etc. These IoT
devices manage key tasks and functions such as system activation, security, action specifications,
communication, and detection of support-specific goals and actions.

Fig 2.1.1: Components of an IoT system

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Participant Handbook

1. Smart devices and sensors - Device connectivity: Devices and sensors are the components of the
device connectivity layer. These smart sensors are
continuously collecting data from the environment and
transmit the information to the next layer.
Latest techniques in the semiconductor technology is
capable of producing micro smart sensors for various
Fig 2.1.2: Sensor
applications.
Common sensors are:
‰ Temperature sensors and thermostats
‰ Pressure sensors
‰ Humidity / Moisture level
‰ Light intensity detectors
‰ Moisture sensors
‰ Proximity detection
‰ RFID tags
How the devices are connected?
Most of the modern smart devices and sensors
can be connected to low power wireless
networks like Wi-Fi, ZigBee, Bluetooth, Z-wave, Fig 2.1.3: Wi-fi netwirks
LoRAWAN etc. Each of these wireless technologies has its own pros and cons in terms of power,
data transfer rate and overall efficiency.
Developments in the low power, low cost wireless transmitting devices are promising in the area
of IoT due to its long battery life and efficiency. Latest protocols like 6LoWPAN- IPv6 over Low
Power Wireless Personal Area Networks have been adapted by many companies to implement
energy efficient data transmission for IoT networks.
2. Gateway: IoT Gateway manages the bidirectional data traffic between different networks and
protocols. Another function of gateway is to translate different network protocols and make sure
interoperability of the connected devices and sensors.

Fig 2.1.4: Gateway platforms

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Gateways can be configured to perform pre-processing of the collected data from thousands of
sensors locally before transmitting it to the next stage. In some scenarios, it would be necessary
due to compatibility of TCP/IP protocol.
IoT gateway offers certain level of security for the network and transmitted data with higher
order encryption techniques. It acts as a middle layer between devices and cloud to protect the
system from malicious attacks and unauthorized access.
3. Cloud: Internet of things creates massive data from devices, applications and users which has to
be managed in an efficient way. IoT cloud offers tools to collect, process, manage and store huge
amount of data in real time. Industries and services can easily access these data remotely and
make critical decisions when necessary.
Basically, IoT cloud is a sophisticated high performance network of servers optimized to perform
high speed data processing of billions of devices, traffic management and deliver accurate
analytics. Distributed database management systems are one of the most important components
of IoT cloud.
4. Analytics: Analytics is the process of converting
analog data from billions of smart devices and sensors
into useful insights which can be interpreted and
used for detailed analysis. Smart analytics solutions
are inevitable for IoT system for management and
improvement of the entire system.
One of the major advantages of an efficient IoT
system is real time smart analytics which helps
Fig 2.1.5: System analysis
engineers to find out irregularities in the collected
data and act fast to prevent an undesired scenario. Service providers can prepare for further steps
if the information is collected accurately at the right time.
Big enterprises use the massive data collected from IoT devices and
utilize the insights for their future business opportunities.
5. User interface: User interfaces are the visible, tangible part of the IoT
system which can be accessible by users. Designers will have to make
sure a well designed user interface for minimum effort for users and
encourage more interactions.
Modern technology offers much interactive design to ease complex
tasks into simple touch panels controls. Multicolor touch panels have
replaced hard switches in our household appliances and the trend is
increasing for almost every smart home devices.
User interface design has higher significance in today’s competitive
market, it often determines the user whether to choose a particular Fig 2.1.6: User interface
device or appliance. Users will be interested to buy new devices or
smart gadgets if it is very user friendly and compatible with common wireless standards.

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Participant Handbook

2.1.4 Working of an IoT System

First, sensors or devices collect data from their environment. This data could be as simple as a temperature
reading or as complex as a full video feed.
Next, that data is sent to the cloud, but it needs a way to get there. The sensors/devices are connected
to the cloud through a variety of methods including - cellular, satellite, WiFi, Bluetooth, low-power wide-
area networks (LPWAN), connecting via a gateway/router or connecting directly to the internet via
ethernet

Fig 2.1.7: Working of an IoT system

Once the data gets to the cloud software performs some kind of processing on it. This could be very
simple, such as checking that the temperature reading is within an acceptable range or it could also be
very complex, such as using computer vision on video to identify objects.
Next, the information is made useful to the end-user in some way. This could be via an alert to the
user (email, text, notification, etc). For example, a text alert when the temperature is too high in the
company’s cold storage.
A user might have an interface that allows them to proactively check in on the system. For example, a
user might want to check the video feeds on various properties via a phone app or a web browser.
However, it’s not always a one-way street. Depending on the IoT application, the user may also be able to
perform an action and affect the system. For example, the user might remotely adjust the temperature
in the cold storage via an app on their phone.

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2.1.5 Applications of an IoT System

IoT has applications across all industries and markets. It spans user groups from those who want to
reduce energy use in their home to large organizations who want to streamline their operations. It proves
not just useful, but nearly critical in many industries as technology advances and we move towards the
advanced automation imagined in the distant future.

Fig 2.1.8: Applications of an IoT system

1. Smart Home and Office: Smart home applications with the use of smart sensors are becoming
popular now. Any smart device can be configured and connected to the internet and control using
simple mobile application.

Fig 2.1.9: Applications in smart home and office

Few examples of IoT devices in home are:

• Smart Door access control system: Smart locks and door access systems are one of the most
popular and cost effective solutions of Internet of Things. Smart locks are easy to implement
and control using a web interface or Smartphone application. Integration with RDIF tags,
smart door accessing systems can be securely implemented. Users can grant access to the
doors using mobile app and lock again once the person leaves the premises.

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Participant Handbook

• Smart lighting for home and office: Smart lighting is one the attractive smart home application
using internet of things. In addition to energy saving, it also enables us to manage effectively.
Light ambience can be changed using smart hub devices or smart phone app.
• Automated Gate and garage: Using smart sensor technology and internet of things, gates and
garages can be controlled (operated) conveniently. Once you are about to enter the house or
after leaving the premises, you may open or close the gate using mobile devices.
• Smart thermostats and humidity controllers: Smart thermostats are cost effective and
convenient smart home solutions which can be controlled using an internet connection and
smart hub device (or using Smartphone app).
• Traffic Management: Analyzing traffic over a period of time gives an insight of possible trends
and pattern that could occur during peak hours. It will help to inform commuters to take
alternative routes to avoid congestion and delay.
• Pollution monitoring and reporting: Increasing air pollution is one of the challenges we are
facing in every growing cities. In order to solve this issue, smart sensors are deployed across
the cities to continuously monitor any changes.
• Smart Parking Solutions: Smart sensors installed on parking area are collecting information
about availability of parking slots and updating it to the database real time. Once the spot is
occupied, it will be updated without any delay.
• Water / waste management: Populations in cities are increasing every year, based on statistics
this trend will grow in coming years. Increase in population contributes to increase in
wastes as well.
2. Wearable Devices: Wearable smart devices introduced
as smart watches around a decade ago and many more
functions were added since then. Now our smart watches
and wearable are capable of reading text messages,
showing notifications of other apps, tracking location,
monitor workout status, remind schedules and
continuously monitoring health conditions.
• With Internet of Things, wearable technology can be
used beyond these functions. Major smart wearable
manufacturers are developing special operating
systems and applications dedicated for smart
Fig 2.1.10: Applications in wearable devices
wearable devices.
3. Healthcare: Healthcare industry has been utilizing
the possibilities of Internet of Things for life saving
applications. Starting from collecting vital data from bed
side devices, real-time diagnosing process, accessing
medical records and patient information across multiple
departments, the entire system of patient care can be
Fig 2.1.11: Applications in healthcare
improved with IoT implementation.

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IoT will offer convenience for medical practitioners, improve accuracy in the information (helps to
reduce error in the data), increase overall efficiency and saves time for each procedures.
4. Autonomous Driving: Autonomous driving has been
evolving with the use of artificial intelligence and smart
sensor technology in Internet of Things. Earlier
generation of autonomous vehicle (partial automation)
will assists drivers to drive safely, avoid collisions and
warn about the conditions of the road and vehicle.
Example - cruise control assistance, parking assistance,
line changing assistance and efficient fuel /energy Fig 2.1.12: Applications in driving
management etc.
5. Agriculture and Smart farming: There are lot of
challenges in the agriculture and farming industry to
produce more crops and vegetable to feed increasing
human population. Internet of Things can assists farmers
and researchers in this area to find more optimized and
cost effective ways to increase production.
Internet of Things is one of the promising solutions to Fig 2.1.13: Applications in farming
make entire agriculture and farming industry more efficient with less number of workers. Smart
sensor technology will help improve each stages of agriculture and automation helps to reduce
manual labor.
6. Industrial IoT for manufacturing: Manufacturing industry is one of the early adopters of Internet
of Things which entirely changed several stages of a product development cycle. Industrial IoT will
help optimize various stages of product manufacturing such as

Fig 2.1.13: Applications in industrial manufacturing

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• Monitoring of supply chain and inventory management

• Optimization in product development
• Automate mass production processes
• Quality testing and product improvement
• Improves packaging and management
• Process optimization using data collected from huge number of sensor networks
• Cost effective solution for overall management of factories
7. Disaster management: Internet of Things with
wide range of smart sensors allow engineers
to build a more effective emergency response
system for factories, schools, hospitals,
airports and any other public gathering places.
Any emergency situations like fire outbreak or
flooding will be automatically detected using
sensors and this information is shared to
responsible work groups in real time.
During an emergency, fire department,
emergency response volunteers, police force,
ambulance units and nearby hospitals will
receive an alert about the scenario. Automated
warning system improves the preparedness Fig 2.1.14: Applications in disaster management
and allows authorities to plan and handle any
kind of situations immediately.
Some of the common sensors: smoke detector, temperature sensor, humidity sensor, CO2
monitoring sensors and precipitation detector.
8. Logistic and fleet management: Smart
logistics is a complex task since the goods must
be handled with greater care and efficiency.
Apart from moving from one location to
another location, service providers have to
make sure perfect condition is maintained
during transportation.
Smart sensors capable of connecting to IoT
network continuously monitoring the GPS
location, temperature, humidity, shock and tilt
Fig 2.1.15: Applications in logistics management
angle of the container used for transpiration.
Data collected from these sensors are processed and analyzed in a central cloud system.
9. Smart grids and energy management: Smart grid concept is an enhancement of existing power

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grids with sensors deployed on the transmission lines and individual customer outlets. Theses
sensors helps to notify any failure, abnormality in the line, understand the nature of usage and
behavior pattern over time.

Fig 2.1.16: Applications in energy management

This data can be used to find out areas of improvement, lossy nodes during transmission, and
peak time usage statistics with the use of smart meters and sensors. Energy companies can use
this information to improve existing grids and implement new changes during upgrade and thus
reduce carbon emission.
10. Big Data Analytics: One of the basic components of big data analytics is the data itself; many
organizations consider data as most valuable asset to grow their business strategies. The source
of data could be from anywhere like machines, environment, plants, peoples or even animals.

Fig 2.1.17: Applications in Big Data Analytics

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Internet of Things uses hundreds of types of sensors designed to collect data from wide range of
applications. Huge amount of data from millions of smart sensors will help big data analytics to
improve its decision making algorithm using artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Notes

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hl6XAHeX9y0 www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zn4ozz3CkhY
Introduction to IoT Components of IoT

24
 IoT Hardware Analyst

Unit 2.2: IOT Design Requirements and Specifications

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe IOT design requirements
2. Describe components of IoT design document
3. List requirements of an IoT System

2.2.1 IOT Hardware Design Requirements

IoT forces designers to ask questions they’ve never before had to face. Rather than thinking about
how consumers interact with electronics, it’s becoming more and more standard to evaluate how they
interact with traditionally tech-less items. In this way, the approaches to PCB design are changing, and
with increasing demand for household products to become IoT devices, the importance to minimize
reliability and assembly errors is more critical than ever.
The process of creating IoT-optimized products begins with evaluating new form possibilities and from
there transitioning into the phases of choosing PCB materials and layouts. Throughout the product design
flow, the requirements for assembly into a completed product need to be considered.
When designing a PCB ideal for IoT, few key design areas needed to pay special attention. Here are some
of these areas along with tips on making PCB as flawless as possible for IoT use -
• Size requirements: Small devices are only getting smaller. PCB designers no longer have extra
board layout space in their strategic placement of tracks, vias and components. Now, proper
functionality and flexibility in tiny areas are only made possible through HDI and rigid-flex boards.
And with these smaller forms, it is more crucial than ever to make sure all IoT product designers
are on the same page from the very beginning of the design stage.
• Product fitting: In addition to the size of your PCB, you’ll want to do enough virtual prototyping
to make sure you can easily incorporate the shape of your design into the IoT form it’s intended
for. Circuits in IoT often will need to fit around non-traditional materials for best functionality,
and you may find yourself opting for a mesh or plastic component in your designs that you did
not expect.
• Adapting for the human body: Another set of qualities that will require thorough simulation tests
to optimize are the mechanics that may be affected by human body temperature, moisture and
constant movement. Naturally, this is only if the intended final IoT product is wearable or comes
in contact with human skin. Pay close attention to thermal effects and aim for a design that will
enable sufficient cooling when necessary.
• Power consumption: IoT requires a focus on extended battery life and power integrity wherever
possible, as these devices are in constant communication with their networks. Energy usage

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needs to be kept to a strict budget within the individual circuit blocks on your PCB to help the
product as a whole remain in a suitable range of power consumption. The key is to plan power
consumption precisely and follow up your plans with thorough testing of the various task cycles
of your PCB, including sending and standby power states.
• Reliability standards: Industry norms for the trustworthiness of electronic devices are consistently
advancing. Flexible circuit boards, for example, have various “dos and dont’s” associated with
ensuring they are reliable enough not to crack in the midst of changing stresses and environments.
Consumers want to make sure their devices are operational and will stay accurate over long
periods of time. With the pressure designers feel to create products that withstand a myriad of
potential conditions, many turn to simulation software to test out their designs.
• Wireless connectivity: The internet is in the name of IoT, and being able to access it is a core
requirement for any IoT PCB. Collecting and sending data about surroundings will require
installing the right wireless modules and RF circuit components. To choose the right parts, you’ll
want to remember to keep power consumption, network range and speeds, and any security
needs in mind.

2.2.2 Design Document for Designing and IoT System

Having well defined, specified, and documented requirements will save you precious time and money
in the development and prototyping phase. More importantly, it will help you think about your IoT /
hardware product from various perspectives and prioritize features, which will inevitably help you design
a better product.
Let’s discuss contents for preparing the design document”
1. Market research and validation of product idea with potential customers: First highlight the
importance of idea validation before specifying the hardware and software of product -
• Customers feedback and suggestions about the product.
• Product substitutes in the market!
• Business Model
2. Purpose and the functions of product: It is essential understand and define the exact need
and purpose of product. It is generally easier to understand the purpose and functions of B2B
hardware products. These are designed to solve a particular business problem, eliminate a
specific problem/issue, or cut some process cost down or speed up an operation or a business
process, i.e., increase value.
In B2C product development, it is a bit harder to formulate the purpose/problem, as it is typically
tied to a particular feature or a parameter that differentiates your device and makes people want
to pay for your product.
3. U
‍ sers of product: This section describes product’s user. There can be different types of users
for product. For example, for the same hardware product there can be 2 users, for example - an

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end-user and a service engineer or a technician, or a hospital patient, and a nurse. Some users
of your product may use just the hardware device, and other users will have access to only the
software part.
4. Define use-cases: With users defined, further describe the use-cases, which are the cornerstone
for any design type i.e. electronics, mechanical and industrial. Documenting and describing use-
cases may appear to be boring. Still, by getting deeper into the new product development, you
will be pushed to write them down yourself, or else you will need to pay an expensive professional
design consultancy of a freelance industrial designer to do so.
5. User scenarios/user stories: This section enlisted users and use-cases. These are incredibly
beneficial in designing product logics and algorithms, which help place the product in the relevant
environment and allow you to capture the important user-specific features attributed to your
idea, invention, or product.
Now the product definition splits into three major parts:
• Specify hardware requirements in your own way(both the electronics, electrical, and
mechanical requirements), or in a PRD format (Product Requirements Document).
• Specify software requirements, in the professional world, are typically referred to as SRS
(Software Requirements Specification).
• Towards the end of your product development program, you will need to think of specifying -
i. Packaging requirements;
ii. CMF (Colors, Materials, and Finish) includes the desired list of materials, colors, and
coatings.

Fig 2.2.1: IoT Hardware requirement specification

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Participant Handbook

The description below focuses on hardware requirements specification.

6. Features of hardware product: This section lists hardware features of product. Essentially, you
can do this exercise in three consecutive steps -
i. Try to list and document ALL the features of your future product: for both hardware
and software.
ii. Define the most important features or MVP (main parameters/features of value)
iii. Prioritize all the features from the very important (list MPVs first) to the least important.
7. How many discrete devices do you have?: It is quite common that products comprise two or
more discrete devices. Let us give you a few examples -
i. For instance, you are developing a new IoT toothbrush powered by a battery, and you want it
to rest and charge on a charging station.
ii. Or your IoT device and/or IoT sensors use Bluetooth to channel data to a cloud and in order
to do it requires an IoT gateway, which is a separate device of its own.
iii. A case from e-transport can be relevant here: when designing an e-scooter or an e-bike,
it is important to have a charging station or at least a charger, so the rover can replenish
its battery.
8. Specify future retail price / MSRP: This section specifies the retail price is tied to your future
product’s future production cost (COGS - Cost of Goods Sold). The MSRP (Manufacturer’s
Suggested Retail Price) terms are the “retail price” equivalents.
Knowing the product cost / retail price target is highly beneficial for designers when choosing the
right components and optimizing volume production costs. Design engineers usually use the term
‘design-to-cost’ (DTC), referring to the process of optimizing the development strategy to meet a
defined cost and design parameter in the product development process.
9. Physical constraints - product
weight and dimensions: Estimate
and provide the right sizes of
product. Specify if it is critical to
have small sizes/dimensions. Think
about how critical is a small size,
as designing miniature electronics
adds cost to the design. It takes a
lot more time and effort to design
a small PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
because it is a lot harder for the
electronics designer to arrange Fig 2.2.2: PCB
the components tightly and produce a multilayer PCBA. Not to mention the various noise and
interference issues that might arise from densely packed copper layers and components.
Weight and dimensions are obviously important in B2C consumer products, but in designing a

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B2B product it is also good to think about it upfront. For example, you should consider how the
B2B product will be installed or moved around - will you need to disassemble the wall to mount
it in the operational environment?
10. ‍Operation environment: Generally, the environment can be indoor, outdoor, or used in water.
Water resistance can be an essential but costly feature of enclosure. Designing a waterproof
casing is always more expensive when achieving specific IP protection in the prototyping and
production validation tests - it requires certain techniques and tricks.‍
Temperature and humidity are the other two important factors that impact your future design.
While humidity impacts the lifespan of your product and certain measures should be implemented
in enclosure design, temperature impacts electronics, and battery performance. For operating
temperatures below 0 deg. C (32 deg. F) the designers should implement certain measures to
prevent mechanical parts from freezing - add permanent heating for the battery or even consider
replacing certain materials that change their physical properties at low temperatures.
11. ‍How product be powered?: Product can be powered by a limited number of ways: batteries, power
socket, solar. It is more exotic to have a fuel-cell-powered device or pneumo-powered products.
Li-ion and Li-Poly are the most common rechargeable batteries used nowadays and there can be
complications in enabling the IC design (e.g., designing electronics enabling charging from an AC
outlet is more complicated than a DC power source) and further certification. It can be a smart
move to use a replaceable alkaline or even a Ni - MH battery in your first iteration product, which
will save you much time and development costs.
12. Connectivity and wireless requirements: Wireless requirements are tied to the use cases of your
product. A high transmission rate of your connected hardware product will require a lot of power,
and in some cases (e.g., a metallic enclosure), a custom external antenna should be selected
or designed.
The leanest way to enable the connectivity is to pair your device with a smartphone using
Bluetooth. But there are other wireless protocols available that serve certain needs depending on
your use-case - Wi-Fi, Cellular (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G, LTE, GSM, etc.).

Fig 2.2.3: Role of bluetooth in IoT

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13. Sensor requirements for an IoT connected product: With the advances in semiconductor and
material science technologies, there exists a whole range of sensors that one can employ to
deliver the main functions of a particular IoT product. These include -
• GPS/BEIDOU/GLONASS,
• Various accelerometers and gyroscopes,
• Pressure sensors,
• Compass (magnetometer) and
• Magnetic field sensors,
• CO2 (carbon dioxide) and CO sensors,
• Temperature and pressure sensors,
• Humidity sensors.
Medical (IoMT) devices can have
• HRM (Heart Rate Monitor),
• EKG sensor,
• blood oxygenation sensor.
Modern consumer and wearable products require fingerprint and touch sensors, and there can
be many more.
Remember that each sensor technology has intrinsic limitations in terms of accuracy. So it is
highly beneficial to specify whether the data acquired from any type of sensor should be highly
accurate, precise, or rather be qualitative.

Fig 2.2.4: Smart IoT sensors available

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14. Processing capacity: There are four options to choose from:

i. Microcontroller (MCU),
ii. Chips,
iii. Microprocessor
iv. FPGA.
MCUs and chips are the typical choices for an IoT device and in 85% of the cases, one can easily
get away with a cheap and reliable MCU in their design. Microcontrollers are used for low
computation capacity for the data arriving from various sensors.
Chips can be viewed as miniature versions of the MCUs, incorporating some functionality of both
the microcontrollers and auxiliary components like BLE, GPS, cellular, etc. Using chips is highly
beneficial in wearables design, but it is sometimes forbidden as chip vendors are not willing to
provide documentation and SDKs for these chips if one is not planning to place an order of 1
million chips upfront. However, in recent years some chip providers lowered the entry barrier
for low volume chip procurement (such as the very popular Nordic Semiconductors) and provide
very good documentation and development kits for their chips.
Microprocessors find a very particular application when one needs high computation capacity,
such as real-time processing of large amounts of data from sensors or any sort of video-processing
(such as in machine vision or for hardware-enabled AI/ML). You can also think of a microprocessor
as a microcomputer that runs a Linux embedded, Android, or Windows operating system.
15. Display: The display will be one of the most
expensive components in BOM and will drive unit
cost. The display will be consuming most of your
power budget and will drain your portable device’s
battery - so think about how big your display should
be and what colors it should have (e.g., LCD or LED).
Describe what information you want to show on
your display - is it just text lines, or would you like
some graphical information, pictograms, or even
Fig 2.2.5: System display
video to be shown?
In some cases, it may be a good idea to replace an expensive LED/LCD display with a few simple
and cheap LED indicators.
16. Specify enclosure design and product appearance: This section define and describe the
appearance of enclosure upfront is highly beneficial for the design engineer or industrial designer.‍
17. Specify moving mechanical parts: Designing moving mechanical parts can be tricky. If product
have any moving parts or features (fans, gears or lids), or if product is foldable, this section specify
that and envision the scenarios of these mechanical features as it might bring an R&D component
into your product development program.

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Notes

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nw_O23o6Dr0
IoT design methodology

32
3. Process of Designing
Circuit and PCB
Layout for the IoT
System

Unit 3.1 – PCB Layout Designing for IoT System

Unit 3.2 – Building Prototype of PCB Design

ELE/N1408
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Describe PCB development process
2. Demonstrate PCB layout designing process
3. Describe need of building prototype of PCB design
4. Demonstrate procedure of building prototype of PCB design
5. Demonstrate testing of prototype

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Unit 3.1: PCB Layout Designing for IoT System

Unit Objectives
At the end of this module, the participant will be able to:
1. Describe PCB development process
2. Demonstrate PCB layout designing process

3.1.1 PCB
A printed circuit board (PCB) is a flat plate or base of insulating materials that contains a pattern of
conducting material and components. PCB provides mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks usually etched from copper sheets laminated
onto a non-conductive substrate. Components are fixed in position by drilling holes through the board,
locating the components and then soldering them in place.
Different kinds of PCBs available are:
1. Double / Single Sided
2. Flexi
3. High Layer Count Multilayer
4. Controlled Impedance
5. Microwave and RF
6. Aluminum backed PCBs
Fig 3.1.1: Single sided PCB
Single sided PCB:
Single-sided PCB are usually a single layer of copper on a rigid
base material. This type of PCB can be used for both through
hole and SMD components

Double sided PCBs:

It consist of two copper layer on a base material, the two
copper layers are not connected. This type of PCB can also
be used for both through hole and SMD components. Usually Fig 3.1.2: Double sided PCBs
they are connected through vias.

Flexible PCBs:
Flexible PCB’s are being used where flexibility matters in a large number of
different applications
Advantages of flexible PCBs are as follows

Fig 3.1.3: Flexible PCBs

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1. Solving interconnecting problems

2. Reduction of weight
3. Reduction of space and reduced assembly costs.

Applications include:
• Dynamic flexing applications like in slide mobile phones etc.
• Flexing or stress over a period of time at elevated temperatures.

Multi-layer PCB:
In multi-layer PCBs we would be having multi traces on a substrate or a clad. The multilayer PCB is also
very useful in high-speed circuit. The multi-layer PCB can provide more space for the conductor pattern
and power.

Fig 3.1.4: Multi-layer PCBs

Controlled Impedance printed circuit boards

These are used across a broad range of applications to help
ensure high signal integrity. PCB traces need to be considered
not as simple connections but as transmission lines .
The impedance of a PCB trace is controlled by its
configuration
• Dimensions (trace width and thickness and height
of the board material) Fig 3.1.5: Controlled Impedance printed circuit boards

• Dielectric constant of the board material

Aluminium Backed PCBs

Aluminium backed PCB’s are now being used in place of traditional PCBs for high power LED applications.
This is due to rapidly changing developments in LED technology, with brighter more powerful LED’s
coming on to the market all most daily. This raised a problem to designers and PCB manufactures with
larger amounts of heat being generated by the components to overcome this problem they developed
aluminium backed PCBs.
Aluminium backed PCB with the use of thermally conductive pre-preg between the copper and the
aluminium the thermal performance is 8–10 times better than a normal PCB.

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

Fig 3.1.6: General composition of an Aluminium single Sided PCB (SMI)

RF and microwave PCBs
Usually RF and microwave PCB need to be designed where Dielectric Loss, Resistive Loss and Skin Effect
are parameters, these Can be High at Frequencies Above 500 MHz. To prevent this we need to go for
microwave PCBs.

3.1.2 PCB Development Process

The PCB development process consists of three stages:

Design Build Test

• Design: This initial stage includes drawing the schematic,
selecting components, creating the PCB layout, and
generating the design file(s), while BOM defines the
intent of the design.
• Build: During this stage, which follows design for
constructing the board. This is a two-step procedure
that consists of board fabrication and PCB assembly.
The result is the physical display of design.
• Test: Once board is built, PCB design testing needs to Fig 3.1.7: PCB development process
be done. First, operation and performance must be
checked. Once the functionality is confirmed, regulatory compliance may need to be assured
through additional testing.
For prototyping of PCB development, this sequence is repeated and the design is continually refined
until all errors are removed and performance validated. This iteration cycle is essential to achieve the
best design.

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3.1.3 PCB Design Process

From the initial drawings to the final files, here are the 9 steps toward designing a printed circuit board -
1. Understand the electrical parameters
Before starting a PCB design, you should know and understand the electrical parameters of the
system, including -
• Maximum current
• Voltages
• Signal types
• Capacitance limitations
• Impedance characteristics
• Shielding considerations
• Type and location of circuit components and connectors
• Detailed net wire listing and schematic
2. Creating the schematic
Everything that gets built needs a blueprint, and for a circuit board that blueprint is the schematic.
A schematic is a logical representation of the electrical connections between various electronic
components of the circuit board to be built and uses industry-standard symbols and notations to
represent different components and their values. Each physical component that gets used on a
circuit board, such as a resistor, will have an identifying symbol representing that component on
the schematic.

Fig 3.1.8: Schematic diagram

The schematic is created in an electronic CAD system specifically made for designing printed
circuit boards. Each logical symbol will have one or more pins on it to represent the actual pins of
the real component which will eventually be reported in the bill of materials. The PCB designer
will place these symbols onto a schematic sheet within the CAD system, and then draw lines

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

between the pins to connect them together. This connection is referred to as a net, and a net will
have two or more pins all connected together.
Verify the following in a schematic:
• Verification of labels and pin numbering in component symbols
• Polarity check for all the polarized components
• Overlapping labels and pins
• Validation of the component value, location and reference designators
• Description of the schematic symbols
• Decoupling capacitor check for all ICs, ground pin separation according to the signal type i.e.
analog or digital
• Netlist check for design correctness and wrong connections
3. Use a schematic capture tool to create PCB layout
To develop a schematic, select a right software platform, which shows you exactly how the board
will operate and where the components will be placed. Once schematic is ready, load the design
and determine how it will fit in the intended device.
4. Design PCB stackup
This is important to consider early on in the PCB design stage due to impedance, which refers to
how much and how quickly electricity can travel down a trace. The stackup is an important
attribute if PCB design. It defines the structure of a multilayer circuit board in a sequential manner.
Stackup provides information about the material thickness and copper weights which is vital for
circuit board manufacturing.

Fig 3.1.9: Design PCB stackup

It is important to know the controlled impedance of requirements, including the number of

differential pairs, as it will impact the number of layers in board. The routing density of the circuit
board will also impact the number of layers.

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5. Define design rules and requirements

Once all of the symbols are placed and the nets are connected in the schematic, the circuit board
is ready for physical design in a process called “PCB layout.” The component information from the
schematic symbols as well as the net connectivity will all be converted into the data needed for
PCB layout. There are a number of other steps that also have to be done however before layout
can begin -
• Library parts: Models of the physical components, such as a resistor, need to be created
within the layout tools. These models are referred to as footprints or land patterns, and will
contain a representation of the metal pad that the component pins will eventually solder
too. They will also contain the shape of the component as well as specific electrical, pin,
and 3D data.
• Design rules: The PCB layout must be completed without any of the nets coming in contact
with each other, or else those nets would be shorted together when the board is built. To
prevent this, PCB design CAD tools have extensive rules and constraint systems built into
them to govern the size and spacing of metal objects. These rules must be completely set up
or copied from a previous design before the layout begins.
• Board outline: The physical shape and structure of the circuit board also need to be set up
in the layout database. This requires creating the outline of the board in the CAD system
and setting up how many layers the board will have in it and in what order they are to be
stacked up.
This step is largely dictated by standards and acceptability criteria from the IPC, which is the
industry association for PCB and electronics manufacturing. These standards tell everything you
need to know regarding PCB manufacturing.
Once these steps are complete, the design is ready for layout.
6. Placing components
It is easier to create footprints of few components when they come in standardized packages. In
some cases, the footprints of standard packages are available in software’s library, otherwise you
to create it based on the data sheet of the component.
To identify the correct pattern and its landing pattern, it is essential to use the numbering key
accurately from the data sheet.
The following example shows and example of a numbering key and a variety of footprints.

Fig 3.1.10: Footprint

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

The symbols that were placed in the schematic are

now associated with the PCB footprints in the
layout database to become PCB components.
Now place these component footprints on the
board in the CAD system, usually in the
following order -
i. Fixed parts: Components such as connectors,
switches, or other mechanical parts are usually
required to be in a specific location and should
be placed first. This ensures that they will
mate correctly with plugs or openings in the
system enclosure. Once these fixed parts are
Fig 3.1.11: Schematic footprint
placed in the layout database, the remaining
parts can then be placed in order from them.
ii. Critical parts: Microprocessors, memory chips, power supplies, or other main components of
the board are usually the next parts to be placed. They need to be placed close to the fixed
parts that they are associated with yet with enough space to place other parts around them.
It is also important to balance the needs of circuit performance with thermal management
when placing these components.
iii. Supporting parts: Power supply components will have additional parts associated with them,
as will microprocessors and memory devices. These supporting parts are often discrete
components such as capacitors, resistors, and inductors, and they must be placed close
enough to work directly with the critical parts.

Fig 3.1.12: PCB layout

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iv. Remaining parts: The final parts in the layout may not necessarily support a critical part
directly, but their placement may still be important for the correct functioning of the overall
circuit. These could include terminating resistors or bulk decoupling capacitors.
Another critical aspect of component placement is making sure that the board can be
manufactured without any errors.
7. Insert drill holes
This step is driven by the components and a connection. About half of the flex circuits on the
market are double-sided, which means they have connection to the drill hole on the bottom layer.
8. Route the traces
With the components in place, the next step is to connect the nets between the pins in a process
known as trace routing. These traces will ultimately become the metal connections in and on
the circuit board when it is fabricated. The PCB Design CAD system will display the unconnected
nets as straight lines, and the designer will use one of many different routing features in the CAD
system to create the trace routing -
• Manual routing: All design tools give the user the ability to pick one of the nets, and draw its
trace in manually. This is done using straight or curved lines, right angles, or placing a hole in
the board called a via to transition to another layer.
• Semi-automated routing: Many CAD systems give their users various versions of automated
routing. These different features may route a signal net, a portion of a net, or groups of nets
at the same time.
• Auto-interactive routing: These specialized features combine manual routing with automated
functionality. This gives the user the ability to direct where they want the routing to go, but
rely on the system to do the actual routing and adhering to signal integrity rules. These
features are useful for pushing other traces out of the way, and winding through dense areas
of routing that would take a lot of manual effort to complete.
• Batch auto-routing: These tools will automatically route the entire board for the user. Care
has to be exercised though because the CAD system may not always yield the desired results.
Here is where the experienced designer will pre-route areas by hand first, and set up a
complete list of routing rules before using the auto-router.
While some nets can be simply connected together, the majority of nets may have specific rules
that have to be followed. These can include the trace width, what layer they are routed on,
areas of the board to avoid, and their length. In some cases, trace lengths have to match other
trace lengths, while other traces may have to be routed tightly together in pairs. All of these
requirements can be set up in the initial design rules.
Another important part of connecting nets together is the use of large areas of metal called fills,
planes, or poured copper. Large areas of metal for the power and ground nets provide a simple
way to connect various components to those nets. In addition, most designs will use the ground
planes for a return path for the signals that are conducted through the trace routing. Here again,

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is where the skill of the designer becomes very important. These planes must be designed to
provide adequate power and ground coverage, a clean signal return path, EMI shielding for the
traces, and thermal dissipation for hot components.
At this point, the circuit board is fully placed and routed, but there is still more work that has
to be done.
9. Add labels and identifiers
Now is the time to add any labels, identifiers, markings, or reference designators to the layout.
Reference designators are helpful in showing where specific components will go on the board.
10. Generate design/layout files
Although the circuit board is functionally complete at this point, there are still some additional
tasks that need to be done before it can be manufactured -
• Test: To verify the assembly process and the functionality of the board, the completed board
will be run through a variety of testing. Test points must be assigned during layout to create
the test documentation needed to create the test fixtures.
Keep an eye on the following:
‰ Board side: All test points should be located on the same side of board to facilitate testing.
‰ Minimum test point distance: The minimum distance between test points is 0.100 inches.
It maximizes test effectiveness.
‰ Test point distribution: Distribute test points evenly on circuit board to make testing easier.
‰ Area for taller components: Designating the area for taller components can streamline
the testing.
‰ Manufacturing tolerances: Consider manufacturing tolerances while designing a layout
to accommodate space for test points.
• Silkscreen: In order to identify the completed board and its components, ink markings and
reference designators are silk-screened onto the board. The silkscreen layer is prepared in the
CAD system as one of the last steps of the PCB layout.
• Drawings: Fabrication and assembly drawings are also created by the designer using the
PCB design tools. These drawings give detailed instructions on how to manufacture the
circuit board.
• Final manufacturing files: All of the circuit board image files, drawings, test files, and other
documentation will be gathered into one set of manufacturing files for the PCB contract
manufacturer.

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3.1.4 PCB Design Issues

The most basic form of design for manufacture as it applies to PCBs is the use design rules and design
rule checking in PCB design software. Design rule checking (DRC) is the process of looking at a design to
see if it conforms to the manufacturing capabilities of a PCB fabricator. Design rule checks are commonly
integrated into PCB design software and are not typically considered as add on service. More advanced
design for manufacture analysis software is also available to look for more complex and less obvious
design flaws.
1. Starved thermals: Starved thermals occur when the thermal relief traces connected to a pad are
not properly connected to the associated copper plane. Quite often, the spacing between vias
will pass a basic design rule check, but the attached thermal relief traces will be interrupted and
the effected vias will be inappropriately isolated from their assigned copper pours. This issue is
most commonly seen when multiple vias are placed in proximity to each other.
2. Acid traps: When two traces are joined at a highly acute angle it is possible that the etching
solution used to remove copper from the blank board will get “trapped” at these junctions. This
trap is commonly referred to as an acid trap. Acid traps can cause traces to become disconnected
from their assigned nets and leave these traces open circuited. The issue of Acid traps has been
reduced in recent years by fabricators switching to the use of photo activated etching solutions.
So, while it is still a good idea to make sure that your traces do not meet acute angles, the issue
is less of a worry than it had been in the past.
3. Silvers: If very small portions of a copper pour are only connected to larger portions of the same
copper pour through a narrow trace, it is possible for them to break off during fabrication, “float”
to other parts of the board and cause unintended shorts. The problems presented by silvers
have been reduced in recent years by fabricators switching to the use of photo activated etching
solutions. So while silvers are still to be avoided in designs, they are not as predominate of an
issue as in the past.
4. Insufficient annular ring: Vias are made by drilling through pads on either side of a board and
plating the walls of these holes to connect the two sides of the board. If the pad size called out in
the design is too small, the via may fail due to the drill hole taking up too large of a portion of the
pads. Minimum annular ring size is commonly part of the DRC process. This issue is mentioned
here because of the not uncommon occurrence of missed drill hits in prototyping boards.
5. Via in Pads: Occasionally it
may be convenient to design
via to be positioned within a
PCB pad. However, via in pads
can cause issues when the
time comes for the board to
be assembled. Via will draw
solder away from the pad
and cause the component
associated with the pad to be
improperly mounted.
Fig 3.1.13: Via in Pads

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6. Copper too close to board edge: Normally caught during design rule checks, placing copper layers
too close to the edge of a board can cause those layers to short together when the board is cut to
size during the fabrication process. While this sort of error should be caught using DRC features
typically available in PCB design software, a PCB fabricator that does a DFM check will also catch
this issue.
7. Missing solder mask between pads: In very tightly spaced, small
pin pitch devices, it is quite common for there to be no solder
mask between pins due to standard design settings. The omission
of said solder mask can lead to solder bridges forming more
easily when the fine pin pitched component is attached to the
Fig 3.1.14: Missing solder mask
PCB during assembly. between pads

8. Tombstoning: When small passive surface mount components are soldered to a PCB assembly
using a reflow process, it is common for them to lift up on one end and “tomb stone”. Tombstoning
can greatly affect PCB yields and quickly drive up production costs. The source of tombstoning can
be incorrect landing patters and imbalanced thermal relief to the pads of the device. Tombstoning
can be effectively mitigated by the use of DFM checks.

Fig 3.1.15: Tombstoning and schematic tombstoning

PCB Designing Tools

To design these kind of PCB we need some software. these kind of software’s are know as computer aided
software tools.
Some of the popular tools available are:
• EAGLE(Easily Accessible Graphical Layer Editor)
• Ki Cad
• Orcad
• Dip Trace
• Altium designer
• DX Designer
• Ares
Factors a PCB designer should keep in Mind:
1. PCB designers are key persons in research and development (R&D), electronics production units
as well as in the PCB industry. It’s not only about making interconnections between electronic

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components but also understanding the functioning of the circuit.

2. He/she should have a strong knowledge on type of circuit and tools using for designing
3. Understanding of the functioning of an electronic circuit.
4. Knowledge of IPC/Mil standards.
5. Know the process of PCB manufacturing, assembling and testing.
6. Good knowledge of various electronic components’ packaging.
7. Know about different PCB base materials.
8. Able to interact with circuit designers, PCB manufacturing and assembling team.
9. Knowledge of EMI/EMC

3.1.5 PCB Layout Designing on Software

When designing a circuit board make sure you have the right circuit board design software.
Laying out traces for routing and copper placement, or managing the layer needed for solder can become
difficult without an accurate and reliable integration from schematic capture to layout.
Steps for designing layout on software:
1. Schematic Capture: When generating circuit board design from a template or creating printed
circuit board from scratch, it is probably best to begin with the schematic. It is similar to the
blueprints of new device or system. First, your schematics show you the following -
• Which components are used in circuit board design
• How components are connected together
• The relationships between groups of components in different schematics

Fig 3.1.16: General circuit board template

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In software, not only is circuit interconnectivity easier to define and edit, but converting a schematic
to a circuit board layout is much easier than designing directly on the board. For components,
use extensive database of parts libraries in the software. It provides access to thousands of
component libraries and adds flexibility to your design. However, you can also design your own
schematic symbols and create footprints. Or, if you would like to take advantage of pre-existing
component footprints, try using the Manufacturer Part Search Panel.
It’s also important to annotate your schematics, as well as name nets when schematics get large
and complex. As higher pin count devices are added to schematics, you can use net name
assignments to keep things organized and easily track connectivity between components. Using
net names is also helpful once you’re in the PCB layout as you’ll be able to quickly identify nets
during placement and routing. This will also help once you go to test your finished prototype as
you’ll be able to quickly track nets in the corresponding PCB layout in software.

Fig 3.1.17: PCB layout in software

2. Create a Blank PCB Layout: After you’ve created schematic, now use the schematic capture tool
to import components into a blank PCB layout. First,
create a blank printed circuit board document which will
generate a PcbDoc file. This is done from the main menu
in, as shown below.
If the printed circuit board shape, dimensions, and layer
stackup for your board have already been determined,
you can set them now. Schematic information is made
available for the PcbDoc by compiling the SchDoc. The
compilation process includes verifying the design and the
generation of your several project documents that allow
you to inspect and correct the design prior to transfer to Fig 3.1.18: PcbDoc menu
the PcbDoc, such as those shown below. It is highly recommended that you review and update

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the Project Options at this point, which are used to create the PcbDoc information.

Fig 3.1.19: PcbDoc information

3. Synchronize Schematics to Your PCB Board Design: All the tools in software work in a united
design environment, where the schematic, printed circuit board layout, and BOM are interlinked
and can be accessed simultaneously. To transfer SchDoc information to the newly created PcbDoc,
click on Design » Update PCB {Filename of your new PCB}.PcbDoc. An Engineering Change Order
(ECO) dialog will open listing all components and nets from the schematic, similar to the one below.

Fig 3.1.20: Synchronize Schematics to Your PCB Board Design

Verify the changes (addition of the SchDoc information to the project without error) by clicking
on the Validate Changes tab. If the status for all items is green, then click on the Execute Changes
tab. To complete the process, close the dialog.
4. Designing PCB Stackup: When you transfer schematic information to the PcbDoc the component
footprints are shown in addition the board outline specified. Prior to placing components
you should define the PCB layout (i.e. shape, layer stackup) using the Layer Stackup Manager,
shown below.

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You can also take advantage of the Materials Stackup Library; this lets you choose from a range of
different laminates and unique materials for your printed circuit board.

Fig 3.1.21: PCB layout layer stackup

If you’re working on a high speed/high frequency circuit board design, you can use the built-in
impedance profiler to ensure impedance control in your board.

Fig 3.1.22: impedance control

Make sure you decide the routing style before you start calculating impedances.

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For example, will you be using a coplanar line on a thicker dielectric layer, such as in this example,
or will you be using a standard microstrip/stripline on a thinner dielectric? These choices are
important because they affect the trace width you can use in the circuit board design; different
routing styles will enforce different trace widths in order to hit your required impedance.
Also note whether you’ll be using any differential pair routing in the design. The impedance solver
in the Layer Stack Manager enables differential pair solutions as well as single-ended, so you can
determine both requirements and use these when routing. After the layer stack is created and
any impedance profiles are determined, it›s time to set up your circuit board design rules so that
you can start placing and routing components.
5. Defining PCB Board Design Rules and DFM Requirements: The number of PCB board design rule
categories is extensive and you may not need to use all of these available rules for every design.
You can select/deselect individual rules by right clicking on the rule in question from the list in
the PCB Rules and Constraints Editor, below. Your PCB board design rules are divided into several
categories, which includes -
• Clearances between objects in the PCB layout, such as between traces and pads
• Copper or solder mask feature size limits, such as holes and solder mask slivers
• Routing rules, including trace width and length limitations that can be enforced on certain nets
• High speed and signal integrity limits, such as overshoot
• Board fabrication limits and clearances, such as board edge clearance
This is just a sample of the rules that can govern any PCB layout, but these rules are designed to
help ensure a board is manufacturable at the required scale with your fabricator’s standard
capabilities.

Fig 3.1.23: Defining PCB Board Design Rules and DFM Requirements

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The rules that you do use, especially for manufacturing, should be inline with the specifications
and tolerances for PCB board manufacturer’s equipment. Advanced circuit board designs, such as
impedance controlled designs and a number of high speed/high frequency designs, may require
very specific design rules that need to be followed in order to ensure your product works properly.
Always check your component datasheets for these design rules. If necessary, you can create new
circuit board design rules by following the steps of Design Rule Wizard.

Fig 3.1.24: Design rule wizard

As you place components, vias, drill holes, and traces, the design engine will check the layout
against these rules and will flag you visually if there is a violation.
6. Place Components: You
can have your components
automatically arranged or
you can place them manually.
You can also use these
options together, which
allows you to take advantage
of the speed of auto-
placement and ensure your
board is laid out according to
good component placement
guidelines.
Fig 3.1.25: Auto placement guidelines
7. Insert Drill Holes: Before
routing traces, place your drill holes (mounting and vias). If your circuit board design is complicated
you may need to modify at least some of the via locations during trace routing. This can be done

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easily from the via Properties dialog, shown below.

Fig 3.1.26: Insert Drill Holes

Your preferences here should be guided by the design for manufacturing (DFM) specifications of
your PCB manufacturer.
8. Route Traces: Once you’ve placed
components, now route the
traces. As you route the board,
try to come up with a strategy
to finish your important routes
first, then fill in the gaps with the
remaining connections as needed.
Some of the important routes
will include your power nets, any
impedance-controlled nets, and
any noise-sensitive nets like low-
level analog signals. Fig 3.1.27: Route traces

The auto-interactive routing tools allow you to guide an automated routing feature so that you
can speed up complicated routes between components. These tools will operate on multiple nets

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simultaneously, making it easy to route a large number of traces in tandem.

9. Add Labels and Identifiers: With the circuit board layout verified now add labels, identifiers,
markings, logos, or any other imagery to board. It is a good idea to include reference designators
for components as this will assist in PCB board assembly. Also, make sure to keep any polarity
indicators, pin 1 indicators, and any other labels visible as these will aid PCB assembly and testing.
It will also help if you ever need to debug the board while testing. You can also add a company
logo and part numbers using the image tools and text tools in the PCB Editor. These elements
need to be placed in the Top Overlay or Bottom Overlay layers in the PCB layout.

Fig 3.1.28: Add Labels and Identifiers

10. Generate Design Output Files: Before you create manufacturer deliverables, verify the circuit
board layout by running a design rule check (DRC). If your board checks out, then you’re ready to
release your manufacturer deliverables.
Once your board has passed the
final DRC, you need to generate the
design files for your manufacturer.
The design files should include
all the information and data
necessary to build your board;
including any notes or special
requirements to ensure that your
manufacturer is clear on what you
require. For most manufacturers,
you will be able to use a set of
Gerber files as shown below;
Fig 3.1.29: Generate Design Output Files
however, some manufacturers
prefer other manufacturing file formats (IPC-2581 or ODB++).
By following the above steps, the process of creating a comprehensive PCB board design is as

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easy as counting to ten. Using a systematic approach such as this ensures that all aspects of
your circuit board design are accounted for inherently during the process, with minimal need to
retrace your steps.

Notes

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ESnDQl7ZM5o www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KBCR9gwa8E
Basic concepts of PCB design PCB designing

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Unit 3.2: Building Prototype of PCB Design

Unit Objectives
At the end of this module, the participant will be able to:
1. Describe need of building prototype of PCB design
2. Demonstrate procedure of building prototype of PCB design
3. Demonstrate testing of prototype

3.2.1 PCB Prototype

PCB prototypes are early samples of products built with the sole purpose of testing design ideas to see
if they work. Although most prototypes, in general, are made to test basic user functionality, engineers
require somewhat, if not entirely, functional PCB prototypes to check the complete functionality
of designs.
Engineers and designers use different types of PCB prototypes to test different design aspects. Throughout
a project, your design teams may use several PCBs at various stages of their design processes. Example
of these prototypes include -
• Visual Models: They illustrate the physical aspects of PCB designs and show the overall component
structure and shape. As the initial prototypes in your design process, engineers use visual models
to review and communicate the design easily and affordably.
• Proof-of-Concept Prototypes: These prototypes focus on the replication of the primary function
of PCB boards without carrying all of the final product’s capabilities. They show viability.
• Working Prototype: These are functioning boards containing all the planned functions and
features of the final product. They help identify problems and weaknesses in designs but rarely
represent what or how the final product will look like when finished.
• Functional Prototype: Designers make these to resemble the final product. They provide the
most accurate idea of the final design.

Benefits of PCB Prototyping

• Detect design flaws early in the production process
• Cost-effectively test multiple designs
• Get an accurate interpretation of how the board will function
The objective of the prototyping process is to transform design into a quality product. There are many
forms of the PCB development process that may result in achieving the design objective.

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3.2.2 Preparing for Prototyping Process

Prototypes are ideal for when you want to test your design or perform a quality check of your board.
Before starting prototyping process, you’ll need to collate some information about the design. The
information required -
• Number of layers required
• Board thickness and dimensions
• Copper thickness and weight
• Design constraints like minimum hole size, minimum space between traces and vias, pad-pad and
pad-trace clearances etc.
• Surface finish details like ENIG, OSP, HASL
• Solder mask color, silkscreen and aperture information
• NC Excellon Drill files, and tool list
• Pick and place files, assembly drawing files, 3D model details (if available)

3.2.3 PCB Prototyping Process

Once you gathered the necessary information, you can begin the prototyping process.

Steps for PCB prototyping process are:

1. Prepare Design: The first step in making a prototype
PCB is designing.
2. Prepare Schematic Design: The schematic design
describes crucial information required during the
production process.
• It includes information about the materials,
components and hardware used in production
Fig 3.2.1: Prototype PCB is design
• It also determines the board’s function,
characteristics and the placement of components.
• Some crucial aspects of this phase are selecting the right panel size and grid.
Schematic design is part of the initial design phase. Once first schematic design is completed,
then run a preliminary check for potential defects and correct any that show up.
After that run simulations using a specialized PCB design tool to ensure the board function
properly and it acts as a more in-depth design check.
Lastly convert the electronic design into a netlist, which describes the interconnectivity of the
included components.
It’s helpful to run design rule checks regularly throughout the design process rather than just
at the end.

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3. Prepare Bill of Materials (BOM): You also need to create a bill of materials, or BOM. This is a list
of all the components and materials needed for production. For sourcing the parts, this document
ensures that, you will get the right ones.
The BOM includes vital information for each component, including -
• Quantity: The number of components required.
• Reference Designators: Codes used to identify individual parts.
• Value: The specifications for each component described in the appropriate units, such as
ohms or farads.
• Footprint: The location of each component on the board.
• Manufacturer Part Number
Once the BOM and schematic are finished, check the document and collect necessary parts.
Before validating the BoM, ensure that parts should be validated with respect to the following fields -
• Serial number
• Part description
• Designators matching the schematic
• Quantity of the parts
• MPI
• VPB
• DNI (do not install) components
4. Prepare Routing Design: Now you have to design the
routing, by way of traces, that you will use to connect
each element of the PCB. Various factors play a role in
planning routing, including power levels, signal noise
generation and noise sensitivity.
Most PCB design software programs use the netlist
you’ve already developed to plan the routing. Many
of these programs can automatically calculate the Fig 3.2.2: Routing Design
optimal routes based on the number of available layers
and other factors. This process can take a while — especially for larger circuit boards or boards
with a lot of components.
5. Checking of Design: Check your design regularly throughout the process for any functionality issues.
Common problems to look out for include thermal issues such as heat spots. Always keep the
board at one consistent temperature. Some design features such as the presence of thermal
paths, varying copper thicknesses, a large PCB size and the number of PCB layers can contribute
to heat spots and inconsistent temperatures.

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In addition to a thermal check, conduct a design rule check, a layout-versus-schematic (LVS)

check, an electrical rule check (ERC) and an antenna check.
After completing checks, send the designs for next several steps, which together comprise the
fabrication process.
6. Create Photo Film: Use the design to create a photo
film of the PCB with a printer called a plotter for each
layer and solder mask of the board. This film is a plastic
sheet printed with a photo negative of the board,
which marks the parts that will be conductive (copper)
and those which are non-conductive.
7. Print the Inner layers: In this step, apply copper to
substrate material.
Fig 3.2.3: Create Photo Film
Begin by pre-bonding copper to the substrate and then
apply a layer of photoresist — a photosensitive film
which hardens when exposed to ultraviolet light. Use
UV light to harden it.
Any areas blocked by black ink from the plotter remain
unhardened. Remove the unhardened photoresist,
which leaves hardened photoresist covering and
protecting the place where copper is applied. Next,
remove the hardened photoresist, revealing the copper
Fig 3.2.4: Print the Inner layers
in the exact spots where it is indicating in the design.
8. Align the Layers: If you have multiple layers, then align
them and punch accurate registration holes. It’s crucial
they line up perfectly, because it is difficult to correct
inner layers once the layers are combined.
9. Fuse the Layers Together: This step involves fusing
together these outer and inner layers, which occurs in
two stages - layer-up and bonding.
Place the outer layer over an alignment basin, then
Fig 3.2.5: Layers alignment
stack the substrate layer, copper sheet, an aluminum
foil and copper press plate. These layers fit into pins
attached to a steel table.
Use a bonding press to heat up the stack, applying
pressure and then cools the stack.
After that unpack the stack by removing the pins and
the pressure plate. Now you are left with is a PCB.
Fig 3.2.6: Fusing Layers Together
10. Drill Holes in Board: Now drill holes into the stack. The

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holes need to be precisely drilled to about 100 microns in diameter. You can use an x-ray locater
to target the correct hole locations and computer
controls the drills themselves. Although the drill moves
quickly, this process can take a while — PCBs typically
have more than 100 holes.
11. Perform Copper Plating: The next step is plating, which
uses a chemical bath to deposit a layer of copper about
one micron thick on the panel’s surface. The copper
Fig 3.2.7: Drill Holes in Board
covers the entire panel, including the interior walls of
the holes. This covers the fiberglass material of the inside of the panel that the holes previously
exposed. Computers precisely control this process.

Fig 3.2.8: Perform Copper Plating

12. Prepare Outer Layer Imaging: Next, apply another layer of photoresist to the panel to image the
outer layers with PCB design. This follows a process similar to the one used earlier and creates an
inversion of the inner layers.
13. Perform Copper and Tin Plating: Now do another round of copper plating. The photoresist layer
ensures that the copper only deposits on the desired parts of the board. Then, the board typically
receives tin plating, which serves to guard the copper
during the next stage.
14. Perform Final Etching: Chemical solutions then remove
any excess copper, while the tin plating protects the
copper that creates the conductive areas. After this
stage is completed, the conductive connections are
established.

Fig 3.2.9: Perform Final Etching

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Fig 3.2.10: With and without etching

15. Apply the Solder Mask: Now clean the panel and apply an epoxy solder mask ink. The board then
undergoes UV light, which passes through the solder mask photo film and hardens the film. Any
covered, unhardened parts are removed.
16. Obtain Required Surface Finish: Now deposit more
plating, often of gold or silver and use hot air leveling
to ensure the pads are uniform and you have a required
surface finish.
17. Apply Silkscreen: Apply a silkscreen to the surface of
the PCB with ink-jet printer that conveys critical
information about the board. The Silkscreen PCB aims Fig 3.2.11: Apply the Solder Mask
to help you distinguish the PCB components, test
points, warning symbols, and other parts of the PCB.
Though the Silkscreen has nothing to do with the
functionality of the Printed Circuit Board, the PCB
Silkscreen provides information on
• Warning Symbols: The warning symbols indicate
the parameters on the high voltage points that you
need to avoid or handle. Fig 3.2.12: Apply Silkscreen
• Polarity Indicators: It helps you to trace the
polarized component’s orientation.
• Locating the parts via reference designators
• It helps in identifying the test points and unique numbers for each board.
• Reference indicators: It helps in identifying the component types via BOM. The Pin 1 indicator
helps you to connect the pins to the suitable pads in the footprint. The leading pattern of
the component outline would show the placement of a component. The polarity indicators
provide you with the polarized component’s orientation
• Pin 1 indicator: It indicates the connection of pins on the correct pads of the footprints.
• Component Online: It enables you to place the components on PCB through indications.
18. Cutting of Board: After conducting a final electrical test to ensure the board functions as intended,
cut and separate the board from larger panel by using either a router or a v-groove. After cutting

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with one of these methods, you can easily pop the boards out of the panel.
19. Sourcing of Components: To prepare for the PCB assembly prototype stage, arrange all the
components required from leading authorized distributors or from the channels.
Use BOM to identify the requirements of components
20. Assembly of Board and Components: The next stage
is assembly — or PCBA for printed circuit board
assembly — in which attach the required components
to board by applying appropriate assembling methods.
21. Solder Paste Stenciling: First, apply a solder paste to
the board, which mixes with a flux to help the solder Fig 3.2.13: Assembly of Board and Components
melt and bond to the PCB surface.
Place a stainless steel stencil over the PCB so the
applicator only applies solder paste to the places
where components will be in the finished PCB. It
spreads it evenly to every open area. Then, the stencil
is removed, leaving the solder paste in the desired
locations.
22. Pick and Place: Pick and place surface mount Fig 3.2.14: Solder Paste Stenciling
components, or SMDs on the PCB. Place these non-
connector components on top of the soldering paste
in pre-programmed locations.
23. Reflow Soldering: The reflow process solidifies the
solder paste, which attaches the surface mount
components to the board.
In this step, place the PCB on a conveyor belt that
moves the board through a reflow oven. This oven
has a series of heaters to slowly heat up the board to
around 480 degrees Fahrenheit, melting the solder in Fig 3.2.15: Pick and Place
the solder paste. It then gradually reduces the temperatures, cooling and solidifying the melted
solder, and permanently attaching the SMDs to the board.
• For two-sided PCBs, you need to apply stenciling and conduct reflowing separately on
each side.
24. Inspection and Quality Control: After the reflow
process is complete and the mount components are
soldered into place, comes the PCB inspection. The
assembled board should be tested and inspected
for functionality. Ways to check the PCBA for quality
control include.
Fig 3.2.16: Inspection and Quality Control

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• Manual checks: A visual inspection done in person by a designer to ensure the quality of a PCB.
• Automatic optical inspection: An inspection method more appropriate for larger batches
of PCBAs. An automatic optical inspection machine, or AOI machine, uses high-powered
cameras, set at different angles to view the solder connections.
• X-ray inspection: An inspection used for more complex PCBs by examining the layers of the
PCB and identifying potential problems
Also do test for functionality and connection quality.
25. Inserting Through-Hole Components: A plated through-hole, or PTH, component is a hole in the
PCB that is plated through the board. Rather than soldering paste, more specialized soldering
method is required for PTHs.
• Manual soldering: A manual, through-hole insertion.
• Wave soldering: The automated version on manual soldering where a wave of molten solders
all the holes in the bottom of the board at once.
Note: A solder paste applier, pick-and-place machine, high-speed chip shooter, and infrared oven
inserted in a conveyor configuration can apply solder, pick-and-place, and solder 50,000 parts or
more in an hour.
26. Conducting a Functionality Test: Once the soldering process of the PCB board assembly is
complete, it is time to do a final inspection and functional test. Run power and simulated signals
to test the PCBs electrical characteristics. A sign that the PCB has failed is when it shows the
fluctuation of electrical signals during the test. If the PCB fails the final inspection, it should be
scrapped and the process begins all over until a successful PCB is produced.

3.2.4 PCB Prototype Testing

Once the prototype is designed, manufactured and assembled, you have a completed prototype. Now
test it before moving on to a full production run of PCB.
Test the prototype according to reason for creating it. Check for design flaws and areas that could use
improvement. If you have multiple prototypes of different designs, run identical tests on the boards and
compare the results. It is helpful to run tests that simulate as accurately as possible the conditions in
which the board will operate.
If running tests reveal problems with the design, correct them and create a new prototype to test the
corrected design. Once the prototype achieves the required performance and quality, now it is ready for
a full production run.

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Notes

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Notes

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRdJrE80Vjk www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WuScHKaz8o
PCB prototyping PCB manufacturing and assembly

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4. Process of Building
and Testing the
Complete IoT System

Unit 4.1 - Building an IoT System

Unit 4.2 – Testing an IoT System

ELE/N1409
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Describe types of PCB assembly process
2. Demonstrate PCB assembly and inspection process
3. Demonstrate IoT system building process
4. Describe types of testing in IoT
5. Describe various testing methods to test PCB
6. Describe root cause analysis of faults in PCB

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Unit 4.1: Building an IoT System

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe types of PCB assembly process
2. Demonstrate PCB assembly and inspection process
3. Demonstrate IoT system building process

4.1.1 Types of PCB Assembly Process

As we already discussed, the PCB fabrication and assembly process in previous unit in brief, here we will
discuss only about methods of assembling.
The PCB assembly process has automated and manual process, depends on the organisation to
organisation. The manufacturing process of an assembled PCB is known as PCB assembly process or
PCBA. In this process, the required electronics components are mounted on the PCB.
The copper lines on bare board, known as traces, electrically link connectors and components to each
other. These traces run signals between these features, allowing the circuit board to function in a
specifically designed way.

Their are three types of PCB assembly process:

• Thru-Hole Technology (THT) Assembly Process
• Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Assembly Process
• Mixed Technology

Through-Hole Technology (THT) Assembly Process

Through Hole Technology (THT) is a method for
constructing electronic circuits in which the pin-through-
hole (PTH) components are inserted through holes drilled
into printed circuit boards (PCBs). Fig 4.1.1: Thru-Hole Technology (THT) Assembly Process

The ends, or leads, are then affixed to pads on the opposite side with molten metal solder using wave
soldering or reflow soldering equipment. This process is also
called through-hole assembly.
Through Hole technology replaced early electronics assembly
techniques such as point-to-point construction.
The three key steps of Through Hole Technology (THT)
assembly process are as below -
1. Components Placement: This step is achieved
Fig 4.1.2: Constructing electronic circuits

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manually. You only need to precisely place components on corresponding positions based on PCB
design files.
Component placement must conform to regulations and operation standards of through-hole
mounting process to guarantee high-quality end products.
2. Inspection & Rectification: Once component placement is completed, the board is then placed
in a matching transport frame where board with components plugged in will be automatically
inspected so as to determine whether components are accurately placed.
If issues concerning component placement are observed, it’s easy to get them rectified
immediately as well. After all, this takes place prior to soldering in PCBA process.
3. Wave Soldering: Now the THT components should be accurately soldered onto circuit board.
In the wave soldering system, the board moves slowly over a wave of liquid solder at high
temperature, approximately 500°F.

Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Assembly Process

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method
for constructing electronic circuits in which the
components are mounted directly onto the surface
of printed circuit boards (PCBs) with solder paste.
The SMT components are very small sizes and comes
in various packages like 0402, 0603, 1608 packages
for resistors and capacitors. Similarly for Integrated
circuits ICs we have SOIC, TSSOP, QFP and BGA. Fig 4.1.3: Surface Mount Technology (SMT) Assembly Process

Electronic devices made this way are called surface-mount devices (SMDs).
An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either smaller
leads or no leads at all.
The three key steps in surface-mount technology are paste, place, and reflow.
1. Solder Paste Printing: Solder paste is applied on the board through a solder paste printer. A
template or stencil or solder screen ensures that solder paste can be accurately left on correct
places where components will be mounted.
2. Components Mounting: After coming out of solder paste printer, PCB will be auto-sent to pick-
and-place machine where components or ICs will be mounted on corresponding pads due to the
tension of solder paste.
Components are mounted on PCB board through component reels in the machine. Component
reels carrying components rotate to provide parts to the machine, which will quickly stick parts
to the board.
3. Reflow Soldering: After every component is placed, the board passes through a 23-foot-long
furnace (reflow oven) with a temperature of 500°F .
The solder paste must be heated until it melts and forms strong and reliable joints between the

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components and the surface of the board. This is accomplished through the use of a reflow oven
which heats the solder to the proper temperature and then cools it down to a solid again. This
way the SMD components are bound firmly to the board.
As compared to through-hole mounting process, Surface mounting process has a high degree of
automation, reducing labor costs and increasing production rates. SMDs can be one-quarter to one-tenth
the size and weight, and one-half to one-quarter the cost of equivalent through-hole parts.
While through-hole mounting provides stronger mechanical bonds than surface-mount technology
techniques, the additional drilling required makes the boards more expensive to produce. It also limits
the available routing area for signal traces on multilayer boards since the holes must pass through all
layers to the opposite side. For these reasons, through-hole mounting is normally reserved for bulkier
components such as electrolytic capacitors or semiconductors in large packages that require additional
mounting strength to endure physical stress.

Mixed Technology
With the recent developments, electronic products are becoming increasingly complex. These complex
electronic products need more complicated, integrated and smaller size PCB boards.
It is almost impossible for PCBAs containing only one type of component to perform such complex tasks.
Hence, for this purpose, a mixed technology board with both SMD and through-hole components will
be required.
Such type of boards carry Thru-hole components and SMD components, which requires collaboration of
thru-hole technology and surface mount technology.
Nevertheless, soldering is a complicated process that tends to be affected by too many elements. Thus, it
becomes extraordinarily significant to better arrange the sequence of thru-hole tech and surface mount
technology.
PCBA with application of mixed technologies should be carried out in the following situations:
i. Single Side Mixed Assembly: Single side mixed assembly process has the following
manufacturing procedure -

Fig 4.1.4: Single Side Mixed Assembly

Hand soldering can be applied instead of wave soldering only when a small quantity of THT
components is required for this type of assembly.

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ii. One Side SMT & One Side THT: One side SMT and One side THT assembly process has the
following manufacturing procedure -

Fig 4.1.5: One Side SMT & One Side THT

This type of PCB assembly procedure is not recommended since adhesives will burden the
total cost of PCBA and possibly lead to some soldering issues.
iii. Double Side Mixed Assembly: In case of double side mixed assembly methods, there are two
alternatives - PCBA with application of adhesives and PCBA without adhesive.
The application of adhesives increases the overall cost of PCB assembly. Moreover, during this
PCBA process, heating has to be carried out for three times, which tends to lead to low
efficiency.

Fig.4.1.6: Double Side Mixed Assembly (1)

Fig.4.1.7: Double Side Mixed Assembly (2)

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4.1.2 PCB Assembly Process

Step 1: Apply Solder Paste Using Stencil
First apply the solder paste on the areas of the printed circuit board assemblies where the components
will fit. This is done by applying solder paste on the stainless steel stencil.
1. The stencil and the PCB are hold together by a mechanical fixture and then the solder paste is
applied evenly to all openings in the board.
2. The applicator spreads the solder paste equally, so a right amount of solder paste must be used
in applicator.
3. When the applicator is removed the paste will remain in the desired areas of PCB. The grey color
solder paste is 96.5% made of tin and contains 3% of silver and 0.5% of copper and it is lead free.
This solder paste will melt and creates a strong joint upon application of heat.

Step 2: Placement of Components

The second step in PCBA is the automated placement
of SMT components on PCB board. This is done
by using pick and place robot. At the design level
the designer creates a file that will be fed to the
automated robot. The pick and place robots will
pick the components from its vacuum grip and place
exactly on top of solder paste.

Step 3: Reflow Soldering

The third step after the components are set and Fig 4.1.8: Placement of Components
solder paste applied is reflow soldering. The reflow
soldering is the process where the PCBs along with
the components are put on the conveyer belt. This
conveyer belt then moves the PCBs and components
in a big oven, which creates a temperature of 250o
C. This temperature is enough for the solder to melt.
The melted solder will then fix the components upon Fig 4.1.9: Reflow Soldering
the PCB and create joints. After the PCB is treated with high temperature, it then goes in to coolers. These
coolers then solidifies the solder joints in controlled fashion. This will create a permanent joint between
SMT component and PCB.

Step 4: QC and Inspection

After the reflow soldering, there is a chance that due to some erroneous movement in PCB holding
tray, the components got misaligned and may result in short circuit or open connection. These flaws are
need to be identified and this identification process is called inspection. Inspection can be manual and
automated.
1. Manual Inspection: As the PCB has the small SMT components, so visually check the board for
any misalignment or faults. So this method is not feasible for advance SMT boards due to
inaccurate results. However this method is feasible for boards having THT components and lesser

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components density.

Fig 4.1.10: Optical Inspection

2. Optical Inspection: For the large batches of PCB, this method is feasible. This method uses the
automated machine that has the high powered and high resolution cameras installed at various
angles to view the solder joints from various directions. The light will reflect the solder joints in
different angles according to the quality of solder
joints. This automated Optical Inspection (AOI)
machine is very high speed and take very short
time to process large batches of PCBs.
3. X-ray Inspection: The X-Ray machine allows you
to look through the PCB to see the inner layer
defects. This is not a common inspection method
and is only used in complex and advance PCBs.
These inspection methods if not properly applied Fig 4.1.11: X-ray Inspection
may cause rework or scrap PCB.

Step 5: THT Component Fixation and Soldering

The through-hole components are commonly found on
many PCB boards. These components are also known
as Plated through Hole (PTH). These components
have leads that will pass through the hole in the PCB.
These holes connect to other holes and vias by means
of copper traces. When these THT components are
inserted and soldered in these holes, then they are
electrically connected to other hole in the same PCB as Fig 4.1.12: Manual Soldering
the circuit designed. These PCBs may contain some THT components and many SMD components so the
soldering method as discussed above in case of SMT components like reflow soldering will not work on
THT components. So the two main types of THT components soldering are:
1. Manual Soldering: The manual soldering method is the common and typically takes more time
than compared to automated setup for SMT. Usually one technician is designated to insert
one component at a time and the board is passed on to other technician who inserts another
component on the same board. So the board will move all around the assembly line to get the
PTH components stuffed upon it.
2. Wave Soldering: The automated version of manual soldering is wave soldering. In this method,
once the PTH components are placed on the PCB, the PCB is put on the conveyer belt and is
moved to specialized oven. Here a wave of molten solder is splashed on the PCB bottom layer

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where the components leads are present. This will solder all the pins at once. However this
method is only for single sided PCBs and not for double sided because this molten solder while
soldering one side of PCB can damage components on other side. After this, the PCB fabrication
and assembly is moved for final inspection.

Fig 4.1.13: Wave Soldering

Step 6: Final Inspection and Functional Test

Now the PCB is ready for testing and inspection. This is the functionality test, where electrical signals
and power supply is given to the PCB at the specified pins and output is checked at the specified test
points or output connectors. This test requires common lab instruments like oscilloscope, DMM, function
generator etc.
This test is to check the functionality and electrical characteristics of PCB and to verify current, voltage,
analog and digital signals as described in the requirements of PCB and circuit design
If any of the parameters of the PCB shows unacceptable results, then the PCB is discarded or scrapped as
per the company standard procedures. Testing phase is very important because it determines the success
or failure of the entire process of PCBA.

Notes

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Unit 4.2: Testing an IoT System

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe types of testing in IoT
2. Describe various testing methods to test PCB
3. Describe root cause analysis of faults in PCB

4.2.1 IoT Testing

IoT testing is a sub-category of testing to check IoT devices. We now need to provide better and faster
services. There is a huge global demand to access, create, use and transfer data. The aim is to provide
insight and control, of various interconnected devices. That is why IoT testing framework is so important.

Types of Testing in IOT

Fig 4.2.1: Types of Testing in IOT

• Usability Testing: Users use many devices of varying shape and form factors. Also, the perception
varies from user to user. This is why investigating the usability of the system is very important
in IoT testing. The usability of each device used in IoT must be determined. In healthcare, the
tracking devices used must be portable so that they can be moved to different divisions. The
equipment used should be smart enough to push notifications, error messages, warnings, etc.
The system must log all the events occurring to provide clarity to the end users.
• Compatibility Testing: There are lots of devices which can be connected though IOT system.
These devices have varied software and hardware configuration. Each one of them has a high
degree of variability in terms of the firmware and hardware models and versions; network type,
speed, protocols and versions; operating system type and versions; browser type and versions;
screen sizes and display resolutions to name a few. It is important to test the application in all
possible combinations of these versions to reduce failures in the field.
Compatibility testing is also important due to the complex architecture of the IoT system. Testing
items like OS versions, browser types, devices’ generation, communication modes is vital for
compatibility testing.

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• Connectivity Testing: This testing involves checking the device and application behavior by
subjecting the network through a load, intermittent failures, and total loss of connectivity. By
inducing these real-life scenarios, the robustness of the device, edge, platform and application
are checked.
• Reliability and Scalability Testing: Reliability and Scalability is important for building an IOT test
environment which involves simulation of sensors by utilizing virtualization tools and technologies.
• Data Integrity Testing: It’s important to check the Data integrity in IOT testing as it involves large
amount of data and its applications.
• Security testing: In the IOT environment, a large number of users are accessing a massive amount
of data. Thus, it is important to validate user via authentication, have data privacy controls as part
of security testing.
• Performance Testing: Performance testing is important to create strategic approach for developing
and implementing an IOT testing plan. On the device, these tests check their responsiveness to
user actions and on a platform layer, they check the ability to handle spikes in traffic gracefully.
They are based on metrics for assessing the responsiveness of the device/application and
underlying system performance. Load generators and performance measuring tools on the cloud
rate system performance under normal and full load.

Challenges faced in IoT testing

• Both, the network and internal communication, needs to be checked.
• One of the biggest concerns in IoT testing is security and privacy because the tasks are done
via Internet.
• The software complexity as well as the system itself may conceal the bugs or defects found in the
IoT technology.
• There are limitations on memory, processing power, bandwidth, battery life, etc.

Suggestions to make IoT testing effective

• Gray box testing and IoT testing should be performed simultaneously as it enables the designing
of effective test cases. This helps us understand the operating system, architecture, third-party
hardware, new connectivity, and hardware restrictions.
• Real-time OS is vital to provide scalability, modularity, connectivity, and security, all of which are
essential to IoT.
• To make it effective, IoT testing can be automated.

Prerequisites of IoT Testing

• Setting up IoT device: The IoT device must be turned on, and can be accessed and used in real
life. E.g., while testing a smart watch, make sure to wear it on wrist. Placing it on a table would
not be regarded as a real user case.
• Setting up of IoT Hub: IoT hub is a server that can connect with IoT devices and gather information
from them. An IoT hub may be an application in a mobile device or a web server on a cloud. The
IoT hub must be set up properly.

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• Setting up network: We need a strong wireless connection to connect IoT hub and the IoT
device together. This can be possible with a Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite signals, NFC (near field
communication), etc. While connecting wearable device with a mobile app, ensure the following −
‰ The Bluetooth of both the devices is turned on.
‰ Both the devices are paired together.
‰ Both the devices are in range of each other.

4.2.2 PCB Testing

IoT testing is a sub-category of testing to check IoT devices. We now need to provide better and
faster services.
PCB assembly testing methods are an integral part of the manufacturing process. Reputable electronics
contract manufacturers (ECMs) offer a variety of PCB testing methods, but the seven main types include -
1. IN-CIRCUIT TESTING
In-circuit testing (ICT) is the most robust type of PCB testing in existence and it can find 98%
of faults.
This testing method uses special PCB testing steps and equipment, including -
• In-circuit tester: The tester system contains
a matrix of hundreds or thousands of drivers
and sensors, which perform the measurements
for the test.
• Fixture: A fixture connects to the in-circuit tester
and is the part that interacts directly with the
board being tested. This fixture looks like a bed of
nails and is designed specifically for the board in
question. Each “nail,” or sensor point, connects
to relevant points on the test board, feeding
information back to the tester. Fixtures are
generally the most expensive part of this system.
Fig 4.2.2: In-circuit testing
• Software: Software for the tester instructs
the system on what tests to perform for each type of board being tested and dictates the
parameters for a pass or fail.
This test involves using fixed probes laid out in a way that matches the design of the PCB. The
probes checks the integrity of the solder connection. The bed of nails fixture simply pushes the
board down on the bed of probes to start the test. There are access points predesigned in the
board that allows the ICT testing probes to make connections with the circuit. They put a certain
amount of pressure on the connection to make sure it stays intact.

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Using the ICT method, a manufacturer can test individual components and measure their
performance, regardless of the other components attached to them.
2. FLYING PROBE TESTING
Flying probe testing is a tried-and-true option that’s less expensive than in-circuit testing. It’s a
nonpowered type of test that checks for
• Opens
• Shorts
• Resistance
• Capacitance
• Inductance
• Diode issues
The test works through the use of needles attached
to a probe on an x-y grid obtained from basic CAD.
Your ECM programs coordinates to match the circuit
board and then runs the program.
Fig 4.2.3: Flying probe testing
In some cases, ICT makes it unnecessary to use flying
probe testing, but the PCB has to be designed to fit
with the test fixture, which means a higher initial
cost. ICT can be faster and less error-prone than
flying probe testing, so you might find the extra cost
is worth it. While flying probe testing can be cheaper
initially, it may actually be less cost-effective for
large orders.
One final word of caution: A PCB flying probe test
does not power up the board. Fig 4.2.4: Flying probe testing

3. AUTOMATED OPTICAL INSPECTION (AOI)

AOI uses either a single 2D camera or two 3D cameras to take photos of the PCB. The program
then compares the photos of your board to a detailed schematic. If there is a board that does
not match the schematic to a certain degree, the board is flagged for inspection by a technician.
AOI can be useful for detecting issues early to ensure production is shut down ASAP. However, it
does not power up the board and may not have 100% coverage for all part types.
Never rely solely on an automated optical inspection. AOI should be used in conjunction with
another test. Some of our favorite combos are -
• AOI and flying probe
• AOI and in-circuit test (ICT)
• AOI and functional testing

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4. BURN-IN TESTING
Burn-in testing is a more intense type of testing
for PCBs. It’s designed to detect early failures and
establish load capacity. Because of its intensity,
burn-in testing can be destructive to the parts
being tested.
Burn-in testing pushes power through your
electronics, usually at its maximum-specified
capacity. The power is run through the board
continuously for 48 to 168 hours in a burn in test
chamber. If a board fails, it is known as an infant
mortality. For military or medical applications, boards
Fig 4.2.5: Burn-in testing
with high infant mortality are clearly not ideal.
Burn-in testing can shorten the product’s lifespan, especially if the test puts your board under
more stress than it’s rated for. If few or no defects are found, it’s possible to reduce the testing
limit after a shorter period to avoid over-stressing your PCBs.
5. X-RAY INSPECTION
Also referred to as AXI, this type of “testing” is really more of an inspection tool, at least for
most ECMs.
During this test, an X-ray technician is able to locate defects early during the manufacturing
process by viewing -
• Solder connections
• Internal traces
• Barrels
There are 2D and 3D AXI tests, with 3D offering a faster testing period.
X-ray testing can check elements that are usually hidden from view, such as connections and ball
grid array packages with solder joints underneath the chip package. While this check can be very
useful, it does require trained, experienced operators.
Also, note that your ECM can’t necessarily inspect every layer of a board using an X-ray machine.
It’s true we can see through the board to detect internal defects, but it’s a very time-consuming
and expensive process (for both ECM and customers).
6. FUNCTIONAL TESTING
This test does require a few things -
• External pieces of equipment
• Fixtures
• Requirements for UL, MSHA, and other standards

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This functional test and its parameters are usually provided by the customer. Some ECMs can help
develop and design such a test.
It does take time, But from a quality and longevity standpoint, functional testing can save face
and save money.
7. OTHER FUNCTIONAL TESTS
There are other types of functional tests that can be used to check PCB, depending on the
circumstances.
A PCB functional test verifies a PCB’s behavior in the product’s end-use environment. The
requirements of a functional test, its development, and procedures can vary greatly by PCB and
end product.
Other PCB assembly testing types include:
• Solderability test: Ensures surface sturdiness and increases chances of forming a reliable
solder joint
• PCB contamination testing: Detects bulk ionics that can contaminate your board, causing
corrosion and other issues
• Micro-sectioning analysis: Investigates defects, opens, shorts, and other failures
• Time-domain reflectometer (TDR): Finds failures in high-frequency boards,
• Peel test: Finds the measure of strength required to peel the laminate from the board
• Solder float test: Determines the level of thermal stress a PCB’s holes can resist

4.2.3 Troubleshooting of PCB by Bench Test Instruments

1. Multimeter
For testing a circuit by multimeter, you need following basic tools -
• Analog/Digital multimeter
• Soldering gun
• Desoldering station
• Magnifying glass
Steps for using multimer for checking a circuit board
i. Plugging: First observe the polarity and then probe in the
multimeter. Every multimeter device comes with two types
of probes, namely red and black. While the red one is the
positive probe, the black one is the jack at the end of the
probe wire.
ii. Testing: Select the multimeter function first to check a
Fig 4.2.6: Multimeter

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circuit board. Multimeters are modeled in such a way that they can measure both voltage and
resistance. In case you have to test the power or voltage, turn the function knob or select the
AC or DC voltage. The circuit board and the overall voltage will then be displayed on the device.
iii. Checking: Circuit boards are made up of many components
in general and are placed inside an electrical device. Thus,
to know if all parts are working in sync with each other, first
unplug the device and the housing. Then switch it on and
make sure that you do not touch any of the wirings.
iv. Measure Voltage and Resistance: The next thing to do using
a multimeter is to check for voltage and resistance. For this Fig 4.2.7: Circuit Checking
step to work out smoothly, you need to do a basic test first.
To test circuit board properly, touch the multimeter probes
to the test points present on the board.
Make sure while playing out this step you have your hands
on the plastic portion of the probes. You can then go on
to check either the voltage or resistance. When measuring
the resistors’ resistance, connect one probe to the end of
Fig 4.2.8: Measure Voltage & Resistance
each resistor.
v. Check The Final Result: Multimeters are used for checking the working functionality of the
circuit board. Thus, to check and see if all the components are working properly repeats the
step 1 to 4 for every component present on the board.
Checking the circuit board
• If the components look fine, power up the circuit board. Measure the voltage of the power
rails with the multimeter. Both the input and output of the voltage regulator need to show
the expected values.
• Check the fuse if the input voltage measured at the voltage regulator is 0V. If the fuse is
replaced and immediately breaks after power-up, it means other components are shorted
and draining a huge amount of current.
• A voltage of 0V, or below VCC, at the output often means that the regulator or a component
along the voltage rail has a short circuit. If that’s the case, the damaged component will heat
up quickly.
• If there aren’t signs of overheated components then look for broken traces. A broken trace
could result in the voltage being detected at some points of the trace but not in others. Use
your multimeter to narrow down where the discontinuity is.
Troubleshooting a PCB is very important nowadays. It is because, with the rising demand for
electrical appliances, the supply for circuit boards has also increased. Thus, a minor distraction in
the board can make it non-functional or damage the components. This can be easily traced with
the help of a multimeter.

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2. Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is a particularly useful item of test equipment that can be used for testing and
fault-finding a variety of electronic circuits from logic circuits through analogue circuits to radio
circuits. By knowing the basics of using an oscilloscope it is possible to fault find circuits more
effectively and more swiftly as well as gaining a better understanding of how they the circuits work.
The main purpose of an oscilloscope is to graph an electrical signal as it varies over time. Most
scopes produce a two-dimensional graph with time on the x-axis and voltage on the y-axis.

Fig 4.2.9: Oscilloscope WAVEFORMS

An example of an oscilloscope display. A signal (the yellow sine wave in this case) is graphed on a
horizontal time axis and a vertical voltage axis.
Controls surrounding the scope’s screen allow you to adjust the scale of the graph, both vertically
and horizontally - allowing you to zoom in and out on a signal. There are also controls to set the
trigger on the scope, which helps focus and stabilize the display.
What Can Oscilloscope Measure
Many oscilloscopes have measurement tools, which help to quickly quantify frequency, amplitude,
and other waveform characteristics. In general a oscilloscope can measure both time-based and
voltage-based characteristics -
• Timing characteristics:
‰ Frequency and period: Frequency is defined as the number of times per second a
waveform repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of seconds each
repeating waveform takes). The maximum frequency a scope can measure varies, but it›s
often in the 100›s of MHz (1E6 Hz) range.
‰ Duty cycle: The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or negative (there are
both positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a ratio that tells you how long a
signal is «on» versus how long it›s «off» each period.
‰ Rise and fall time: Signals can›t instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have to smoothly
rise. The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point is called the rise

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time, and fall time measures the opposite. These characteristics are important when
considering how fast a circuit can respond to signals.
• Voltage characteristics:
‰ Amplitude: Amplitude is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a variety
of amplitude measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which measures the
absolute difference between a high and low voltage point of a signal. Peak amplitude, on
the other hand, only measures how high or low a signal is past 0V.
‰ Maximum and minimum voltages: The scope can tell you exactly how high and low the
voltage of your signal gets.
‰ Mean and average voltages: Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean of your
signal, and it can also tell you the average of your signal›s minimum and maximum voltage.
Steps in using an oscilloscope
i. Turn power on: This may appear obvious but is the first step. Usually the switch will be
labelled «Power» or «Line». Once the power is on, it is normal for a power indicator or line
indicator light to come on. This shows that power has been applied.
ii. Wait for oscilloscope display to appear: Although many oscilloscopes these days have
semiconductor based displays, many of the older ones still use cathode ray tubes (crts), and
these take a short while to warm up before the display appears. Even modern semiconductor
ones often need time for their electronics to “boot-up”. It is therefore often necessary to wait
a minute or so before the oscilloscope can be used.
iii. Find the trace: Once the oscilloscope is ready it is necessary to find the trace. Often it will
be visible, but before any other waveforms can be seen, this is the first stage. Typically the
trigger can be set to the centre and the hold-off turned fully counter-clockwise. Also set the
horizontal and vertical position controls to the centre, if they are not already there. Usually
the trace will become visible. If not the «beamfinder” button can be pressed and this will
locate the trace.
iv. Set the gain control: The next stage is to set the horizontal gain control. This should be set
so that the expected trace will nearly fill the vertical screen. If the waveform is expected to
be 8 volts peak to peak, and the calibrated section of the screen is 10 centimetres high, then
set the gain so that it is 1 volt / centimetre. This way the waveform will occupy 8 centimetres,
almost filling the screen.
v. Set the timebase speed: It is also necessary to set the timebase speed on the oscilloscope.
The actual setting will depend on what needs to be seen. Typically if a waveform has a period
of 10 ms and the screen has a width of 12 centimetres, then a timebase speed of 1 ms per
centimetre or division would be chosen.
vi. Apply the signal: With the controls set approximately correctly the signal can be applied and
an image should be seen.
vii. Adjust the trigger: At this stage it is necessary to adjust the trigger level and whether it triggers
on the positive or negative going edge. The trigger level control will be able to control where

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on the waveform the timebase is triggered and hence the trace starts on the waveform. The
choice of whether it triggers on the positive or negative going edge may also be important.
These should be adjusted to give the required image.
viii. Adjust the controls for the best image: With a stable waveform in place, the vertical gain and
timebase controls can be re-adjusted to give the required image.
Steps for checking PCB by oscilloscope

Fig 4.2.10: Checking PCB by oscilloscope

Step 1: Set the constant current and voltage to minimum

Before turning the power supply on, make sure that you twist every button value to zero. Now
connect the GND pole of the power supply to the ground of your PCB and turn the power
supply on.

Fig 4.2.11: Checking PCB by oscilloscope

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Step 2: Carefully rise the voltage

Now connect both poles of the power supply to your PCB. Smoothly rise the voltage until it
reaches the required voltage level. Some kind of indicator can be helpful on your printed circuit
board, for example a built in LED showing if the board is working.

Fig 4.2.12: Checking PCB by oscilloscope

Step 3: Check the waveform of the signal with an oscilloscope

If everything went as expected you should do the final measurements with an oscilloscope. This
can be useful for measuring signals. It can measure voltage in real time between two points. For
example if you connect the oscilloscope on a blinking LED, you should see a PWM signal. If the
signal is HIGH the LED is turned on or if the signal is LOW the LED is turned off.
3. Signal generator
A radio frequency (RF) signal generator is used
to create continuous radio frequency signals
with known characteristics to test the design
of circuits, primarily those in communication
equipment. An RF signal generator doesn’t
make any measurements itself, it simply sets
up the right conditions for other instruments
to measure the device under test.
Fig 4.2.13: Radio frequency (RF) signal TESTING
An RF signal generator is typically a signal
source used to test circuits being developed
for RF communications such as wireless and
cellular communications, radar, electronic
warfare etc. Engineers can set amplitude,
frequency and apply modulations to the signal
using system controls.
The easiest way to generate RF frequency is to
use the front panel of the RF Signal Generator Fig 4.2.14: RF SIGNAL GENERATOR

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and set the frequency, amplitude, modulation, and a number of other signal characteristics right
before connecting your RF signal generator to the device under test (DUT).

RF signal generator operation

Within a modern RF signal generator there are a number of major circuit blocks or sections:

Fig 4.2.15: RF Signal generator diagram

• Oscillator: The most important block within the RF signal generator is the oscillator itself. This
can be any form of oscillator, but today it would almost certainly be formed from a frequency
synthesizer. This oscillator would take commands from the controller and be set to the required
frequency.
• Amplifier: The output from the oscillator will need amplifying. This will be achieved using a
special amplifier module. This will amplify the signal, typically to a fixed level. It would have a
loop around it to maintain the output level accurately at all frequencies and temperatures. This
loop is closely controlled because the accuracy of the final output is dependent upon it.
• Attenuator: An attenuator is placed on the output of the signal generator. This serves to ensure
an accurate source impedance is maintained as well as allowing the generator level to be adjusted
very accurately. In particular the relative power levels, i.e. when changing from one level to
another are very accurate and represent the accuracy of the attenuator. It is worth noting that the
output impedance is less accurately defined for the highest signal levels where the attenuation is
less. levels may often be adjusted in increments of 0.1dB over the range.
• Control: Advanced processors are used to ensure that the RF and microwave signal generator is
easy to control and is also able to take remote control commands. The processor will control all
aspects of the operation of the test equipment. Also a large screen and controls are present on
many modern signal generators.

RF signal generator functions

• Frequency range: Naturally the frequency range of the RF signal generator is of paramount

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importance. It must be able to cover all the frequencies that are likely to need to be generated.
For example when testing a receiver in an item of equipment, be it a mobile phone or any other
radio receiver, it is necessary to be able to check not only the operating frequency, but other
frequencies where the issues such as image rejection, etc.
• Output level: The output range for an RF and microwave signal generator is normally controlled
to a relatively high degree of accuracy. The output within the test equipment itself is maintained
at a constant level and then passed through a high grade variable attenuator. These are normally
switch to give the highest degree of accuracy. The range is normally limited at the top end by the
final amplifier in the RF signal generator. A typical level output range might be -127dBm to +7
dBm in 0.1 dB steps.
• Modulation: Some RF or microwave signal generators have inbuilt oscillators that can apply
modulation to the output signal. Others also have the ability to apply modulation from an
external source. The capabilities of different signal generators vary considerably, but the top end
test instruments offer very high levels of capability.
• Control: There are many options for controlling RF and microwave signal generators these
days. While they tend to have traditional front panel controls, there are also many options for
remote control.
• Sweep: For some signal generator applications it is necessary to be able to sweep the frequency
of the RF signal generator. If this facility is required, then it is necessary to check the specification
for the test instruments that are being considered as not all RF signal generators provide a sweep
of this nature although programming progressively increasing the frequency of the output in
steps may be one option that might suffice.

Using a RF signal generator to check the RF signal in PCB

This is how to use a RF Signal generator to test a circuit’s
behavior -
1. Power on the generator and select the desired
output signal: square wave, sine wave or
triangle wave.
2. Connect the output leads to an oscilloscope to
visualize the output signal and set its parameters
using the amplitude and frequency controls.
3. Attach the output leads of the RF Signal generator to
Fig 4.2.16: RF signal in PCB
the input of the circuit you wish to test.
4. Attach the output of your circuit to a meter or oscilloscope to visualize the resulting change
in signal.
A RF Signal generator, which is used for testing the response of circuits to RF signals, produces various
voltage patterns at different frequencies and amplitudes. You connect the RF Signal generator’s electrical
leads to the ground and the signal input terminals to the device under test (DUT).

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4.2.4 Root Cause Analysis of PCB Faults

It is important for a printed circuit board to perform its function and support the larger electronic device.
Consequently, you must have a system in place that monitors and tests each component to ensure that it
meets various standards and delivers maximum performance.
When a component fails, analysts must utilize various processes, tools and techniques. With accuracy,
they must determine why the device failed and how to prevent future failures. The following processes
present unique challenges for electronics failure analysis -
• Increased density
• Higher lead-free process temperature requirements
• Hazardous material
• Recycling requirements
• The need to tune PCBs to precise values
• Other associated changes in PCB manufacturing

Root Cause Analysis

The fabrication of a complete PCB assembly requires an array of machines and materials, which include -
• Screen printers
• Conveyors
• Pick-and-place systems
• Reflow ovens
• Automated optical inspection
• Solder paste
• Different components
Some machines have automated features that perform checks at various points, and operators perform
visual inspections before, during or immediately after the completion of a task.
Many PCBs will fail the final test. When a problem does occur, it is important to perform an effective
electronics failure analysis in order to obtain clear and precise details about the source of the problem —
and to ensure that it does not happen again.
You need to conduct a root cause analysis to identify the cause of the failure — not the symptoms —
and take corrective action to fix the issue. Failure analysis also provides invaluable feedback to design
engineers on how to -
• Correct minor faults that might have gone unnoticed during the initial design
• Improve the product
Any company that produces electronic hardware strives to achieve zero-defect production. To realize this
objective, you must have the capability to perform some level of printed circuit board failure analysis.
Electronic device failure analysis provides a systematic process to help organizations investigate and
understand why an electronic part failed. Depending on the nature of the failure, an effective investigation

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can identify the failure mode, mechanism and elements, such as stresses inducing the failure and
other issues.
For example, solder joint defects make up a large percentage of PCB failures. Youcan discover the root
cause of the defective joints, like
• lack of solder paste,
• gap between the PCB pad and component lead, or
• poor reflow profile
Then implement preventative measures. To eliminate future failures, possible solutions may be to avoid
solder paste contamination or ensure the correct aspect ratio. The methods used in the analysis depend
on the severity of the failure and the type of issue. They can range from simple electrical measurements
to the evaluation of sample cross-sections under a microscope.
An effective and efficient root cause analysis ensures that you can initiate the necessary corrective action
to prevent reoccurrence of the problem. Failure analysis processes evaluate the reliability of a component
product under operation and determine how to improve the product.

What are the Common Types of PCB Failure Analysis Tests?

There are a number of tests suitable for identifying defects. When the failure analyst understands the
faults and how to prevent them, you can improve the production process as well as the assemblies it
manufactures.
The traditional techniques used for printed circuit board failure analysis focus on the “slice and dice”
method. This technique employs a combination of external techniques, such as electrical testing, visual
inspection, X-ray and cross-sectioning to the relevant area.
The following PCB tests have the highest success rate and offer advantages for PCB manufacturers -
1. Micro-sectioning Analysis
Micro-sectioning, sometimes called Cross-sectioning or Metallographic Preparation, refers to a
PCB testing method used to investigate -
• Thermo-mechanical failures
• Component defects
• Opens or shorts
• Processing failures due to solder reflow
• Raw material evaluations
In this, you have to remove a two-dimensional slice out of a sample, which uncovers features
within the board. Consider a destructive testing method, micro-sectioning analysis provides the
technician with a precise technique that isolates the relevant electronic component and removes
the part from the PCB sample.
Now put the component into an epoxy resin or other potting medium and leaves it to cure
and solidify. After the component cures, use an abrasion technique to retreat and expose the

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component, and polishes the part until it is reflective and ready for testing.
Now, you have to compare the sample against another functioning component. One advantage
of this testing method is the ability to position the sample on a flat surface and invest each of its
parts together.
Electron and optical microscopy equipment can examine plate thickness, intermittent metallic
layer thickness or failures to solder joints. The analyst must highlight the damage and identify the
cause of the destruction.
2. Solderability Testing
PCB manufacturing process can be the source of assembly problems, especially issues related
to oxidation and misapplications of the solder mask. To minimize the probability of failure, you
have to test component and PCB pad solder ability to ensure the robustness of the surface and
increase the probability of forming a reliable solder joint.
The solderability failure method evaluates the strength and quality of wetting of a solder by
reproducing the contact between the solder and the material. The wetting balance process
measures the wetting force and the time from contact to wetting force generation. Solderability
testing can verify that the components will meet specifications and quality standards.
The technique also helps determine what effect, if any, storage has on solder components in
PCBs. It also provides an accurate measure of why a fault may have occurred. Solderability testing
works for a variety of applications, including -
• PCB coating evaluation
• Solder evaluation
• Flux evaluation
• Benchmarking
• Quality control
You must have the experience to differentiate the various surface conditions and understand the
acceptable requirements of the testing technique.
3. PCB Contamination Testing
Contamination can cause a variety of issues, including corrosion, degradation, metallization and
rapid deterioration of wire bond interconnects. Although printed circuit board processing and
assembly take place in an extremely clean environment designed to keep the air and components
free of contamination, infection does occur and represents one the most common causes of
part failure.
Human by-products, handling, flux residues and reaction products are often sources of
contamination. Many manufacturers employ aggressive chemistry processes during PCB
fabrication, including the following -
• Copper etching liquid
• Hot air leveling fluxes

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• Electrolytic solutions
• Water soluble soldering
The use of chemicals typically requires a cleaning process. The electronic industry introduced
ionic contamination testing, which measures the cleaning efficiency and stability of the cleaning
process. Contamination testing measures the amount of ionic contamination contained in a
sample. The process of testing for contamination involves the immersion of the PCB sample
into a solution. The solution dissolves the ionic contamination, which causes a change in the
constitution of the solution and has a significant influence on the values or readings.
The technician measures the change in the resistance of the solution solvent — a change in
resistance that a failure analyst can measure. Then, the analyst plots the contamination level on
a contamination-testing curve and compares the value with industry standards.
When a reading exceeds an established level, it confirms that the manufacturer has a problem with
the cleaning process. This can cause detrimental effects, including corrosion and electrochemical
migration, when parts remain in the component. This dissolving technique can detect even the
smallest parts.
4. Optical Microscopy/SEM
Optical microscopy may be one of the most popular and preferred testing methods used for
detecting faults, defects and problems associated with soldering and assembly. Many customers
choose optical microscopy because of its speed and accuracy. The process uses a high power
microscope with visible light. The microscope, which can reach up to 1000X, has a small depth
field and shows features in a single plane. Board integrity represents a major concern and frequent
cause of failure in electronics. Microscopy testing can verify improper construction, which can
lead to stresses that can expose flaws at certain cross sections.
Sometimes PCB failure analysis requires more powerful magnification tools. Scanning electron
microscopes or SEMs offer a highly-effective testing technique for performing semiconductor
die failure analysis. Even if a defect on an integrated circuit measures only a few nanometers
wide, SEM provides the failure analyst detailed images at higher magnifications, up to 120,000X.
It is typical to have magnifications of 50,000 to 100,000X, and feature resolutions down to 25
angstroms. The analyst produces a recording and record of the findings based on the images.
With SEM technology, the depth of the field provides failure analysts a three-dimensional view of
the sample. SEM examinations can verify semiconductor die metallization, integrity and quality.
SEM also provides evidence of heat treatment and identifies the metal or alloy used. Many
analysts pair SEM with micro-sectioning testing.
5. X-ray Inspection
Many X-rays provide users a powerful tool for non-invasive failure analysis. With a choice of basic
film X-ray, real time X-ray and 3-dimensional X-ray systems, users can employ the tools to detect
actual or potential defects. They can also inspect a component that has hidden joints or parts
located underneath a chip. The analyst uses an X-ray inspection instead of visible light equipment

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to evaluate the PCB.

Even with basic X-ray inspection capabilities, technicians can conduct the following types of
internal component examinations -
• Internal particles
• Internal wire dress
• Die attach quality
• Voids in the sealing lid
• Substrate /printing wiring board trace integrity
• Insufficient excessive or poor solder
The advantage of this testing method is the ability to detect surface and internal flaws in a non-
destructive manner while keeping samples in pre-testing condition.

Common PCB Challenges

On top of rapid innovation, shrinking components and sophisticated circuit geometries, the fabrication of
a printed circuit board consists of many steps and moving parts. The nature of the manufacturing process
provides numerous opportunities to introduce a defect in the mix, unintentionally.
Consequently, failure analysts face a variety of challenges when finding manufacturing defects -
• High-speed Printed Circuit Boards (HSCBs): HSCBs, which have grown more complex and use
a variety of integrated components, continue to grow in popularity. However, the components
require boards that are composed of two or three materials that increase the possibility of failure
in extreme high-speed applications. Failures also occur from pins and chip placed in an incorrect
manner on the board.
• Lead-free Assembly Process: The lead-free assembly process requires a higher temperature and
traditional tin-lead solder, which leads to higher temperatures for the reflow and wave soldering.
This results in an adverse effect on the solder joint and electronic components.
• Plated Through Hole Barrel Cracking: Barrel fatigue, which is the circumferential cracking of the
copper plating that forms the plated through hole (PTH wall), is the most prevalent failure mode.
It occurs as a result of differential expansion between the copper plating and the out-of-plane
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the printed board.
• Correct Surface Finish Selection: The most important decision for the electronic assembly may
be the surface furnish, which affects the process yield, the amount of rework necessary, field
failure rate, the ability to test, the scrap rate and the cost.
• Conductive Anodic Filament: Conductive Anodic Filaments (CAF) or metallic electro-migration
describes an electro-chemical process that involves the transport of a metal across a non-metallic
medium under the influence of an applied electric field. The condition causes current leakage,
intermittent electrical shorts and dielectric breakdown between conductors in PCBs.

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Notes

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QiNMUUdAgg www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8NOK1JJbgw
Types of IoT testing PCB inspection methods and defects

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5. Work effectively at
the workplace

Unit 5.1 - Effective Communication and Coordination at Work

Unit 5.2 - Working Effectively and Maintaining Discipline at Work
Unit 5.3 - Maintaining Social Diversity at Work

ELE/N9905
Participant Handbook

Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Dsicuss about work ethics and workplace etiquettes
2. Describe ways to communicate work effectively at workplace
3. Discuss the importance of following organizational guidelines for dress code, time schedules,
language usage and other behavioural aspect
4. Explain the importance of working as per the workflow of the organization to receive instructions
and report problems
5. Explain the importance of conveying information/instructions as per defined protocols to the
authorised persons/team members
6. Explain the common workplace guidelines and legal requirements on non-disclosure and
confidentiality of business-sensitive information
7. Describe the process of reporting grievances and unethical conduct such as data breaches, sexual
harassment at the workplace, etc.
8. Discuss ways of dealing with heightened emotions of self and others.
9. Explain the concept and importance of gender sensitivity and equality
10. Discuss ways to create sensitivity for different genders and Persons with Disabilities (PwD)

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Unit 5.1: Effective Communication and Coordination at

Work
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Dsicuss about work ethics and workplace etiquettes
2. Describe ways to communicate work effectively at workplace

5.1.1 Importance of Work Ethics and Workplace Etiquette

Workplace ethics are a set of moral and legal guidelines that organizations follow. These guidelines
influence the way customers and employees interact with an organization. Workplace ethics essentially
guide how an organization serves its clients and treats its employees.
For example, if a company seeks to fulfil the promises it makes, it may develop processes and set up a
robust support system to address this policy and build customer/client loyalty. To achieve this goal, the
company may implement specific incentive programs for employees to encourage them to produce high-
quality work and ensure the organization fulfils the promises it makes to its clients/ customers.
Many organizations, often the large ones, set detailed ethical codes to guide their operations and control
how the organizational processes impact the stakeholders. These ethics usually help organizations
maintain certain standards of responsibility, accountability, professionalism and among others, as they
navigate through different challenges and day-to-day circumstances. By following these guidelines,
organizations often experience several benefits that improve the lives of stakeholders, such as customers,
employees, leaders, etc.

Examples of Common Workplace Ethics

Accountability
Responsibility
Equality
Transparency
Trust
Fulfilling promises
Loyalty
Fairness
Cooperaon
Dedicaon
Discipline
Professionalism

Fig 5.1.1: Examples of Common Workplace Ethics

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Workplace ethics are essential for a successful organization with a satisfied and loyal team. High ethical
standards help in ensuring all stakeholders, such as customers, investors, employees, and other individuals
involved in the workplace operations, feel the organization is safeguarding their interests. By creating and
implementing ethical guidelines, organizations can keep the best interests of their employees in mind
while maintaining a positive influence on those they impact through their processes.
As a result, employees maintain the organization’s best interests by being ethical in their daily work
duties. For example, fairly-treated employees of an organization who understand the organization’s
commitments to environmental sustainability are usually less likely to behave in a manner that causes
harm to the environment. Thus, they help maintain a positive public image of the organization. It means
that workplace ethics help in maintaining reciprocal relationships that benefit organizations at large and
the individuals associated with and influenced by the organizational policies.
Benefits of Workplace Ethics
There are various benefits of implementing workplace ethics. When organizations hold themselves to
high ethical standards, leaders, stakeholders, and the general public can experience significant
improvements. Following are some of the key benefits of employing ethics in the workplace -

Employee sasfacon

Improved workplace culture

Legal compliance

Improved public reputaon

Customer engagement and loyalty

Streamlined decision - making processes

Fig 5.1.2: Benefits of Workplace Ethics

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5.1.2 Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is a process that involves sharing ideas and emotions with another person,
both - verbally and non-verbally. It is essential to interact effectively with others in both personal and
professional lives. In professional life or the workplace, strong interpersonal skills play a crucial role in
achieving effective collaboration with colleagues.

Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal skills, in other terms, are known as people skills, which are used to communicate and
interact with others effectively. These are soft skills one uses to communicate with others and understand
them. One uses these skills in daily life while interacting with people

Examples of Interpersonal Skills

Acve listening

Teamwork

Responsibility

Dependability

Leadership

Movaon

Flexibility

Paence

Empathy

Conflict resoluon

Negoaon

Fig 5.1.3: Examples of Interpersonal Skills

Numerous interpersonal skills involve communication. Communication can be verbal, such as persuasion
or tone of voice - or non-verbal, such as listening and body language.

Importance of Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal skills are essential for communicating and collaborating with groups and individuals in
both personal and professional life. People with strong interpersonal skills often are able to build good
relationships and also tend to work well with others. Most people often enjoy working with co-workers
who have good interpersonal skills.
Among other benefits of good interpersonal skills is the ability to solve problems and make the best
decisions. One can use the ability to understand others and good interpersonal communication skills to
find the best solution or make the best decisions in the interest of everyone involved. Strong interpersonal
skills help individuals work well in teams and collaborate effectively. Usually, people who possess good

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interpersonal skills also tend to be good leaders, owing to their ability to communicate well with others
and motivate the people around them.
Interpersonal communication is the key to working in a team environment and working collectively to
achieve shared goals. Following are the interpersonal communication skills that vital for success at work -

Verbal Communication
The ability to speak clearly, appropriately and confidently can help one communicate effectively with
others. It is vital to select the appropriate vocabulary and tone for the target audience.
For example: one should speak formally and professionally in the work environment, while informal
language is acceptable in an intimate environment with close friends and family. Also, one should avoid
using complex or technical language while communicating with an audience that may not be familiar
with it. Using simple language in a courteous tone helps achieve better communication, irrespective of
the audience.

Active Listening
Active listening is defined as the ability to pay complete or undivided attention to someone when they
speak and understand what they are saying. It is important for effective communication because without
understanding what the speaker is saying, it becomes difficult to carry forward a conversation. One
should ensure to use appropriate verbal and non-verbal responses, e.g. eye contact, nodding, or smiling,
to show interest in what the speaker says. Active listening is also about paying attention to the speaker’s
body language and visual cues. Asking and answering questions is one of the best ways to demonstrate
an interest in conversing with the other person.
Active listening is critical for communicating effectively without ambiguity. It helps one understand the
information or instructions being shared. It may also encourage co-workers to share their ideas, which
ultimately helps achieve collaboration.

Body Language
One’s expression, posture, and gestures are as important as verbal communication. One should practice
open body language to encourage positivity and trust while communicating. Open body language includes
- maintaining eye contact, nodding, smiling and being comfortable. On the other hand, one should avoid
closed body language, e.g. crossed arms, shifting eyes and restless behaviour.

Empathy
Empathy is the ability to understand the emotions, ideas and needs of others from their point of view.
Empathy is also known as emotional intelligence. Empathetic people are good at being aware of others’
emotions and compassionate when communicating with them. Being empathetic in the workplace can
be good to boost the morale of employees and improve productivity. By showing empathy, one can gain
the trust and respect of others.
Conflict Resolution
One can use interpersonal communication skills to help resolve disagreements and conflicts in the
workplace. This involves the application of negotiation and persuasion skills to resolve arguments

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between conflicting parties. It is also important to evaluate and understand both sides of the argument
by listening closely to everyone involved and finding an amicable solution acceptable to all.
Good conflict resolution skills can help one contribute to creating a collaborative and positive work
environment. With the ability to resolve conflicts, one can earn the trust and respect of co-workers.

Teamwork
Employees who communicate and work well in a team often have better chances of achieving success
and common goals. Being a team player can help one avoid conflicts and improve productivity. One can
do this by offering to help co-workers when required and asking for their feedback and ideas. When team
members give their opinions or advice, one should positively receive and react to the opinions/advice.
One should be optimistic and encouraging when working in groups.
Improving Interpersonal Skills
One can develop interpersonal skills by practising good communication and setting goals for improvement.
One should consider the following tips to improve their interpersonal skills -
• One should ask for feedback from co-workers, managers, family or friends to figure out what
needs improvement concerning their interpersonal skills.
• One can identify the areas of interpersonal communication to strengthen by watching others.
• One can learn and improve interpersonal skills by observing co-workers, company leaders and
professionals who possess good interpersonal skills. This includes watching and listening to them
to note how they communicate and the body language used by them. It is vital to note their
speed of speaking, tone of voice, and the way they engage with others. One should practice and
apply such traits in their own interactions and relationships.
• One should learn to control their emotions. If stressed or upset, one should wait until being calm
to have a conversation. One is more likely to communicate effectively and confidently when not
under stress.
• One can reflect on their personal and professional conversations to identify the scope of
improvement and learn how to handle conversations better or communicate more clearly. It
helps to consider whether one could have reacted differently in a particular situation or used
specific words or positive body language more effectively. It is also vital to note the successful and
positive interactions to understand why they are successful.
• One should practice interpersonal skills by putting oneself in positions where one can build
relationships and use interpersonal skills. For example, one can join groups that have organized
meetings or social events. These could be industry-specific groups or groups with members who
share an interest or hobby.
• Paying attention to family, friends and co-workers and making efforts to interact with them helps
a lot. One should complement their family, friends and co-workers on their good ideas, hard work
and achievements. Trying to understand someone’s interests and showing interest in knowing
them can help one build strong interpersonal skills. Offering to help someone, especially in
difficult situations, helps build stronger and positive workplace relationships.

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• One should avoid distractions, such as a mobile phone, while interacting with someone. Giving
someone full attention while avoiding distractions helps achieve a clear exchange of ideas. By
listening with focus, one can understand and respond effectively.
• One can attend appropriate courses on interpersonal skills or sign up for workshops at work to
improve interpersonal skills. One can find many resources online also, such as online videos.
• For personal mentoring, one can approach a trusted family member, friend, co-worker, or current/
former employer. A person one looks up to with respect and admires is often a good choice to be
selected as a mentor. One can even hire a professional career or communication coach.
• Interpersonal communication skills often help one boost their morale, be more productive in the
workplace, complete team projects smoothly and build positive and strong relationships with
co-workers.

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=u16EPwFmdis
Effective communication skills

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Unit 5.2: W
 orking Effectively and Maintaining Discipline at
Work

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of following organizational guidelines for dress code, time schedules,
language usage and other behavioural aspect
2. Explain the importance of working as per the workflow of the organization to receive instructions
and report problems
3. Explain the importance of conveying information/instructions as per defined protocols to the
authorised persons/team members
4. Explain the common workplace guidelines and legal requirements on non-disclosure and
confidentiality of business-sensitive information
5. Describe the process of reporting grievances and unethical conduct such as data breaches, sexual
harassment at the workplace, etc.
6. Discuss ways of dealing with heightened emotions of self and others.

5.2.1 Discipline at Work

Discipline is essential for organizational success. It helps improve productivity, reduce conflict and prevent
misconduct in the workplace. It is important to have rules concerning workplace discipline and ensure
that all employees comply with them. In the absence of discipline, a workplace may experience conflicts,
bullying, unethical behaviour and poor employee performance. An efficient workplace disciplinary
process helps create transparency in the organization. Benefits of disciplinary standards:

All employees follow the same rules which helps establish uniformity
and equality in the workplace

Managers and supervisors have defined guidelines on what action to

take while initiating disciplinary action

With well defined and enforced disciplinary rules, an organization

can avoid various safety, security, rupational risks

Fig 5.2.1: Benefits of Disciplinary Standards

Maintaining an organized and cohesive workforce requires maintaining discipline in both personal and
professional behaviors. It is important to follow the appropriate measures to keep employees in line
without affecting their morale.

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Defining Discipline
The first and crucial step in maintaining workplace discipline is to define what is meant by discipline. It
helps to evaluate common discipline problems and devise guidelines for handling them effectively.
Among a number of areas, discipline usually covers -

Personal
use of
Personal company
me use in assets
Harassment the office
Company
processes
Dress code and
procedures
Deadlines
Aendance

Fig 5.2.2: Examples of Workplace Discipline

According to demography and local issues, it may also include substance use and related issues. It is
vital for a workplace to have an employee handbook or company policy guide, to serve as a rulebook for
employees to follow. The employee handbook/ company policy guide should be reviewed and updated
periodically according to any issues or areas, or concerns identified concerning workplace discipline. Such
manuals should also cover all the laws and regulations governing workplace behaviour.
Defining and documenting workplace rules aids in their implementation, ensuring little or no ambiguity.
All employees in a workplace should also have easy access to the workplace guidelines so that they can
refer to them to get clarity whenever required. To maintain discipline at work, it is also critical to ensure
uniform application of workplace guidelines to all employees without exception.

5.2.2 Employee Code of Conduct

The employee code of conduct manual serves as a guide for employees to inform them regarding the
behavior expected from them at work. It helps create a good work environment with consistent behavior
from employees. The manual should list examples of acceptable and not acceptable behaviors at work.
The code of conduct should be discussed with employees so that they have the clarifications required.
For example, an organization may create guidelines concerning the conduct with clients to ensure no
contact is made with them except for business purposes, also prescribing the use of appropriate means
of communication.
Employees should have a clear understanding concerning their job responsibilities and the behaviors
expected from them with all stakeholders, e.g. company personnel, clients and associated third parties.
It is critical to have documented guidelines for employees to follow concerning all aspects of work. It
should also document the disciplinary action to be followed in case of non-compliance, e.g. verbal and
then written warning, temporary suspension or eventual termination of service in case of repeated non-
compliance with the employee code of conduct. Employees should know what the company rules are

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and what will happen if they break the rules. However, disciplinary action should be initiated only when
reasonably required to avoid its misuse for employee harassment.
There should also be an effective mechanism for employees to raise their concerns/ grievances and have
them addressed while maintaining privacy, as required, e.g. raising concerns regarding the behavior of a
co-worker.
The employee code of conduct manual must be duly reviewed and approved by the concerned
stakeholders, such as the Human Resources (HR) department and company executives.

5.2.3 Interpersonal Conflicts

Interpersonal conflict is any type of conflict between two or more people. These are found in both -
personal and professional relationships - among friends, family, and co-workers. In the workplace,
interpersonal conflict is often observed when a person or group of people interfere with another person’s
attempts at completing assignments and achieving goals. It is critical to resolve conflicts in the workplace
to boost the morale of employees, repair working relationships among them, and improve customer
satisfaction.

Reasons for Workplace Conflicts

Workplace conflicts are often observed when two or more people have different points of view. This can
happen between managers, co-workers, or clients and customers. In general, interpersonal conflicts are
caused by a lack of communication or unclear communication.
Some of the leading reasons for workplace conflicts are:
• Difference in values
• Personality clashes
• Poor communication
Example of poor communication: if a manager reassigns a task to another employee without
communicating with the employee to whom it was originally assigned, interpersonal conflict can arise
among them. This may potentially make the first employee, i.e. who was originally assigned the task, feel
slighted and mistrusted by the manager. It may even cause animosity in the first employee toward the
employee who has now been assigned the task.

Types of Interpersonal Conflict

Following are the four types of interpersonal conflicts -
1. Policy-related interpersonal conflict
When a conflict relates to a decision or situation that involves both parties, it can be called a policy-
related interpersonal conflict. Example – two people or groups working on the same project,
trying to adopt different approaches. To resolve policy-related interpersonal conflicts, the parties
involved should try to look for a win-win situation or make a compromise. This is especially critical

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to resolve trivial issues so that work is not affected and common goals are achieved.
2. Pseudo-conflicts
Pseudo-conflict arises when two people or groups want different things and cannot reach an
agreement. Pseudo-conflicts usually involve trivial disagreements that tend to hide the root of
the issue.
3. Ego-related interpersonal conflicts
In ego conflicts, losing the argument may hurt or damage a person’s pride. Sometimes ego
conflicts arise when a number of small conflicts pile up on being left unresolved. To resolve ego-
related conflicts, it’s best to find the root of the issue and work towards a resolution.
4. Value-related interpersonal conflicts
Sometimes conflicts may occur between people when they have different value systems. Such
conflicts can be difficult to identify initially, making the people involved think the other party
is being disagreeable or stubborn, wherein they just have different values. Some co-workers
may highly value their personal/ family time after office that they may be unreachable to clients
during non-office hours, while others may place a high value on client satisfaction and may still be
available for clients during non-office hours. Conflict may arise among such people when they may
be required to coordinate to help a client during after-office hours. Value-related interpersonal
conflicts are often difficult to settle since neither party likes to compromise.

Resolving Interpersonal Conflicts

Conflicts are usually likely in the workplace; they can, however, be prevented. Often resolving interpersonal
conflicts through open communication helps build a stronger relationship, paving the way for effective
coordination and success. Some ways to resolve interpersonal conflict:
• Communication: A great way to resolve interpersonal conflicts is for the opposing parties to listen
to one another’s opinions and understand their viewpoints. Meeting in person and keeping the
conversation goal-oriented is important. One can have effective communication by following
some measures, e.g. staying on the topic, listening actively, being mindful of the body language,
maintaining eye contact, etc.
• Active Listening: One should patiently listen to what the other person is saying without
interrupting or talking over them. It helps one display empathy and get to the root of the issue.
Asking questions to seek clarification when required helps in clear communication and conveys to
the other person that one is listening to them. Practising active listening is a great way to improve
one’s communication skills.
• Displaying Empathy: Listening attentively and identifying the anxieties/ issues of co-workers is a
great way to show empathy and concern. It is essential to understand their feelings and actions
to encourage honesty and avoid future conflict.
• Not Holding Grudges: With different types of people and personalities in a workplace, it is
common for co-workers to have conflicts. It is best to accept the difference in opinions and move
on. Being forgiving and letting go of grudges allows one to focus on the positive side of things and

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perform better at work.

Work-related interpersonal conflicts can be complicated because different people have different
leadership styles, personality characteristics, job responsibilities and ways in which they interact. One
should learn to look above interpersonal conflicts, resolving them to ensure work goals and environment
are not affected.

5.2.4 Importance of Following Organizational Guidelines

Policies and procedures or organizational guidelines are essential for any organization. These provide a
road map for the operations of the organization. These are also critical in ensuring compliance with the
applicable laws and regulations by guiding the decision-making process and business operations.
Organizational guidelines help bring uniformity to the operations of an organization, which helps reduce
the risk of unwanted and unexpected events. These determine how employees are supposed to behave
at work, which ultimately helps the business achieve its objectives efficiently.
However, organizational guidelines are ineffective and fail to serve their purpose if they are not followed.
Many people don’t like the idea of following and abiding by specific guidelines. Such people should be
made to understand the benefits of following the organizational guidelines. Some of the key benefits are
given below:
With well-defined organizational guidelines in place, no individual can act arbitrarily, irrespective of their
position in the organization. All individuals will know the pros and cons of taking certain actions and what
to expect in case of unacceptable behaviour. Benefits of following organizational guidelines:
• Consistent processes and structures: Organization guidelines help maintain consistency in
operations, avoiding any disorder. When all employees follow the organizational guidelines, an
organization can run smoothly. These ensure that people in different job roles operate as they
are supposed to, knowing what they are responsible for, what is expected of them, and what
they can expect from their supervisors and co-workers. With clarity in mind, they can do their
jobs with confidence and excellence. With every person working the way intended, it’s easy to
minimise errors.
• With all the staff following organizational guidelines, the organization has a better scope of using
time and resources more effectively and efficiently. This allows the organization to grow and
achieve its objectives.
• Better quality service: By following organizational guidelines, employees perform their duties
correctly as per the defined job responsibilities. It helps enhance the quality of the organization’s
products and services, helping improve the organization’s reputation. Working with a reputable
organization, employees can take pride in their work and know they are contributing to the
reputation.
• A safer workplace: When all employees follow organizational guidelines, it becomes easy to
minimise workplace incidents and accidents. It reduces the liabilities associated with risks for

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the organization and limits the interruptions in operations. Employees also feel comfortable and
safe in the workplace, knowing their co-workers are ensuring safety at work by following the
applicable guidelines.
Different organizations may have different guidelines on dress code, time schedules, language usage,
etc. For example – certain organizations in a client-dealing business requiring employees to meet clients
personally follow a strict dress code asking their employees to wear formal business attire. Similarly,
organizations operating in specific regions may require their employees to use the dominant regional
language of the particular region to build rapport with customers and serve them better. Certain
organizations, such as banks, often give preference to candidates with knowledge of the regional language
during hiring.
Working hours may also differ from one organization to another, with some requiring employees to work
extra compared to others. One should follow the organizational guidelines concerning all the aspects of
the employment to ensure a cohesive work environment.

5.2.5 Workflow
Workflow is the order of steps from the beginning to the end of a task or work process. In other words, it
is the way a particular type of work is organised or the order of stages in a particular work process.
Workflows can help simplify and automate repeatable business tasks, helping improve efficiency and
minimise the room for errors. With workflows in place, managers can make quick and smart decisions
while employees can collaborate more productively.

Other than the order that workflows create in a business, these have several other benefits, such as -
• Identifying Redundancies: Mapping out work processes in a workflow allows one to get a clear,
top-level view of a business. It allows one to identify and remove redundant or unproductive
processes.
Workflow gives greater insights into business processes. Utilizing such useful insights, one can
improve work processes and the bottom line of the business. In many businesses, there are many
unnecessary and redundant tasks that take place daily. Once an organization has insight into its
processes while preparing workflow, it can determine which activities are really necessary.
Identifying and eliminating redundant tasks creates value for a business. With redundant tasks
and processes eliminated, an organization can focus on what’s important to the business.
• Increase in Accountability and Reduction in Micromanagement: Micromanagement often
causes problems in a business setting as most employees don’t like being micromanaged, and
even many managers don’t like the practice. Micromanagement is often identified as one of the
reasons why people quit their job.
However, the need for micromanagement can be minimized by clearly mapping out the workflow.
This way, every individual in a team knows what tasks need to be completed and by when and

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who is responsible for completing them. This makes employees more accountable also.
With clearly defined workflow processes, managers don’t have to spend much time micromanaging
their employees, who don’t have to approach the manager to know what the further steps are.
Following a workflow, employees know what is going on and what needs to be done. This, in turn,
may help increase the job satisfaction of everyone involved while improving the relationships
between management and employees.
• Improved Communication: Communication at work is critical because it affects all aspects of
an organization. There are instances when the main conflict in an organization originates from
miscommunication, e.g. the management and employees disagreeing on an aspect, despite
pursuing the same objectives. Poor communication is a common workplace issue that is often
not dealt with.
This highlights why workflow is important. Workplace communication dramatically can
increase with the visibility of processes and accountability. It helps make the daily operations
smoother overall.
• Better Customer Service: Customers or clients are central to a business. Therefore, it is imperative
to find and improve ways to improve customer experience. Relying on outdated manual systems
may cause customer requests or complaints to be overlooked, with dissatisfied customers taking
their business elsewhere. However, following a well-researched and defined workflow can help
improve the quality of customer service.
By automating workflows and processes, an organization can also reduce the likelihood of human
error. This also helps improve the quality of products or services over time, resulting in a better
customer experience.S

5.2.6 Following Instructions and Reporting Problems

All organizations follow a hierarchy, with most employees reporting to a manager or supervisor. For
organizational success, it is vital for employees to follow the instructions of their manager or supervisor.
They should ensure they perform their duties as per the given instructions to help achieve the common
objectives of the organization and deliver quality service or products. This consequently helps maintain
the reputation of the organization.
It is also important to be vigilant and identify problems at work or with the organizational work processes.
One should deal with the identified within their limits of authority and report out of authority problems
to the manager/ supervisor or the concerned person for a prompt resolution to minimise the impact on
customers/clients and business.

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5.2.7 Information or Data Sharing

Information or data is critical to all organizations. Depending on the nature of its business, an organization
may hold different types of data, e.g. personal data of customers or client data concerning their business
operations and contacts. It is vital to effective measures for the appropriate handling of different types of
data, ensuring its protection from unauthorized access and consequent misuse.
One should access certain data only if authorised to do so. The same is applicable when sharing data
which must be shared only with the people authorised to receive it to use it for a specific purpose as per
their job role and organizational guidelines. For example – one should be extra cautious while sharing
business data with any third parties to ensure they get access only to the limited data they need as per
any agreements with them. It is also critical to monitor how the recipient of the data uses it, which should
strictly be as per the organizational guidelines. It is a best practice to share appropriate instructions with
the recipient of data to ensure they are aware of the purpose with which data is being shared with them
and how they are supposed to use and handle it. Any misuse of data must be identified and reported
promptly to the appropriate person to minimise any damage arising out of data misuse.
These days most organizations require their employees and business partners or associated third parties
to sign and accept the relevant agreement on the non-disclosure of business-sensitive information.
In simple terms, business-sensitive information is confidential information. It is proprietary business
information collected or created during the course of conducting business, including information about
the business, e.g. proposed investments, intellectual property, trade secrets, or plans for a merger and
information related to its clients. Business-sensitive information may sometimes also include information
regarding a business’s competitors in an industry.
The release of business-sensitive information to competitors or the general public poses a risk to a
business. For example, information regarding plans for a merger could be harmful to a business if a
competitor gets access to it.

5.2.8 Reporting Issues at Work

Most organizations have defined guidelines on appropriate reporting processes to be followed for
reporting different types of issues. For example – one can report any grievances or dissatisfaction
concerning co-workers to their manager/supervisor, e.g. data breaches or unethical conduct. If the
concern is not addressed, then the employee should follow the organizational guidelines and hierarchy
for the escalation of such issues that are not addressed appropriately.
For example: any concern related to sexual harassment at the workplace should be escalated to the
concerned spokesperson, such as Human Resources (HR) representative, and if not satisfied with the

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5.2.8 Reporting Issues at Work

Most organizations have defined guidelines on appropriate reporting processes to be followed for
reporting different types of issues. For example – one can report any grievances or dissatisfaction
concerning co-workers to their manager/supervisor, e.g. data breaches or unethical conduct. If the
concern is not addressed, then the employee should follow the organizational guidelines and hierarchy
for the escalation of such issues that are not addressed appropriately.
For example: any concern related to sexual harassment at the workplace should be escalated to the
concerned spokesperson, such as Human Resources (HR) representative, and if not satisfied with the the
senior management for their consideration and prompt action.

5.2.9 Dealing with Heightened Emotions

Humans are emotional beings. There may be occasions when one is overwhelmed by emotions and is
unable to suppress them. However, there may be situations when one must manage emotions well,
particularly at work.
Stress in one’s personal and professional life may often cause emotional outbursts at work. Managing one’s
emotions well, particularly the negative ones, is often seen as a measure of one’s professionalism. Anger,
dislike, frustration, worry, and unhappiness are the most common negative emotions experienced at work.
Ways to manage negative emotions at work:
• Compartmentalisation: It’s about not confining emotions to different aspects of one’s life. For
example, not letting negative emotions from personal life affect work-life and vice versa. One
should try to leave personal matters and issues at home. One should train their mind to let go
of personal matters before reaching work. Similarly, one can compartmentalise work-related
stresses so that negative emotions from work don’t affect one’s personal life.
• Deep breathing and relaxation: Deep breathing helps with anxiety, worry, frustration and anger.
One should take deep breaths, slowly count to ten - inhaling and exhaling until one calms down.
One can also take a walk to calm down or listen to relaxing music. Talking to someone and sharing
concerns also helps one calm down.
• The 10-second rule: This is particularly helpful in controlling anger and frustration. When one
feels their temper rising, they should count to 10 to calm down and recompose. If possible, one
should move away to allow temper to come down.
• Clarify: It is always good to clarify before reacting, as it may be a simple case of misunderstanding
or miscommunication.
• Physical activity: Instead of losing temper, one should plan to exercise, such as running or going
to the gym, to let the anger out. Exercise is also a great way to enhance mood and release any
physical tension in the body.
• Practising restraint: One should avoid replying or making a decision when angry, not allowing
anger or unhappiness to cloud one’s judgement. It may be best to pause any communication
while one is angry, e.g. not communicating over email when angry or upset.

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• Knowing one’s triggers: It helps when one is able to recognise what upsets or angers them. This
way, one can prepare to remain calm and plan their reaction should a situation occur. One may
even be able to anticipate the other party’s reaction.
• Be respectful: One should treat their colleagues the same way one would like to be treated. If the
other person is rude, one need not reciprocate. It is possible to stay gracious, firm and assertive
without being aggressive. Sometimes, rude people back away when they don’t get a reaction
from the person they are arguing with.
• Apologise for any emotional outburst: Sometimes, one can get overwhelmed by emotions,
reacting with an emotional outburst. In such a case, one should accept responsibility and
apologise immediately to the affected persons without being defensive.
• Doing away with negative emotions: It is recommended to let go of anger, frustration and
unhappiness at the end of every workday. Harbouring negative emotions affects one emotionally,
affecting their job performance also. Engaging in enjoyable activities after work is a good
stress reliever.

Notes

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Unit 5.3 : Maintaining Social Diversity at Work

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Explain the concept and importance of gender sensitivity and equality
2. Discuss ways to create sensitivity for different genders and Persons with Disabilities (PwD)

5.3.1 Gender Sensitivity

Gender sensitivity is the act of being sensitive towards people and their thoughts regarding gender. It
ensures that people know the accurate meaning of gender equality, and one’s gender should not be given
priority over their capabilities.

Fig 5.3.1. Gender Equality

Women are an important source of labour in many sectors, yet they have limited access to resources
and benefits. Women should receive the same benefits and access to resources as men. A business can
improve its productivity and quality of work by providing better support and opportunities to women.

Important Terms
• Gender Sensitivity-Gender sensitivity is the act of being sensitive to the ways people think
about gender.
• Gender Equality: It means persons of any gender enjoy equal opportunities, responsibilities, and
rights in all areas of life.
• Gender Discrimination: It means treating an individual unequally or disadvantageously based on
their gender, e.g. paying different wages to men and women for similar or equal job positions.

Strategies for Enhancing Gender Equity

To enhance gender equity, one should -
• Follow gender-neutral practices at all levels at work.

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• Participate together in decision-making.

• Help in promoting women’s participation in different forums.
• Assist women in getting exposure to relevant skills and practices.
• Assist women in capacity building by mentoring, coaching or motivating them, as appropriate.
• Assist in the formation and operation of women support groups.
• Assist in the implementation of women-centric programmes.
• Combine technical training with reproductive health and nutrition for coffee farming households.
• Assist in making a work environment that is healthy, safe, and free from discrimination.

Bridging Gender Differences

Men and women react and communicate very differently. Thus, there are some work differences as both
genders have their style and method of handling a situation.
Although, understanding and maturity vary from person to person, even between these genders, based
on their knowledge, education, experience, culture, age, and upbringing, as well as how one’s brain
functions over a thought or problem.
In order to bridge the gap, one should:
• Not categorize all men and women in one way.
• Be aware of the verbal and non-verbal styles of communication of every gender to avoid any
miscommunication and work better.
• Be aware of partial behaviour and avoid it.
• Encourage co-workers of different genders to make room by providing space to others.

Ways to reduce Gender Discrimination

• Effective steps against sexual harassment by the concerned authorities and general public.
• Gender stereotypes are how society expects people to act based on their gender. This can only be
reduced by adopting appropriate behaviour and the right attitude.
• Objectification of females must be abolished.
• Ways to Promote Gender Sensitivity in the Workplace
• Practices that promote gender diversity should be adopted and promoted.
• All genders should receive equal responsibilities, rights, and privileges.
• All genders should have equal pay for similar or the same job roles/ positions.
• Strict and effective workplace harassment policies should be developed and implemented.
• An open-minded and stress-free work environment should be available to all the employees,
irrespective of their gender.
• Women should be encouraged to go ahead in every field of work and assume leadership roles.
• Follow appropriate measures for women’s empowerment.
• Men should be taught to be sensitive to women and mindful of their rights.

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5.3.2 PwD Sensitivity

Some individuals are born with a disability, while others may become disabled due to an accident, illness
or as they get old. People with Disabilities (PwD) may have one or more areas in which their functioning
is affected. A disability can affect hearing, sight, communication, breathing, understanding, mobility,
balance, and concentration or may include the loss of a limb. A disability may contribute to how a person
feels and affect their mental health.
Important Terms
• Persons with Disabilities (PwD): Persons with Disabilities means a person suffering from not less
than 40% of any disability as certified by a medical authority.
• Types of Disability:
i. Blindness: Visually impaired
ii. Low Vision
iii. Leprosy Cured
iv. Hearing impairment
v. Locomotor disability
vi. Mental retardation
vii. Mental illness

PwD Sensitivity
PwD sensitivity promotes empathy, etiquette and equal participation of individuals and organizations
while working with individuals with a disability, e.g. sensory, physical or intellectual.

Ways to be PwD Sensitive

To be sensitive to PwD, one should -
• Be respectful to all Persons with Disabilities (PwD) and communicate in a way that reflects PwD
sensitivity.
• Always be supportive and kind towards a PwD with their daily chores.
• Be ready to assist a PwD to help them avail of any benefit/ livelihood opportunity/ training or any
kind that helps them grow.
• Encourage and try to make things easier and accessible to PwD so that they can work without or
with minimum help.
• Protest where feasible and report any wrong act/behaviour against any PwD to the appropriate
authority.
• Learn and follow the laws, acts, and policies relevant to PwD.

Appropriate Verbal Communication

As part of appropriate verbal communication with all genders and PwD, one should -
• Talk to all genders and PwD respectfully, maintaining a normal tone of voice with appropriate
politeness. It is important to ensure one’s tone of voice does not have hints of sarcasm, anger, or
unwelcome affection.

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• Avoid being too self-conscious concerning the words to use while also ensuring not to use words
that imply one’s superiority over the other.
• Make no difference between a PwD and their caretaker. Treat PwD like adults and talk to
them directly.
• Ask a PwD if they need any assistance instead of assuming they need it and offering assistance
spontaneously.

Appropriate Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication is essentially the way someone communicates through their body language.
These include -
• Facial expressions: The human face is quite expressive, capable of conveying many emotions
without using words. Facial expressions must usually be maintained neutral and should change
according to the situation, e.g. smile as a gesture of greeting.
• Body posture and movement: One should be mindful of how to sit, stand, walk, or hold their
head. For example - one should sit and walk straight in a composed manner. The way one moves
and carries self, communicates a lot to others. This type of non-verbal communication includes
one’s posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements.
• Gestures: One should be very careful with their gestures, e.g. waving, pointing, beckoning, or
using one’s hands while speaking. One should use appropriate and positive gestures to maintain
respect for the other person while being aware that a gesture may have different meanings in
different cultures.
• Eye contact: Eye contact is particularly significant in non-verbal communication. The way someone
looks at someone else may communicate many things, such as interest, hostility, affection or
attraction. Eye contact is vital for maintaining the flow of conversation and for understanding the
other person’s interest and response. One should maintain appropriate eye contact, ensuring
not to stare or look over the shoulders. To maintain respect, one should sit or stand at the other
person’s eye level to make eye contact.
• Touch: Touch is a very sensitive type of non-verbal communication. Examples are - handshakes,
hugs, pat on the back or head, gripping the arm, etc. A firm handshake indicates interest, while
a weak handshake indicates the opposite. One should be extra cautious not to touch others
inappropriately and avoid touching them inadvertently by maintaining a safe distance.

Rights of PwD
PwD have the right to respect and human dignity. Irrespective of the nature and seriousness of their
disabilities, PwD have the same fundamental rights as others, such as -
• Disabled persons have the same civil and political rights as other people
• Disabled persons are entitled to the measures designed to enable them to become as self-
dependent as possible
• Disabled persons have the right to economic and social security
• Disabled persons have the right to live with their families or foster parents and participate in all

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social and creative activities.

• Disabled persons are protected against all exploitation and treatment of discriminatory and
abusive nature.

Making Workplace PwD Friendly

• One should not make PwD feel uncomfortable by giving too little or too much attention
• One should use a normal tone while communicating with a PwD and treat them as all others
keeping in mind their limitations and type of disability
• Any help should be provided only when asked for by a PwD
• One should help in ensuring the health and well-being of PwD.

Expected Employer Behaviour

Some of the common behavioural traits that employees expect from their employers are -
• Cooperation: No work is successful without cooperation from the employer’s side. Cooperation
helps to understand the job role better and complete it within the given timeline.
• Polite language: Polite language is always welcomed at work. This is a basic aspect that
everybody expects.
• Positive Attitude: Employers with a positive attitude can supervise the work of the employees
and act as a helping hand to accomplish the given task. A person with a positive attitude looks at
the best qualities in others and helps them gain success.
• Unbiased behaviour: Employers should always remain fair towards all their employees. One
should not adopt practices to favour one employee while neglecting or ignoring the other. This
might create animosity among co-workers.
• Decent behaviour: The employer should never improperly present oneself before the employee.
One should always respect each other’s presence and behave accordingly. The employer should
not speak or act in a manner that may make the employee feel uneasy, insulted, and insecure.

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Notes

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6. Basic Health and
Safety Practices

Unit 6.1 - Workplace Hazards

Unit 6.2 – Fire Safety
Unit 6.3 – First Aid
Unit 6.4 – Waste Management

ELE/N1002
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Key Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
1. Discuss job-site hazards, risks and accidents
2. Explain the organizational safety procedures for maintaining electrical safety, handling tools and
hazardous materials
3. Describe how to interpret warning signs while accessing sensitive work areas
4. Explain the importance of good housekeeping
5. Describe the importance of maintaining appropriate postures while lifting heavy objects
6. List the types of fire and fire extinguishers
7. Describe the concept of waste management and methods of disposing of hazardous waste
8. List the common sources of pollution and ways to minimize them
9. Elaborate on electronic waste disposal procedures
10. Explain how the administer appropriate first aid to victims in case of bleeding, burns, choking,
electric shock, poisoning and also administer first aid to victims in case of a heart attack or cardiac
arrest due to electric shock

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Unit 6.1: Workplace Hazards

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Discuss job-site hazards, risks and accidents
2. Explain the organizational safety procedures for maintaining electrical safety, handling tools and
hazardous materials
3. Describe how to interpret warning signs while accessing sensitive work areas
4. Explain the importance of good housekeeping
5. Describe the importance of maintaining appropriate postures while lifting heavy objects
6. Explain safe handling of tools and Personal Protective Equipment to be used.

6.1.1. Workplace Safety

Workplace safety is important to be established for creating a safe and secure working for the workers. The
workplace has to be administered as per the rules of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA). It refers to monitoring the working environment and all hazardous factors that impact employees’
safety, health, and well-being. It is important to provide a safe working environment to the employees to
increase their productivity, wellness, skills, etc.
The benefits of workplace safety are:
• Employee retention increases if they are provided with a safe working environment.
• Failure to follow OSHA’s laws and guidelines can result in significant legal and financial
consequences.
• A safe environment enables employees to stay invested in their work and increases productivity.
• Employer branding and company reputation can both benefit from a safe working environment.

6.1.2. Workplace Hazards

A workplace is a situation that has the potential to cause harm or injury to the workers and damage the
tools or property of the workplace. Hazards exist in every workplace and can come from a variety of
sources. Finding and removing them is an important component of making a safe workplace.
Common Workplace Hazards
The common workplace hazards are:
• Biological: The threats caused by biological agents like viruses, bacteria, animals, plants, insects
and also humans, are known as biological hazards.

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• Chemical: Chemical hazard is the hazard of inhaling various chemicals, liquids and solvents. Skin
irritation, respiratory system irritation, blindness, corrosion, and explosions are all possible health
and physical consequences of these dangers.
• Mechanical: Mechanical Hazards comprise the injuries that can be caused by the moving parts of
machinery, plant or equipment.
• Psychological: Psychological hazards are occupational hazards caused by stress, harassment,
and violence.
• Physical: The threats that can cause physical damage to people is called physical hazard. These
include unsafe conditions that can cause injury, illness and death.
• Ergonomic: Ergonomic Hazards are the hazards of the workplace caused due to awkward posture,
forceful motion, stationary position, direct pressure, vibration, extreme temperature, noise, work
stress, etc.

Workplace Hazards Analysis

A workplace hazard analysis is a method of identifying risks before they occur by focusing on occupational
tasks. It focuses on the worker’s relationship with the task, the tools, and the work environment. After
identifying the hazards of the workplace, organisations shall try to eliminate or minimize them to an
acceptable level of risk.

Control Measures of Workplace Hazards

Control measures are actions that can be taken to reduce the risk of being exposed to the hazard.
Elimination, Substitution, Engineering Controls, Administrative Controls, and Personal Protective
Equipment are the five general categories of control measures.
• Elimination: The most successful control technique is to eliminate a specific hazard or hazardous
work procedure or prevent it from entering the workplace.
• Substitution: Substitution is the process of replacing something harmful with something less
hazardous. While substituting the hazard may not eliminate all of the risks associated with the
process or activity, it will reduce the overall harm or health impacts.
• Engineering Controls: Engineered controls protect workers by eliminating hazardous situations or
creating a barrier between the worker and the hazard, or removing the hazard from the person.
• Administrative Controls: To reduce exposure to hazards, administrative controls limit the length
of time spent working on a hazardous task that might be used in combination with other measures
of control.
• Personal Protective Equipment: Personal protective equipment protects users from health and
safety hazards at work. It includes items like safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, etc.

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6.1.3. Risk for a Drone Technician

A drone technician may require to repair the propeller, motor and its mount, battery, mainboards,
processor, booms, avionics, camera, sensors, chassis, wiring and landing gear. A technician may face
some risks while repairing the drones’ equipment.
• The technician is susceptible to being physically harmed by propellers.
• Direct contact with exposed electrical circuits can injure the person.
• If the skin gets in touch with the heat generated from electric arcs, it burns the internal tissues.
• Major electrical injuries can occur due to poorly installed electrical equipment, faulty wiring,
overloaded or overheated outlets, use of extension cables, incorrect use of replacement fuses,
use of equipment with wet hands, etc.

6.1.4. Workplace Warning Signs

A Hazard sign is defined as ‘information or instruction about health and safety at work on a signboard, an
illuminated sign or sound signal, a verbal communication or hand signal.’
There are four different types of safety signs:
• Prohibition / Danger Alarm Signs
• Mandatory Signs
• Warning Signs
• And Emergency
1. Prohibition Signs: A “prohibition sign” is a safety sign that prohibits behaviour that is likely to
endanger one’s health or safety. The colour red is necessary for these health and safety signs.
Only what or who is forbidden should be displayed on a restriction sign.

Fig 6.1.1: Prohibition Warning Signs

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2. Mandatory Signs: Mandatory signs give clear directions that must be followed. The icons are
white circles that have been reversed out of a blue circle. On a white background, the text is black.

Fig 6.1.2: Mandatory Signs

3. Warning Signs: Warning signs are the safety information communication signs. They are shown
as a ‘yellow colour triangle’.

Fig 6.1.3: Mandatory Signs

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4. Emergency Signs: The location or routes to emergency facilities are indicated by emergency signs.
These signs have a green backdrop with a white emblem or writing. These signs convey basic
information and frequently refer to housekeeping, company procedures, or logistics.

Fig 6.1.4: Emergency Signs

6.1.5. Cleanliness in the Workplace

Workplace cleanliness maintenance creates a healthy, efficient and productive environment for the
employees. Cleanliness at the workplace is hindered by some elements like cluttered desks, leftover
food, waste paper, etc. A tidy workplace is said to improve employee professionalism and enthusiasm
while also encouraging a healthy working environment.
Benefits of cleanliness in the workplace:
1. Productivity: Cleanliness in the workplace can bring a sense of belonging to the employees, also
motivating and boosting the morale of the employees. This results in increasing their productivity.
2. Employee Well-being: Employee well-being can be improved by providing a clean work
environment. Employees use fewer sick days in a workplace where litter and waste are properly
disposed of, and surfaces are cleaned regularly, resulting in increased overall productivity.
3. Positive Impression: Cleanliness and orderliness in the workplace provide a positive impression
on both employees and visitors.
4. Cost saving: By maintaining acceptable levels of cleanliness in the workplace, businesses can save
money on cleaning bills and renovations, which may become necessary if the premises are not
properly kept.

Reasons for cleaning the workplace

• Cleaning of dry floors, mostly to prevent workplace slips and falls.

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• Disinfectants stop bacteria in their tracks, preventing the spread of infections and illness.
• Proper air filtration decreases hazardous substance exposures such as dust and fumes.
• Light fixture cleaning improves lighting efficiency.
• Using environmentally friendly cleaning chemicals that are safer for both personnel and the
environment.
• Work environments are kept clean by properly disposing of garbage and recyclable items.

6.1.6. Lifting and Handling of Heavy Loads

Musculoskeletal Injuries (MSIs), such as sprains and strains, can occur while lifting, handling, or carrying
objects at work. When bending, twisting, uncomfortable postures and lifting heavy objects are involved,
the risk of injury increases. Ergonomic controls can help to lower the risk of injury and potentially
prevent it.
Types of injuries caused while lifting heavy objects:
• Cuts and abrasions are caused by rough surfaces.
• Crushing of feet or hands.
• Strain to muscles and joints

Fig 6.1.5: Lifting loads technique

Preparing to lift
A load that appears light enough to bear at first will grow increasingly heavier as one carries it further.
The person carrying the weight should be able to see over or around it at all times.
The amount of weight a person can lift, depends on their age, physique, and health.
It also depends on whether or not the person is used to lifting and moving hefty objects.

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Common causes of back injuries

The most common causes of back injuries are -
1. Inadequate training: The individual raising the load receives no sufficient training or guidance.
2. Lack of awareness of technique: The most common cause of back pain is incorrect twisting and
posture, which causes back strain.
3. Load size: The load size to consider before lifting. If the burden is too much for one’s capacity or
handling, their back may be strained and damaged.
4. Physical strength: Depending on their muscle power, various persons have varied physical
strengths. One must be aware of their limitations.
5. Teamwork: The operation of a workplace is all about working together. When opposed to a
single person lifting a load, two people can lift it more easily and without difficulty. If one of two
people isn’t lifting it properly, the other or both of them will suffer back injuries as a result of the
extra strain.

Techniques for lifting heavy objects

Technique Demonstration

1. Ensure one has a wide base of support before lifting the

heavy object. Ensure one’s feet are shoulder-width apart, and
one foot is slightly ahead of the other at all times. This will
help one maintain a good balance during the lifting of heavy
objects. This is known as the Karate Stance.

2. Squat down as near to the object as possible when one is

ready to lift it, bending at the hips and knees with the buttocks
out. If the object is really heavy, one may wish to place one
leg on the floor and the other bent at a straight angle in
front of them.

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3. Maintain proper posture as one begin to lift upward. To do so,

one should keep their back straight, chest out, and shoulders
back while gazing straight ahead.

4. By straightening one’s hips and knees, slowly elevate the thing

(not the back). As one rises, they should extend their legs and
exhale. Lift the heavy object without twisting the body or
bending forward.

5. Do not lift bending forward.

6. Hold the load close to the body.

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7. Never lift heavy objects above the shoulder

8. Use the feet (not the body) to change direction, taking slow,
small steps.

9. Set down the heavy object carefully, squatting with the knees
and hips only.

Table 6.1.1. Techniques for lifting heavy objects

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6.1.7. Safe Handling of Tools

Workers should be trained on how to use tools safely. When tools are misplaced or handled incorrectly
by workers, they can be dangerous. The following are some suggestions from the National Safety Council
for safe tool handling when they are not in use -
• Never carry tools up or down a ladder in a way that makes it difficult to grip them. Instead of
being carried by the worker, tools should be lifted up and down using a bucket or strong bag.
• Tools should never be tossed but should be properly passed from one employee to the next.
Pointed tools should be passed with the handles facing the receiver or in their carrier.
• When turning and moving around the workplace, workers carrying large tools or equipment on
their shoulders should pay particular attention to clearances.
• Pointed tools such as chisels and screwdrivers should never be kept in a worker’s pocket. They
can be carried in a toolbox, pointing down in a tool belt or pocket tool bag, or in hand with the tip
always held away from the body.
• Tools should always be stored while not in use. People below are put in danger when tools are
left sitting around on an elevated structure, such as a scaffold. In situations when there is a lot of
vibration, this risk increases.

6.1.8. Personal Protective Equipment

Personal protective equipment, or “PPE,” is equipment worn to reduce exposure to risks that might result
in significant occupational injuries or illnesses. Chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical,
and other job dangers may cause these injuries and diseases.

PPE used for protection from the following injuries are:

Injury Protection Protection PPE

Head Injury Protection Falling or flying objects,

stationary objects, or contact
with electrical wires can cause
impact, penetration, and
electrical injuries. Hard hats
can protect one’s head from
these injuries. A common
electrician’s hard hat is shown
in the figure below. This hard
hat is made of non conductive
plastic and comes with a set of
safety goggles.

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Injury Protection Protection PPE

Foot and Leg Injury Protection In addition to foot protection

and safety shoes, leggings
(e.g., leather) can guard
against risks such as falling or
rolling objects, sharp objects,
wet and slippery surfaces,
molten metals, hot surfaces,
and electrical hazards.

Eye and Face Injury Protection Spectacles, goggles, special

helmets or shields, and
spectacles with side shields
and face shields can protect
against the hazards of flying
fragments, large chips, hot
sparks, radiation, and splashes
from molten metals. They
also offer protection from
particles, sand, dirt, mists,
dust, and glare.

Protection against Hearing protection can be

Hearing Loss obtained by wearing earplugs
or earmuffs. High noise levels
can result in permanent
hearing loss or damage, as
well as physical and mental
stress. Self-forming earplugs
composed of foam, waxed
cotton, or fibreglass wool
usually fit well. Workers
should be fitted for moulded
or prefabricated earplugs by a
specialist.

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Injury Protection Protection PPE

Hand Injury Protection Hand protection will aid

workers who are exposed to
dangerous substances by skin
absorption, serious wounds,
or thermal burns. Gloves are
a frequent protective clothing
item. When working on
electrified circuits, electricians
frequently use leather gloves
with rubber inserts. When
stripping cable with a sharp
blade, Kevlar gloves are used
to prevent cuts.

Whole Body Protection Workers must protect their

entire bodies from risks such
as heat and radiation. Rubber,
leather, synthetics, and plastic
are among the materials used
in whole-body PPE, in addition
to fire-retardant wool and
cotton. Maintenance staff
who operate with high-power
sources such as transformer
installations and motor-control
centres are frequently obliged
to wear fire-resistant clothes.
Table 6.1.2. Personal protective equipment

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Unit 6.2: Fire Safety

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. List the types of fire and fire extinguishers

6.2.1. Fire Safety

Fire safety is a set of actions aimed at reducing the amount of damage caused by fire. Fire safety
procedures include both those that are used to prevent an uncontrolled fire from starting and those that
are used to minimise the spread and impact of a fire after it has started. Developing and implementing
fire safety measures in the workplace is not only mandated by law but is also essential for the protection
of everyone who may be present in the building during a fire emergency.
The basic Fire Safety Responsibilities are:
• To identify risks on the premises, a fire risk assessment must be carried out.
• Ascertain that fire safety measures are properly installed.
• Prepare for unexpected events.
• Fire safety instructions and training should be provided to the employees.

6.2.2. Respond to a Workplace Fire

• Workplace fire drills should be conducted on a regular basis.
• If one has a manual alarm, they should raise it.
• Close the doors and leave the fire-stricken area as soon as possible. Ensure that the evacuation
is quick and painless.
• Turn off dangerous machines and don’t stop to get personal items.
• Assemble at a central location. Ascertain that the assembly point is easily accessible to the
employees.
• If one’s clothing catches fire, one shouldn’t rush about it. They should stop and descend on the
ground and roll to smother the flames if their clothes catch fire.

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6.2.3. Fire Extinguisher

Fire extinguishers are portable devices used to put out small flames or minimise their damage until fire-
fighters arrive. These are maintained on hand in locations such as fire stations, buildings, workplaces,
public transit, and so on. The types and quantity of extinguishers that are legally necessary for a given
region are determined by the applicable safety standards.
Types of fire extinguishers are:
There are five main types of fire extinguishers -

1. Water: Water fire extinguishers are one of the most common

commercial and residential fire extinguishers on the market.
They’re meant to be used on class-A flames.

2. Powder: The L2 powder fire extinguisher is the most commonly

recommended fire extinguisher in the Class D Specialist Powder
category, and is designed to put out burning lithium metal fires.

3. Foam: Foam extinguishers are identified by a cream rectangle

with the word “foam” printed on it. They’re mostly water-based,
but they also contain a foaming component that provides a quick
knock-down and blanketing effect on flames. It suffocates the
flames and seals the vapours, preventing re-ignition.

4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Class B and electrical fires are extinguished

with carbon dioxide extinguishers, which suffocate the flames by
removing oxygen from the air. They are particularly beneficial for
workplaces and workshops where electrical fires may occur since,
unlike conventional extinguishers, they do not leave any toxins
behind and hence minimise equipment damage.

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5. Wet Chemical: Wet chemical extinguishers are designed to put

out fires that are classified as class F. They are successful because
they can put out extremely high-temperature fires, such as those
caused by cooking oils and fats.

Table 6.2.1 Fire Extinguishers

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=DaYwcH1GMEg
Workplace emergency procedures

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Unit 6.3: First Aid

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Explain how the administer appropriate first aid to victims in case of bleeding, burns, choking,
electric shock, poisoning
2. Explain how to administer first aid to victims in case of a heart attack or cardiac arrest due to
electric shock.

6.3.1. First Aid

First aid is the treatment or care given to someone who has sustained an injury or disease until more
advanced care can be obtained or the person recovers.
The aim of first aid is to:
• Preserve life
• Prevent the worsening of a sickness or injury
• If at all possible, relieve pain
• Encourage recovery
• Keep the unconscious safe.
First aid can help to lessen the severity of an injury or disease, and in some situations, it can even save a
person’s life.

6.3.2. Need for First Aid at the Workplace

In the workplace, first aid refers to providing immediate care and life support to persons who have been
injured or become unwell at work.
Many times, first aid can help to lessen the severity of an accident or disease.
It can also help an injured or sick person relax. In life-or-death situations, prompt and appropriate first
aid can make all the difference.

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6.3.3. Treating Minor Cuts and Scrapes

Steps to keep cuts clean and prevent infections and scars:
• Wash Hands: Wash hands first with soap and water to avoid introducing bacteria into the cut and
causing an infection. One should use the hand sanitiser if one is on the go.
• Stop the bleeding: Using a gauze pad or a clean towel, apply pressure to the wound. For a few
minutes, keep the pressure on.
• Clean Wounds: Once the bleeding has stopped, clean the wound by rinsing it under cool running
water or using a saline wound wash. Use soap and a moist washcloth to clean the area around
the wound. Soap should not be used on the cut since it may irritate the skin. Also, avoid using
hydrogen peroxide or iodine, as these may aggravate the wound.
• Remove Dirt: Remove any dirt or debris from the area. Pick out any dirt, gravel, glass, or other
material in the cut with a pair of tweezers cleaned with alcohol.

6.3.4. Heart Attack

When the blood flow carrying oxygen to the hea rt is blocked, a heart attack occurs. The heart muscle
runs out of oxygen and starts to die.
Symptoms of a heart attack can vary from person to person. They may be mild or severe. Women, older
adults, and people with diabetes are more likely to have subtle or unusual symptoms.
Symptoms in adults may include:
• Changes in mental status, especially in older adults.
• Chest pain that feels like pressure, squeezing, or fullness. The pain is most often in the centre of
the chest. It may also be felt in the jaw, shoulder, arms, back, and stomach. It can last for more
than a few minutes or come and go.
• Cold sweat.
• Light-headedness.
• Nausea (more common in women).
• Indigestion.
• Vomiting.
• Numbness, aching or tingling in the arm (usually the left arm, but the right arm may be affected
alone, or along with the left).
• Shortness of breath.
• Weakness or fatigue, especially in older adults and in women.

First Aid for Heart Attack If one thinks someone is experiencing a heart attack, they should:
• Have the person sit down, rest, and try to keep calm.
• Loosen any tight clothing.

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• Ask if the person takes any chest pain medicine, such as nitro-glycerine for a known heart
condition, and help them take it.
• If the pain does not go away promptly with rest or within 3 minutes of taking nitro-glycerine, call
for emergency medical help.
• If the person is unconscious and unresponsive, call 911 or the local emergency number, then
begin CPR.
• If an infant or child is unconscious and unresponsive, perform 1 minute of CPR, then call 911 or
the local emergency number.

Scan the QR code or click on the link to watch related videos

www.youtube.com/watch?v=BumbKHqXJo0
First-aid practices

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Unit 6.4: Waste Management

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
1. Describe the concept of waste management and methods of disposing of hazardous waste.
2. List the common sources of pollution and ways to minimize them.
3. Elaborate on electronic waste disposal procedures.

6.4.1. Waste Management and Methods of Waste Disposal.

The collection, disposal, monitoring, and processing of waste materials is known as waste management.
These wastes affect living beings’ health and the environment. For reducing their effects, they have to be
managed properly. The waste is usually in solid, liquid or gaseous form.
The importance of waste management is:
Waste management is important because it decreases waste’s impact on the environment, health, and
other factors. It can also assist in the reuse or recycling of resources like paper, cans, and glass. The
disposal of solid, liquid, gaseous, or dangerous substances is the example of waste management.
When it comes to trash management, there are numerous factors to consider, including waste disposal,
recycling, waste avoidance and reduction, and garbage transportation. Treatment of solid and liquid
wastes is part of the waste management process. It also provides a number of recycling options for goods
that aren’t classified as garbage during the process.

6.4.2. Methods of Waste Management

Non-biodegradable and toxic wastes, such as radioactive remains, can cause irreversible damage to the
environment and human health if they are not properly disposed of. Waste disposal has long been a
source of worry, with population increase and industrialisation being the primary causes. Here are a few
garbage disposal options.
1. Landfills: The most common way of trash disposal today is to throw daily waste/garbage into
landfills. This garbage disposal method relies on burying the material in the ground.
2. Recycling: Recycling is the process of transforming waste items into new products in order to
reduce energy consumption and the use of fresh raw materials. Recycling reduces energy
consumption, landfill volume, air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and the
preservation of natural resources for future use.
3. Composting: Composting is a simple and natural bio-degradation process that converts organic

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wastes, such as plant remnants, garden garbage, and kitchen waste, into nutrient-rich food
for plants.
4. Incineration: Incineration is the process of combusting garbage. The waste material is cooked to
extremely high temperatures and turned into materials such as heat, gas, steam, and ash using
this technology.

6.4.3. Recyclable, Non-Recyclable and Hazardous Waste

1. Recyclable Waste: The waste which can be reused or recycled further is known as recyclable waste.
2. Non-recyclable Waste: The waste which cannot be reused or recycled is known as non-recyclable
waste. Polythene bags are a great example of non-recyclable waste.
3. Hazardous Waste: The waste which can create serious harm to the people and the environment
is known as hazardous waste.

6.4.4. Sources of Pollution

Pollution is defined as the harm caused by the presence of a material or substances in places where they
would not normally be found or at levels greater than normal. Polluting substances might be in the form
of a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
• Point source of pollution: Pollution from a point source enters a water body at a precise location
and can usually be identified. Effluent discharges from sewage treatment plants and industrial
sites, power plants, landfill sites, fish farms, and oil leakage via a pipeline from industrial sites are
all potential point sources of contamination. Point source pollution is often easy to prevent since
it is feasible to identify where it originates, and once identified, individuals responsible for the
pollution can take rapid corrective action or invest in longer-term treatment and control facilities.
• Diffuse source of pollution: As a result of land-use activities such as urban development, amenity,
farming, and forestry, diffuse pollution occurs when pollutants are widely used and diffused over
a large region. These activities could have occurred recently or in the past. It might be difficult
to pinpoint specific sources of pollution and, as a result, take rapid action to prevent it because
prevention often necessitates significant changes in land use and management methods.

Pollution Prevention
Pollution prevention entails acting at the source of pollutants to prevent or minimise their production. It
saves natural resources, like water, by using materials and energy more efficiently.
Pollution prevention includes any practice that:
• Reduces the amount of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste
stream or otherwise released into the environment (including fugitive emissions) prior to

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recycling, treatment, or disposal;

• Reduces the hazards to public health and the environment associated with the release of such
substances, pollutants, or contaminants (these practices are known as “source reduction”);
• Improved efficiency in the use of raw materials, energy, water, or other resources, or Conservation
is a method of safeguarding natural resources.
• Improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory management; equipment
or technology adjustments; process or method modifications; product reformulation or
redesign; raw material substitution; or improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training,
or inventory control.

6.4.5. Electronic Waste

Lead, cadmium, beryllium, mercury, and brominated flame retardants are found in every piece of
electronic waste. When gadgets and devices are disposed of illegally, these hazardous compounds are
more likely to contaminate the earth, pollute the air, and leak into water bodies.
When e-waste is dumped in a landfill, it tends to leach trace metals as water runs through it. The
contaminated landfill water then reaches natural groundwater with elevated toxic levels, which can be
dangerous if it reaches any drinking water bodies. Despite having an environmentally benign approach,
recycling generally results in international shipment and dumping of the gadgets in pits.
Some eco-friendly ways of disposing of e-waste are:
• Giving back the e-waste to the electronic companies and drop-off points
• Following guidelines issued by the government
• Selling or donating the outdated technology-based equipment
• Giving e-waste to a certified e-waste recycler

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Notes

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 IoT Hardware Analyst

ANNEXURE - QR Codes
Page
S.No. Chapter No. Unit No. Topic Name QR code(s) URL
No.
1 Chapter 2: Unit 2.1: IOT Introduction 24 https://www.
Process of System of IoT youtube.com/
Creating watch?v=Hl6XA-
Requirement HeX9y0
Specifications
and Detailed
2 Design Unit 2.1: IOT Components 24 https://www.
Documents System of IoT youtube.com/
watch?v=Z-
n4ozz3CkhY

3 Unit 2.2: IoT design 32 https://www.

IOT Design methodology youtube.com/
Requirements watch?v=nw_
and Specifica- O23o6Dr0
tions

4 Chapter 3: Unit 3.1: PCB Basic con- 54 https://www.

Process of Layout De- cepts of PCB youtube.com/
Designing Cir- signing for IoT design watch?v=ESnD-
cuit and PCB System Ql7ZM5o
Layout for the
IoT System

5 Unit 3.1: PCB PCB design- 54 https://www.

Layout De- ing youtube.com/
signing for IoT watch?v=2KBCR9g-
System wa8E

6 Unit 3.2: PCB proto- 64 https://www.

Building Pro- typing youtube.com/
totype of PCB watch?v=zRd-
Design JrE80Vjk

141
Participant Handbook

Page
S.No. Chapter No. Unit No. Topic Name QR code(s) URL
No.
7 Chapter 3: Unit 3.2: PCB manu- 64 https://www.
Process of Building Pro- facturing and youtube.com/
Designing Cir- totype of PCB assembly watch?v=o-
cuit and PCB Design 8NOK1JJbgw
Layout for the
IoT System
8 Chapter 4: Unit 4.2: Types of IoT 92 https://www.
Process of Testing an IoT testing youtube.com/
Building and System watch?v=9QiN-
Testing the MUUdAgg
Complete IoT
9 System Unit 4.2: PCB inspec- 92 https://www.
Testing an IoT tion methods youtube.com/
System and defects watch?v=5WuS-
cHKaz8o

10 Chapter 5: Unit 5.1: Communica- 100 https://www.

Work effec- Effective Com- tion skills youtube.com/
tively at the munication watch?v=u16EPw-
workplace and Coordina- Fmdis
tion at Work

11 Chapter 6: Unit 6.2 – Fire Workplace 133 https://www.

Basic Health Safety emergency youtube.com/
and Safety procedures watch?v=DaYwcH-
Practices 1GMEg

12 Unit 6.3 – First-aid 136 https://www.

First Aid practices youtube.com/
watch?v=BumbKH-
qXJo0

142
 IoT Hardware Analyst

143
 Scan this QR Code to access eBook

Address: Electronics Sector Skill Council of India

155, 2nd Floor, ESC House Okhla Industrial Area-Phase 3, New Delhi- 110020
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.essc-india.org
Phone: +91-84477-38-501

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