CHAPTER 4

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

1. BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

1. Covalent Bond: The chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two
atoms is called covalent bond.
(i) Single covalent bond: A covalent bond formed by sharing of one pair of electrons
between two atoms is known as single covalent bond. For example, two hydrogen
atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2.

Single bond between two Hydrogen atoms

(ii) Double covalent bond: The covalent bond formed by sharing of two pairs of electrons
between two atoms is known as double covalent bond. For example, the two electrons
contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is
said to constitute a double bond between the two atoms.
The electron dot structure of O2 and its double bond.

Double bond between two oxygen atoms

(iii) Triple covalent bond: The covalent bond formed by the sharing of three pairs of
electrons between two atoms is known as triple covalent bond. In the case of a
diatomic molecule of nitrogen, each nitrogen atom in a molecule of nitrogen
contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of electrons. This is said to
constitute a triple bond between the two atoms.
The electron dot structure of N2 and its triple bond.

Triple bond between two nitrogen atoms

Covalent compounds exist as solids, liquids and gases. They are generally soluble in non-polar
solvents like ether, benzene etc. and generally insoluble in polar solvents like water.
Molecules of covalent compounds are held together by relatively weaker forces as compared to
ionic compounds. Therefore, covalent compounds have relatively lower melting and boiling
points.

33
Covalent compounds are poor conductors of electricity because they contain neither the ions nor
free electrons necessary for conduction.

2. VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON

The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds.
Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are –
(i) Catenation: Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving
rise to large molecules. The self-linking property of carbon atoms through covalent bonds to
form long chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.
In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon atoms, are
called saturated compounds.
Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called
unsaturated compounds.
(ii) Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element. Compounds of carbon are formed with
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, chlorine and many other elements giving rise to compounds
with specific properties which depend on the elements other than carbon present in the molecule.

Homologous Series: It is a family of organic compounds having the same functional group in
which the formula of successive members differs by –CH2 group. For example,
For alkanes CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10 etc.
For alkenes C2H4, C3H6, C4H8 and C5H10 etc.
For alkynes C2H2, C3H4, C4H6 and C5H8 etc.

For example, the chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very
similar. Hence, such a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for
hydrogen in a carbon chain is called a homologous series.
The melting and boiling points increase with increasing molecular mass.

5. Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

S.No. Class of Prefix/Suffix Example Structure

Example
compounds

1. Halo alkane Prefix -Chloro, - Chloropropane CH3CH2CH2Cl

Bromo Bromopropane CH3CH2CH2Br

2. Alcohol Suffix - ol Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH

3. Aldehyde Suffix - al Propanal CH3CH2CHO

4. Ketone Suffix - one Propanone CH3COCH3

5. Carboxylic acid Suffix - oic acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2COOH

34
6. Alkenes Suffix - ene Propene CH3CH = CH2

7. Alkynes Suffix - yne Propyne CH3C = CH

Some functional groups in carbon compounds:

Hetero Class of compounds Formula of Examples

atom functional group
Cl/Br Halo- (Chloro/Bromo) -Cl, -Br (substitutes Chloroethane (C2H5Cl)
alkanes for hydrogen atom) Bromoethane(C2H5Br)
Oxygen 1. Alcohol -OH Ethanol (C2H5OH)
2. Aldehyde -CHO Ethanal (CH3CHO)
3. Ketone >C = O Propanone (CH3COCH3)
4. Carboxylic acid -COOH Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)

Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds

The carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.
Among these, the saturated hydrocarbons are called alkanes. Methane, Ethane, Propane etc.
Methane has a formula CH4. Hydrogen has a valency of 1. Carbon is tetravalent because it has
four valence electrons. In order to achieve noble gas configuration, carbon shares these electrons
with four atoms of hydrogen as shown in Fig. is given below:

Electron dot structure for methane

Structure of ethane formed between carbon and hydrogen with a formula of C2H6.
The structure of ethane is arrived in the following steps –
(a) Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond
(b) Each carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms
(c) Electron dot structure of ethane

Electron dot structure for ethane

35
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds are called alkenes.
Ethene, Propene etc.
Those containing one or more triple bonds are called alkynes. Ethyne, Propyne etc.

The electron dot structure for Ethene.

Another compound of hydrogen and carbon has the formula C2H2 and is called Ethyne.

H-C≡C-H

Chains, Branches and Rings

The carbon compounds methane, ethane and propane, containing respectively 1, 2 and 3 carbon
atoms. Such ‗chains‘ of carbon atoms can contain many more carbon atoms.

Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen (Alkanes)

No. of C Name Formula Structure
atoms
1 Methane CH4 CH4

2 Ethane C2H6 CH3 – CH3

3 Propane C3H8 CH3 – CH2 – CH3

4 Butane C4H10 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
5 Pentane C5H12 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3

6 Hexane C6H14 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3

7 Heptane C7H16 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 - CH3

8 Octane C8H18 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 - CH2 - CH3

9 Nonane C9H20 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

10 Decane C10H22 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 –CH2 –CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

36
Formulae and structures of unsaturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen (Alkenes)
No. of C Name Formula Structure
atoms
1 Ethene C2H4 H2C = CH2

2 Propene C3H6 CH3 – CH = CH2

3 1-Butene C4H8 CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2
4 1-Pentene C5H10 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH = CH2

Formulae and structures of unsaturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen (Alkynes)

No. of C Name Formula Structure
atoms
1 Ethyne C2H2 H-C≡C-H

2 1-Propyne C3H4 CH3 – C ≡ C - H

3 1-Butyne C4H6 CH3 – CH2 – C ≡ C - H
4 1-Pentyne C5H8 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C ≡ C - H

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS:

1. Combustion: Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide along
with the release of heat and light.

(i) C +O2 CO2 + heat and light

(ii) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + heat and light
(iii) CH3CH2OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated hydrocarbons will
give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke. Limiting the supply of air results in incomplete
combustion of even saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.

2. Oxidation: Carbon compounds can be easily oxidised on combustion. In addition to this

complete oxidation, in which ethyl alcohol is converted to ethanoic acid upon heating in the
presence of alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium dichromate (oxidising
agents).

CH3CH2OH alkaline KMnO4 + Heat CH3COOH

3. Addition reaction: Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalyst such
as palladium or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.

37
4. Substitution reaction: Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the
presence of most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine is added to methane in
very fast reaction. Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a substitution
reaction.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS - ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID

Properties of ethanol:

Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature. Ethanol is commonly called alcohol and is the active
ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions.

Reactions of Ethanol:

(i) Reaction with sodium: When ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium leading to the
evolution of hydrogen and the other product is sodium ethoxide.
2CH3CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3CH2O–Na + H2
(Sodium ethoxide)

(ii) Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443 K with excess
concentrated Sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to give Ethene
CH3CH2OH Hot Conc. H2SO4 CH2 = CH2 + H2O
The concentrated Sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent who removes
water from ethanol.

Uses: It is a good solvent; it is also used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and
many tonics. Consumption of small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness. However,
intake of even a small quantity of pure ethanol (called absolute alcohol) can be lethal. Also, long-
term consumption of alcohol leads to many health problems.

Properties of ethanoic acid:

Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called carboxylic
acids. Carboxylic acids are obviously characterized by their acidic nature. Carboxylic acids are
weak acids. The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during
winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.

38
Reactions of ethanoic acid:

(i) Esterification reaction: Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and
an alcohol. Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid
catalyst to give an ester
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH Acid CH3COOCH2CH3 +H2O
(Ethanoic acid) (Ethanol) (Ester)
On treating with sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali, the ester is converted back to
alcohol and sodium salt of carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as saponification
because it is used in the preparation of soap. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of
long chain carboxylic acid.
CH3COOCH2CH3 + NaOH CH3COONa + CH3CH2OH
(ii) Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base such as
sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly called sodium
acetate) and water:
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
(iii) Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with
carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Uses: Generally, esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes and as
flavouring agents. 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
preservative in pickles.

SOAPS AND DETERGENTS:

Soaps: They form scum when reacted to hard water. Soaps are derived from natural substances
such as vegetable oils and animal fats.

Detergents: They do not form scum. Detergents are generally a derivative of a synthetic
compound.

Preparation of soap: On heating with sodium hydroxide, vegetable oil or animal fat forms a
sodium salt of fatty acid and glycerol. This process is known as saponification.

Vegetable oil/Animal fat + NaOH Saponification Glycerol + Sodium salt of fatty acid (Soap)

Cleansing action of soaps:

A soap molecule is made up of two chemically distinct parts that interact with water in different
ways. It has one polar end with a short head carboxylate group (−COONa) and one non-polar
end with a long tail made of the hydrocarbon chain.

39
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic end: The polar end is hydrophilic (water-loving) in nature, and it is
drawn to water. The non-polar end is hydrophobic (hates water) in nature, and it is attracted to
dirt or oil on the cloth but not to water. As a result, the hydrophobic part of the soap molecule
traps the dirt while the hydrophilic part makes the entire molecule water-soluble.
When soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules form clusters known as 'micelles'.

Formation of micelles

Their long hydrocarbon chains bind to the oil and dirt. As a result, the dirt is surrounded by the
non-polar end of the soap molecules. The micelles are water-soluble because of the charged
carboxylate end of the soap molecules. As a result, the soap washes away the dirt.

Detergents are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with chlorides or
bromides ions, etc. Both have long hydrocarbon chain. The charged ends of these compounds do
not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water. Thus, they
remain effective in hard water. Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for
cleaning clothes.

Assignments:

Q1. Give the names of the following functional groups:

(i) —OH (ii) –CHO (iii) —COOH
Answer. (i) Alcohol group (ii) Aldehydic group (iii) Carboxylic acid group

Q2. Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds.

Answer: (A) Ethanol (B) Propanone (C) Ethanoic acid.

Q3. Vapours of a hydrocarbon were passed through bromine dissolved in carbon tetrachloride.
The yellow colour of bromine got discharged? Predict the nature of the hydrocarbon.
Answer: The hydrocarbon is unsaturated. It is either an alkene or alkyne.

40
Q4. What is the role of soap in cleansing of clothes?
Answer: Soap helps in forming a stable emulsion between oil drops carrying dirt particles and
water. The emulsion is also known as micelle.

Q5. Which organic compound is added to make ethanol unfit for drinking purposes? What is the
name of the mixture formed?
Answer: Methanol which is highly poisonous is added in small amount to ethanol in order to
make it unfit for drinking purposes. The mixture is called methylated spirit or denatured alcohol.

Q6. Which element exhibits the property of catenation to maximum and why?
Answer: The element is carbon. This is because of very small size of carbon atom (77 pm) and
high strength of C—C bond (355 kJ mol-1).

Q7. How will you convert Ethene into Ethanol? Give the chemical reaction involved.
Answer: Ethene is converted into ethanol by passing its vapours through water in the presence of
Sulphuric acid. This reaction is called hydration of Ethene.

Q08. Explain with the help of chemical equations, the following properties of carbon.
(i) Combustion
(ii) Oxidation.
Answer:

Q9. Give a chemical test to distinguish between:

(i) Ethane and Ethene
(ii) Ethanol and ethanoic acid
(iii) Soaps and detergents.
Answer: (i) Ethene decolorizes the yellow colour of bromine water while ethane does not.
(ii) Ethanoic acid gives a brisk effervescence with sodium hydrogen carbonate while ethanol
does not.
(iii) Soaps form curdy white precipitate or scum with hard water while detergents do not form
any precipitate.

Q10. Give reasons for the following observations:

(a) The element carbon forms a very large number of compounds.
(b) Air holes of a gas burner have to be adjusted when the heated vessels get blackened by the
flame.
(c) Use of synthetic detergents causes pollution of water.
Answer.
(a) Carbon forms large number of compounds since carbon is small in size and can form stable
covalent bonds (Catenation) and it shows Tetravalency.

41
(b) Air holes of gas burner are made open (adjusted) so that air can pass through, which is
needed for complete combustion, so that heated vessels do not get blackened.
(c) Some synthetic detergents are non-biodegradable, therefore, cause pollution of water.

Q11. What is a homologous series? Which two of the following organic compounds belong to
the same homologous?
CH3, C2H6, C2H6O, C2H6O2, CH4O
Answer. Homologous series is a series of organic compounds which has same functional group
and similar chemical properties. Each member of this series differs by –CH2 - in its molecular
formula and 14u in its molecular mass.
CH4O (CH3OH) and C2H6O (C2H5OH) belong to same homologous series.

Q12. (i) An unknown compound has the smell of vinegar. Identify it.
(ii) What do we get when ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of concentrated
Sulphuric acid?

(iii)Give a test to identify the presence of ethanoic acid.

Answer: (i) The compound is ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) also called acetic acid.

(ii)Ethyl ethanoate (CH3COOC2H5) is formed by esterification reaction. It has fruity smell.

(iii)Dip a strip of blue litmus paper in the solution of ethanoic acid. Its colour will change to red.

42
 CHAPTER – 6

LIFE PROCESSES

Life processes: ‗Living Being‘. Basic concept of nutrition, respiration, transport and excretion in
plants and animals.

LIFE PROCESSES

All the vital processes which are required by an organism to survive is called life processes.
Nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion are
important life process. In multicellular organism life processes occur in various specialized body
parts while in unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell

IMPORTANT LIFE PROCESSES

 Nutrition in plants and animals
 Transportation in animals and plants
 Excretion in animals and plants
NUTRITION

The process, by which an organism takes food and utilizes it, is called nutrition.
Nutrition is essential for growth and development of organisms. It also provide energy to
do different work.
 Nutrition is obtained by material called nutrients. Nutrients may macronutrient
(Carbohydrates, proteins and fats) and micronutrients (Minerals and vitamins).
HOW DO LIVING THINGS GET THEIR FOOD?

a- Autotrophic nutrition
b- Heterotrophic nutrition
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

The mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its own food is called autotrophic nutrition.
Green plants and blue-green algae make their food by a process called photosynthesis.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process by which plants in presence of pigment, sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to form
food and release oxygen is known as photosynthesis.

The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:

Sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 +
6O2 + 6H2O2
Chlorophyll Glucose

43
EVENTS OCCUR DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

Raw material required in photosynthesis Source

CO2 and O2 Atmosphere

Radiation Sunlight

H2O Soil

Some facts

 Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.

 Photosynthesis is an oxidation- reduction reaction in which carbon di oxide is reduced to
sugar and water is oxidized.
Chloroplast

Contain main photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll and accessory pigments xanthophyll and
carotenoids.

Stomata

Gaseous exchange and transpiration (loss of water as water vapours) takes place through minute
aperture on the surface of leaves called as stomata. Stomata has a pore (stomata pore) guarded by
bean shape guard cells (regulate opening and closing of stomata.

44
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION

In this type of nutrition organism obtain their nutrient from other living organism (parasite) e.g.
Animals or dead and decaying objects (saprophyte) e.g. Fungi like bread moulds, yeast and
mushrooms.

HOW DO ORGANISMS OBTAIN THEIR NUTRITION

 Amoeba captures food with the help of

pseudopodia.

 Food vacuole is formed containing food

particle.

 Food is digested.

NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEING

Alimentary canal Tube like structure from mouth to anus

Salivary glands 3 pair, Secrete saliva

Enzyme made of proteins (except ribozyme), break the complex foods in to

simpler form

Peristaltic Rhythmic movement of food in oesophagus (food pipe) toward stomach

movement

Stomach Large sac like structure below food pipe

Gastric gland Present in wall of stomach secrete HCL, Pepsin, Mucus

Small Intestine It is longest and coiled tube and site of complete digestion of food.

45
Villi Small finger like projections on small intestine, increase the surface area
for absorption

Large intestine Small intestine opens into large intestine.it also contain villi to absirb
water.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

i- Food is crushed and mixed with saliva with the help of teeth and tongue.
ii- Saliva contains salivary amylase that break down starch.
iii- By peristaltic movement in oesophagus the food enters stomach.
iv- In stomach food is mixed with HCL, Protein digesting enzyme pepsin and Mucus.
v- HCL kill the germs in food as well as provide acidic medium essential for pepsin.
Mucus protects the inner lining of alimentary canal by HCL.
vi- Small intestine receives secretions of liver and pancreas through a common duct. It is
site complete digestion of food (carbohydrate, protein and fat)
vii- Unabsorbed food enters into large intestine for further absorption of water.

viii- Undigested food is removed from body via anus.

Organ Secretion Role

Liver Bile juice Make medium alkaline for pancreatic juice

Break the fat molecules into smaller parts
(emulsification)
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Trypsin digest protein
Lipase digest lipid
Wall of small Intestinal juices Proteins to amino acids
intestine Carbohydrates to glucose
Fat to fatty acid and glycerol

46
DENTAL CARIES (TOOTH DECAY)

It is caused due to acid produced by bacteria. In this enamel softens and may cause dental plaque
and cavities.

RESPIRATION

Process of Breaking down of complex organic material into simpler form with the help of
enzymes is called reparation.

Types of respiration and site

Type Definition Site

Aerobic respiration It occur in presence of oxygen Cytoplasm and Mitochondria

Anaerobic respiration It occur in absence of oxygen. Cytoplasm

Fermentation It is a type of anaerobic respiration Cytoplasm

occur in few microorganisms

Key words

Cytoplasm Fluid part with in cell

Mitochondria Site of energy production in plants and animals (power house of cell)

Pyruvate Intermediate product of respiration

Ethanol A type of alcohol (C2H5OH)

ATP Adenosine tri phosphate, an energy rich compound

PROCESS OF RESPIRATION

i- Glucose is broken down in to pyruvate in cytoplasm of cell.

ii- In presence of oxygen pyruvate enters into mitochondria and completely oxidized
there to produce C2 and energy (ATP).
iii- In absence of oxygen pyruvate partially decompose and form
a- Ethanol in yeast (fermentation)
b- Lactic acid in muscle cells

47
HUMMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

It consists of nostril, nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli,
diaphragm and ribcage.

i- The inhale of oxygen and exhale of CO2

is known as breathing. Air is taken into
body through nostrils.
ii- From nostril air passes through the
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and finally alveoli.
iii- At alveoli exchange of oxygen and CO2
takes place with blood vessels by
process of diffusion.
iv- Oxygen enters into blood vessels while
CO2 enters into alveolar sac. Both
oxygen and CO2 is carried by iron
containing hemoglobin.
TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN BEING

Blood A type of connective tissue consists of RBC, WBC, Platelets and plasma.

Plasma Fluid portion of blood

Oxygenated blood Blood carrying oxygen

Deoxygenated blood Blood carrying carbon dioxide instead of oxygen

Hemoglobin Iron contacting pigment, carry both oxygen and CO2

Heart chambers Atrium and ventricle

Systole Contraction of heart chambers

Diastole Relaxation of heart chambers

Double circulation Blood goes through the heart twice

Arteries Thick walled. elastic , Carry blood away from heart to various organs

Veins Thin walled, carry blood from different organs to the heart

Platelets Helps in blood clotting during injury

Lymph / Tissue fluid Fluid in intercellular space in the tissues. They carry digested and

48
 absorbed fat.

Sphygmomanometer Measure blood pressure

HUMAN HEART

i- Human heart is four chambered – two atrium and two ventricles.

Amphibian – three chambered heart, Fish – two chambered heart
ii- These chambers are well separated to avoid mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood.
iii- Right atrium and right ventricle contains deoxygenated blood while left atrium and
left ventricle contains oxygenated blood.
iv- Atrium and ventricles are separated by valves-
a- Tricuspid valve
b- Dicuspid valve
v- Oxygenated blood from lungs enters in left atrium via pulmonary veins. When left
atrium contracts (systole) blood enters to left ventricle. The blood goes outside to
different parts of body via aorta when left ventricle contracts.
vi- From different part of body deoxygenated blood is carried out by superior and
inferior vena cava to the right atrium.
vii- When right atrium contracts the blood enters into right ventricle. The deoxygenated
blood goes to the lungs through pulmonary arteries when right ventricle contracts.

TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

Stomata Gaseous exchange, Transportation (loss of water in form of vapor)

Xylem Water conduction channels composed of xylem tissue, vessels and tracheid

49
 Transport water and mineral from root to aerial part (unidirectional)

Phloem Transport food from the leaves to other part (multidirectional).

EXCRETION

Excretion Removal of harmful metabolic wastes from

the body

Kidney Excretory organ of human

Nephron Structural and functional unit of kidney

Urinary bladder Store urine

Ureter Connect urinary bladder with kidney

Hemodialysis Artificial kidney, a device to remove

nitrogenous waste products (urea, uric acid)
from the blood.

EXCRETION IN HUMAN BEING

 Basic filtration unit in kidneys are cluster of thin walled capillaries. These are
associated with cup like structure which collects the filtered urine.
 There is reabsorption on glucose, amino acids, salts and water in tubules of nephrons.
 The concentrated urine enters into urinary bladder via ureter and finally pass outside
the body through urethra.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS

 Stomata play an important role as is the site for gaseous exchange and transpiration.
 Some waste products are released in from of resin, gums.
 Falling of leaves also helps in removal of waste products.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q1- What is the normal systolic and diastolic pressure in human? By which apparatus we
can measure it?
Ans: 120/ 80 mm of Hg, Sphygmomanometer
Q2- How is water and minerals transported in plants?
Ans: Water conducting tissue xylem transported mineral in dissolved form with water.
Q3- Mention the mode of nutrition of the followings-
Cuscuta, Fungus
Ans: Cuscuta- Parasite , Fungus- Saprophyte

50
 Q4- Which acid is formed in our muscles after vigorous exercise?
Ans: Lactic acid
Q5- How much energy is released when terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken
down?
Ans: 30.5 Kj/mol.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q 6- Why do photosynthesis considered as photochemical reaction?
Ans: plants convert the energy of sunlight into stored chemical energy by forming carbohydrates
from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water and releasing molecular oxygen as a byproduct.
Q7- What is role of followings in photosynthesis-
i- Chloroplast
ii- Water
iii- Carbon dioxide
Ans: Chloroplast trap the sunlight (radiation)
Water undergo photolysis to evolver oxygen
Carbon dioxide reduces to form carbohydrate.
Q 8- Write importance of –
i- Double circulation
ii- Dicuspid and tricuspid valves in heart
Ans: Double circulation importance: helps keep oxygenated (blood rich in oxygen) separate
from deoxygenated (blood rich in carbon dioxide). This results in more efficient circulation of
blood.
Importance of Dicuspid and tricuspid valves in heart: prevents the reverse flow of blood from the
right ventricle to the right atrium while bicuspid valve prevents the reverse flow of blood from
the left ventricle to the left atrium
Q 9- Specify the role of phloem and xylem. Why it is considered that phloem shows multi-
directional transportation and xylem unidirectional transportation?
Ans: phloem is food conducting tissue and xylem is water conducting tissue.
Phloem transport food in many directions as from leaves to other part of plants like other leaf,
flower, stem, root, storage part.
Xylem conducts water only in one direction from root to the aerial parts of plant.
Q 10- What is saliva? State its role in the digestion of food.
Ans: Saliva contains salivary amylase enzymes that help digest the starches in our food.
An enzyme called amylase breaks down starches (complex carbohydrates) into sugars, which
your body can more easily absorb.
It helps in moistens the food for easy swallowing.
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q 11- Differentiate the followings-
I. Vena cava and Aorta
II. Pulmonary artery and Pulmonary vein

51
 III. Anaerobic respiration and fermentation
IV. Bronchi and bronchiole
Ans:
 Vena cava: carries deoxygenated blood from body parts to the heart
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from heart to the body parts
 Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from heart to the lungs
Pulmonary vein: carries oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart
 Anaerobic respiration: respiration without oxygen
Fermentation: respiration without oxygen in microorganisms
 Bronchi: extends from trachea, have incomplete cartilage ring
Bronchioles: extended from bronchi
Q 12- Draw cross section of leaf and label stomata. Also mention any two roles of stomata
in plants.
Ans: Fig 6.1, page 96, NCERT
Q 12- Draw labeled diagram of structural and functional unit of kidney. Also mention its
role.
Ans: Fig: 6.14, page 111, NCERT
Filtration of blood, reabsorption, secretion and excretion of useful and harmful substances
present in the blood.
Q 13 Give reasons:
i- Ventricles have thicker muscular walls than atria.
ii- Transport system in plants is slow.
iii- Blood circulation differs in aquatic vertebrates from that in terrestrial vertebrates.
iv- During the daytime, water and minerals travel faster through xylem as compared to the
night.
v-Veins have valves whereas arteries do not.
Ans:
(i) Ventricles pump blood into various organs with high pressure so they have thicker walls.
(ii) Plants are non-motile, less active and require less energy so their cells do not need to be
supplied with materials so quickly.
(iii) The aquatic vertebrates like fish have gills to oxygenate blood. Fishes have single
circulation. The terrestrial vertebrates like birds and humans have four chambered heart and
shows double circulation.
(iv) it is due to high transpiration rate id day time.
(v) The lumen of veins has valves, which allow the blood in them to flow in only one direction.
Thus prevent back flow of blood.
Q 14- Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Ans : In the human heart, blood passes through the heart twice in one cardiac cycle. This type of
circulation is called double circulation. Double circulation ensures complete segregation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

52
It includes - Pulmonary circulation and Systemic circulation.
In Pulmonary circulation: The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs where it
is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood is brought back to the left atrium, from there it is pumped
into the left ventricle and finally blood goes into the aorta for systemic circulation.
In Systemic circulation: The oxygenated blood is pumped to various parts of the body from the
left ventricle. The deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body passes through vena cava
to reach right atrium. The right atrium transfers the blood into right ventricle.
Q 14- Mention the location of four major glands associated with digestive system of
humans and explain function of each?
Ans:
i- Salivary Glands- There is three pairs of salivary glands (Parotid, sub maxillary and sublingual)
which secrete saliva. Saliva moistens the food, disinfects food by lysozyme and digests starch by
salivary amylase.
ii-Gastric Glands- these are present inside stomach. Gastric glands secrete
HCI- disinfect food, provide acidic medium for digestive juices.
Pepsin - for partial digestion of proteins to form peptones and proteases
iii-Liver- secretes bile, which neutralizes the acidity of chyme and emulsifies fat.
iv-Pancreas- Lies in the loop of duodenum below the stomach.
It secretes trypsin (digest protein), lipase (break down of fat)
Q 15- Explain autotrophic nutrition in plants.
Ans:
 Synthesis of food by photosynthesis- ‗photo‘ means light and ‗synthesis‘ means
production. It is the production of food with the help of sunlight.
Photosynthesis equation-
6CO2+ 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O
Events of photosynthesis are as follows:
 Absorption of light energy green pigment (chlorophyll).
 Light energy provides energy for activation of reaction.
 Photolysis of water (splitting of water) into Oxygen, H+ and e-
 Reduction of CO2 into glucose and Synthesis of ATP.

53
 CHAPTER- 7
CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION
Control and coordination are the functions of the response against stimulus and hormones.

Animals have nervous system for this act. Plants also show responses by using different
mechanism.

Topics

 Tropic movements in plants

 Introduction of plant hormones
 Control and co-ordination in animals
 Nervous system; Voluntary
 Involuntary and reflex action
 Chemical co-ordination: animal hormones
TROPIC MOVEMENTS IN PLANTS

Tropic movement is the movement of the plant in response to stimulus present in the
surroundings. Tropic movements can be either toward the stimulus or away from it. The
important tropic movements are listed below-

Phototropism Movement is response to light.

Ex- shoot bending toward the light , root bending away from light, movement
of sunflower

Chemotropism Movement in response to certain chemicals

Ex- Growth of pollen tubes toward ovary

Geotropism The movement of plants in response to the gravity.

Ex- Roots of plant grow downwards, shoots usually grow upward

Hydrotropism Movement of plants in response to water.

Ex- Root grows towards water.

Thigmotropism The reflex of plants response of touch.

Ex- touch-me-not (Mimosa) plant leaves.

54
 Thigmotropism

INTRODUCTION OF PLANT HORMONES

Growth and differentiation in plants depend on few hormones calls as plant growth regulators/
plant growth hormones/ Phytohormones. These are organic substances which are synthesized in
minute quantity in one part of plant body and transported to other part where they show specific
physiological processes.

Phytohormones Growth promoter/ growth Explanation

inhibitor

Auxin Growth promoter Stem elongation

Gibberellins Growth of stem

Cytokinin Cell division

Ethylene Growth inhibitor Wilting of leaves

Abscisic acid Fruit ripening

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS

In animals control and coordination is carried out with the help of -
 Nervous system

55
  Muscular tissue
 Endocrine system: Hormones
 Nervous system
The nervous system is composed of –
i- CNS (Central nervous system)- Brain + Spinal cord
ii- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)- all the nerves associated with the CNS
NEURONS

Neurons are composed of cell body, dendrite, axon and nerve ending.

HOW NERVOUS IMPULSE TRAVELS IN BODY

 Dendritic tips receives stimulus and an electrical impulse is generated in neurons.

 This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body and then along the axon to its end.
 At axon ending some chemicals are released that cross the synapse and start a similar
electrical impulse in next neuron.

REFLEX ACTION

 Reflex action is a sudden and

involuntary response to any stimuli.
 It originates in spinal cord.
 Ex- Drawing hand away from hot
plate, watering of mouth in response
to food etc.
 The neural pathway that controls the
reflex action is called as reflex arch.
In these sensory neurons, spinal
cord, relay neuron, motor neuron
and effector muscles are involved.
 Stimulus is received by sensory
neuron. The sensory neurons transfer sensory impulse to the spinal cord (CNS). Spinal
cord process the stimulus. The motor nerve fibre relay the motor impulses from the
nervous system to the effector organs like muscles.

56
HORMONES IN ANIMALS-
Hormones are the chemical messengers which are secreted by the ductless endocrine gland into
the blood. Hormones control the activity of certain cells and organs. Hormones can be peptide
and steroid hormones. Some of the main endocrine glands are pituitary gland, adrenal gland,
thyroid gland, pancreas, testes, ovary etc.

Endocrine gland Hormone Role

PITUITARY GLAND Growth hormone Regulate growth and development

ADRENAL GLAND Adrenaline Stress hormone (enable the body ready to deal
with stressed condition), Increase heartbeat,
Increase breathing rate
THYROID GLAND Thyroxine Regulate carbohydrate, protein and fat
metabolism
PANCREAS Insulin Regulate blood sugar level
TESTES Testosterone Changes associated with puberty in male

OVARY Oestrogen Changes associated with puberty in female

 GOITER- Iodine is necessary for formation of thyroxin hormone. If Iodine is in low

concentration the thyroid gland swells and causes goiter.

 GIGANTISM and DWARFISM- Excess secretion of growth hormone from pituitary

gland causes excess growth of body (gigantism) and less secretion result in dwarfism.

57
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Very Short Answer Type Questions-

Q 1- Which Phytohormones is considered as growth inhibitor?
Ans: Abscisic acid.
Q 2 - Which hormone requires Iodine for its synthesis? What will happen if there is
deficiency of dietary Iodine?
Ans: Thyroxine, Goiter disease
Q 3- Which hormone helps in lowering the level of blood glucose in human beings?
Ans: Insulin
Q 4- Which hormone is responsible for the development of moustache and beard in man?
Ans: Testosterone
Q 5- Name two tissues that provide control and coordination in multicellular animals.
Ans: Nervous tissue, Endocrine tissue
Short Answer Type Questions-
Q 5- State how concentration of Auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the
shoot which is away from light?
Ans: When light comes from one side, Auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot. This
concentration of Auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away
from light and plant appears to bend towards light.
Q 6- What is role of synapse in nerve impulse conduction?
Ans: Synapses are gaps between two neurons. When the nerve impulse reaches the dendrites at
the end of the axon, chemical messengers called neurotransmitters are released. These chemicals
diffuse across the synapse (the gap between the two neurons). The chemicals bind with receptor
molecules on the membrane of the second neuron.
Q 7- Draw labeled diagram of neuron.
Fig 7.1 a, Page, 115 NCERT
Q 8- Explain reflex action.
Ans: A reflex action is an automatic (involuntary) and quick reaction to a stimulus that protects
the body from potentially dangerous situations like touching something hot.
When body receives strong and sudden stimulus like pressure, temperature or chemicals, then
sensory neuron sends message to the spinal cord.
The relay neuron sends the signal to the motor neuron and latter sends a signal to the effector
muscle to respond.
Q 9- Compare chemotropism and Hydrotropism.
Ans: chemotropism: Movement due to chemical. E.g.- pollen tube growth on stigma and style.
Hydrotropism: Movement due to water. E.g. growth of root towards water
Q 10- Identify the hormones and related glands by following statements-
i- Regulation of blood sugar , ii- Release during stress condition iii- Female
puberty features iv- Dwarfism

58
Ans: i) Insulin (pancreas gland) , ii) Adrenaline (Adrenal Gland), iii) Estrogen (Ovary) , v)
Growth hormone (Pituitary Gland)
Long Answer Type Questions
Q 11- What are endocrine glands? Locate any four endocrine glands of human by drawing
suitable diagram.
Ans: endocrine glands are ductless glands and secretes hormone to control and coordinate body
function.
Fig 7.7, page124, NCERT
Q 12- You have touched a hot object. Represent diagrammatically the path that leads to a
response, i.e. quickly pulling back the hand.
Ans: Fig 7.2, page117, NCERT
Q 13-(a) A person is advised by a doctor to take less sugar in his diet. Name the disease
from which the man is suffering. For the disease which hormone is responsible?
(b) Name the endocrine gland which secretes growth hormone.
(c) Which glands secrets growth hormone? What will be consequences of Deficiency and Excess
secretion of growth hormone?
ANS: (a)Disease- Diabetes mellitus, Hormone – Insulin, Gland- Pancreas
(b) Gland- Pancreas
(c) Gland- Pituitary Gland, Excess secretion: Gigantism, Deficiency: Dwarfism
Q 13 How does chemical coordination occurs in plants?
Ans: In plants, chemical coordination occurs with the help of plant hormones/ Plant growth
regulators.
(Phytohormones). Example- Auxin, Cytokinin, Gibberellin, Abscisic acid and ethylene.
These hormones help to coordinate growth, development, and responses to the environment.
Plant hormones are synthesized at different and diffuse to the area where they act.
Auxin promotes cell growth, Gibberellins promote stem elongation, Cytokinin promote cell
division, Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
Q 14- What events takes place between synapse of two neurons?
Ans. Synapse is gap between two neurons. In between synapse nerve impulse conducted by
chemical process with the help of neurotransmitters (acetylcholine).with in axon nerve impulse
travels by electric signal. When it reached to synapse the neurotransmitters are released in
synaptic cleft.
These neurotransmitters act as stimulus for next neuron.
Q 15- What are tropic movements? Explain any three types of tropic movement with example.
Ans: Tropic movement is the movement of the plant in response to the stimulus present in the
environment. The main types of tropic movements are-
(a) Phototropism – it occur in response to light. , Towards light (positive) e.g. - shoot bends
towards light, Away from the light (negative) e.g. - growth of root
(b) Geotropism – It is response to gravity – Positive (towards stimulus) e.g. Root ,
Negative (away from the stimulus) e.g. shoot

59
 CHAPTER- 8
HOW DO ORGANISM REPRODUCE
 Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms produce new
individuals (Offsprings) similar to themselves.
 It ensures continuity species generation of generation.
Content:
Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual), Reproductive health - need and
methods of family planning, Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS, Child bearing and women‘s health

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
1- Asexual reproduction
2- Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

In this single parent is involved. In this two parents are involved.
It does not involve fusion of gametes Fusion of gamete is involved.
There is no meiosis Meiosis occur
No variation in Offsprings variation occur
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

i- Fission
In this organism divide two or more equal part and each develops into identical new
individuals.
Amoeba
ii- Regeneration
If the body of a individuals is cut
into several pieces, each of its part
regrows to the new individual. This
process is called as regeneration.
Ex- Planaria
iii- Budding
In this new organism develops on
bud (out growth on the parent body).
The new organism remains attach to
the parent body till it get matures.
Ex- hydra, yeast
iv- Adventitious bud
Small l buds in the notches of leaf.
These have ability to grow into new individual.
Ex – Bryophyllum

60
 v- Spore formation
Spores are propagules produced in
sporangia and germinate to produce new
individuals.
Ex.- Rhizopus (bread moulds)

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The sexual life cycle can be grouped into –
i- Pre-reproductive phase- development to attain sexual maturity (puberty)
ii- Reproductive phase- sexually mature, able to reproduce, able to produce fertile
gametes
iii- Post reproductive phase- after fertilization, development of embryo into new
individual

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

 Reproductive part of pant is flower. Flower consists sepals, petals, stamens and
carpels.
 Stamen and carpel contains anther and over respectively.
 Anther produces male gamete pollen and ovary contains female gamete egg.
 After pollination pollen fuses with egg to for zygote.
 Zygote develops in embryo and within ovule.
 Ovule develops into seed that contains future plant and ovary ripens in fruit.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING

Male reproductive system –
 It consists of one pair of testes where sperm formation takes place.
 Testes also secrete hormones like testosterone. Testosterone brings about changes in
appearance of boys at the time of puberty.

61
  Sperm delivered through the vas deferens where secretions of prostate gland and
seminal vesicles add their secretions. These secretions help in transportation and
provide nutrition to sperm.
Female reproductive system
 It consists of mainly a pair of ovary and uterus.
 On puberty the ovary starts producing eggs and release one egg each month.
Fertilization
 Fertilization is fusion of sperm and egg. It takes place in fallopian tube. Fertilized egg
is called as zygote which develops into embryo.
 Uterus is for implantation purpose which holds the developing embryo in its layer
through placenta and umbilical card.
 When egg is not fertilized then inner lining of uterus breaks and comes out through
the vagina as blood and mucus (menses). This cycle repeats every month and is called
menstrual cycle.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

STDs (Sexually transmitted disease)- Spread from infected person to healthy person due to
unprotected sex. E.g.- HIV-AIDS, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Warts.

Population control methods

 Mechanical barrier- Condom
 Hormonal methods- Pills
 Chemical method- Cut, Loops

62
  Surgical method- Vasectomy and Tubectommy
Sex determination
It is banned in India as it promotes sex selective abortion of female foetus.
CHILD BEARING AND WOMEN HEALTH
 The risks of childbirth are higher when there are other health problems such as
Cancer, Depression, STDs, Urinary tract infection, obesity and Hypertension etc.
 Pregnancy also carries a higher risk for relatively young and old women and for
women who have many babies in a short space of time.
 Prevention and care - Proper nutrition and diet should be taken and regular medical
checkup should be conducted. This will help in overall mother's physical and mental
health as well as will be very much beneficial for baby.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Very Short Answer Type Questions

Q1- 1-What is fission mode of reproduction? Which type fission is observed in amoeba?
Ans: Asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new bodies.
Amoeba- Binary fission
Q 2- Define reproduction. Mention its importance
Ans: Reproduction is the process by which new individuals are produced by the parents.
Maintain continuity of species.
Q 3- Mention modes of reproduction in Leishmania, Rhizopus, Planaria, Plasmodium
and hydra.
Ans: Leishmania- Binary fission, Rhizopus- Spore, Planaria- Regeneration, Hydra-
Budding
Q 4- When a cell reproduces, what happens to its DNA?
Ans: When a cell reproduces, DNA replication occurs which forms two similar copies of
DNA
Q 5- What is pollination? Give example of any two pollinating agents.
Ans: Transfer of pollen from anther to the stigma of a flower is known as pollination.
Examples of pollinating agents: Insect, Wind, Water
Short Answer Type Questions
Q 6- What are sexually transmitted diseases? Give any three examples.
Ans: are infections transmitted from an infected person to an uninfected person through
sexual contact.
Example- HIV- AIDS, Syphilis, Genital wart

Q 7: Differentiate asexual and sexual mode of reproduction. Which one shows

variation and why?
Ans:

63
 Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

In this single parent is involved. In this two parents are involved.

It does not involve fusion of Fusion of gamete is involved.
gametes
There is no meiosis Meiosis occur
No variation in Offsprings variation occur
 Genetic material from both the parents mixed by fertilization.
 Hence Offsprings get both the information and produce mixed characters which
are not exactly the same as only mother or father.

Q 8: Explain vegetative propagation with the help of two examples. List two advantages
of vegetative propagation.

Ans: Vegetative reproduction is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which
a new plant grows from vegetative propagules like-cutting, buds, eyes etc.
Importance
 Vegetative propagation takes less time
 No variation occur
 No requirement of fusion of gametes
 Can be done artificially in garden
Q 9: Write the role of the followings-
I. Placenta II- Ovary III- Uterine wall IV-Egg
Ans:
I. Placenta: provides oxygen and nutrients to a growing baby. It also removes waste
products from the baby's blood.
II. Ovary: produce egg by process of ovulation
III. Uterine wall: implantation, formation of placenta and umbilical cord, helps in contraction
during child birth
IV. Egg fuses with sperm to form zygote
Q 10: What could be the reasons for adopting contraceptive methods?

Ans: To prevent -
Unwanted pregnancy, STDs (sexually transmitted diseases)
Long Answer Type Questions

Q11- Draw labeled diagram of male reproductive system and mention the role of –
scrotum, prostate gland.
Ans: Fig 8.10, Page 137, NCERT
Q12- What happens when?
I. Planaria gets cut into two pieces
II. A mature Spirogyra filament attains considerable length

64
 III. On maturation sporangia burst?
Ans:
I. Each piece of Planaria grows into a complete organism by process of
regeneration.
II. When Spirogyra attains a specific length it breaks into small fragments. Each
fragment is able to grow into new individuals.
III. Sporogonium releases spores in air. On soil under favourable conditions spore
germinate into new individuals.

Q 12- Why do menstruation occur in females?

Ans: Menstruation is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of
the uterus through the vagina.
It starts between puberty and lasts till menopause.
During this period, the body prepares itself for pregnancy.
Every month one of ovary releases an egg for fertilization.
When fertilization does not takes place the inner lining of uterus get ruptured and released
through vagina along with blood vessels and mucus.
Q 13- a-Why is it said that, sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the off
springs?
b- Why is variation possible in progeny of sexually reproductive individuals?
Ans: a- It is because sexual reproduction results from the fission of two gametes coming from
two different and sexually distinct individuals. This leads to variation, is necessary for evolution.
b- In sexually reproductive individuals variation is possible because copy of DNA in newly
formed cell is not identical to copy DNA of original cell.
Q14- (i) List two reproductive parts of a flower.
(ii) How is a unisexual flower different from a bisexual flower? State in brief.
Ans: (i) Male — Stamen, Female — Carpel/Pistil
(ii) Unisexual flower - possesses one types of reproductive organs, either stamens (male
flower) or pistils (female flower)
Bisexual flower- contains both the types of reproductive organs
Q15- Describe the fertilization process in flowering plants. Make diagram of germination
of pollen on stigma.
Ans:
 After pollination pollen is received by stigma.
 Pollen tube is formed which travels through style and reached to ovule.
 Ovule contains embryo sac where the male gamete of pollen fuses with egg cell.
 Fusion results in formation of zygote. Zygote develops into embryo.
 The ovule develops into seed and ovary into fruit.
 Fig- 8.8, page 135 NCERT

65
 CHAPTER- 9
HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
 The process of transmission of characters from parents to offspring is known as
inheritance. This is the basis of heredity.
 Genetics is the science that deals with heredity and variation.
 Variation: Small changes / modifications in a particular character that are visible between
parents and Offsprings
 Gregor Johann Mendel is known as the ―father of genetics‖.
TYPES OF VARIATION

I- Somatic variations:
Occur in general body cells
It is not inherited
E.g. Boring of pinna by Indian women, hair style etc.
II- Germinal variations:
Occur in special gamete forming cells only
Inherit in next generation
E.g.: Human skin colour, shape of nose, etc.

Importance of variations

 Variation enables organisms to adjust and adapt better according to the changing
conditions of the environment (Survival advantage),.
 Different kinds of variations in organisms lead to the development of new species.
MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
 Mendel worked on Pea plant (Pisum sativum).
 Advantages of using pea plant are- availability of pure line plant, clearly visible
observable characters, contrast characters of same features, easily pollinated (self and
cross) etc.
 He worked on 7 contrasting features of pea plant. E.g. Height of plant, flower colour,
seed colour, seed shape, pod colour, pod shape and position of flower.
 He conducted monohybrid and Dihybrid cross.

Key Words

Chromosomes Long thread-like structures present in the nucleus of a cell which contain
hereditary information of the cell.
DNA Deoxyribo nucleic acid, present in DNA
Gene Part of DNS, controls a specific biological function.
Contrasting A pair of visible characters such as tall and dwarf, white and violet flowers,
characters round and wrinkled seeds, green and yellow seeds etc.
Dominant trait Visible trait in (F1) generation when condition is heterozygous..
Recessive trait Can‘t express itself in presence of dominant trait.
Homozygous When alleles of same types are present. E.g.- TT, tt.

66
Heterozygous Two different alleles present together. E.g.- Tt
Genotype It is genetic makeup of an individual. E.g.- TT, tt, Tt
Phenotype It is observable feature. E.g.- tall, dwarf
Monohybrid cross Cross to observe single character. E.g.- height of plant
Dihybrid cross Cross to observe two characters at a same time. E.g. colour and shape of
seed

MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

 The Law of Dominance
 The Law of Segregation
 The Law of Independent Assortment.

Law of Dominance: When parents having pure contrasting

characters are crossed then only one character expresses itself
in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant character
and the character/factor which cannot express itself is called the
recessive character.

Law of segregation: The phenomenon of

separation of the two alternating factors of one
character, during gamete formation so that one
gamete receives only one factor of a character is
called as ‗Law of Segregation.

Law of Independent Assortment-

'When two pairs of traits are combined in a

hybrid, segregation of one pair of characters is
independent of the other pair of characters'.

 Dihybrid cross. He cross breed pea

plants bearing round green seed
(RRyy) with plants bearing wrinkled
and yellow seeds (rrYY).
 In the F1 generation he obtained all
round and yellow seeds it means
round and yellow traits of seeds are
dominant features while wrinkled and
green are recessive.
 He self-crossed the plants of F1 and
found that in F2 generation four
different types of seeds round yellow,
round green, wrinkled yellow and

67
 wrinkled green in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 are present.
HOW DO TRAITS GET EXPRESSED?
DNA is regulating authority to making of proteins in the cell.
 Gene provides information for one particular protein.
 E.g. the height of a plant depends upon the growth hormone which is in turn controlled
by the gene.
 Both the parents contribute equally to the DNA of next generation during sexual
reproduction.

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMAN

The process of determining the sex of an individual, based on

the composition of the genetic makeup is called sex
determination.
 Human has 23 pair of chromosomes.
 Autosome: 22 pairs (44)
 Sex chromosomes: 01 pair (02). They may be either-
i- Homogametic – XX for female (44 +XX)
ii- Heterogametic XY for male (44 +XY)
In some organism environment also plays crucial role in
determination of sex-
 In some Reptiles: Temperature at which a fertilized egg
is incubated governs the gender.
 Snails: A particular animal can change the gender within
one‘s life time.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Very Short Answer Questions
Q1- What are genes?
Ans: A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. It is made up of DNA.
Q2- In case of round yellow and green wrinkled, which is dominant trait set?
Ans: Round shape of seed and Yellow colour of seed.
Q3- The sex of the children is determined by what they inherit from their father and not
their mother.” Justify
Ans: because Y sex chromosome is inherited only from father
Q4- Name the scientist who established the laws of inheritance.
Ans: Gregor Johann Mendel
Q5- Where genes are located?
Ans: Genes are located over the chromosomes/DNA as linear segments
Short Answer Questions
Q6- Why did Mendel select Pea plant for his experiment?
Ans: availability of pure line plant, clearly visible observable characters, contrast characters of
same features, easily pollinated (self and cross) etc.
Q7- Describe genotype and phenotype with one example of each.

68
Ans: The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material. Eg- TT, Tt, tt
The phenotype is observable feature. E.g.- tall, dwarf
Q8- What is significance of variation?
Ans: Variation enables organisms to adjust and adapt better according to the changing conditions
of the environment (Survival advantage).
Different kinds of variations in organisms lead to the development of new species. .
Q9- Mention the difference between the inherited and the acquired characters. Give one
example of each of the characters that are inherited and the ones that are acquired in
humans.
Ans: Inherited trait: obtain from parents (since the time of his birth and are passed on from one
generation to another.
Acquired trait: gain after birth (person develops during his lifetime)
Inherited: attached ear lobe, baldness
Acquired: obesity, reading skill
Q 10 - (a) Write foil form of DNA.
(b) Why are variations essential for the species?
Ans: (a) Deoxyribonucleic acid
(b) Genetic variation in a group of organisms enables some organisms to survive better than
others in the environment in which they live.
Long Answer Questions

Q 11- Make representation of Dihybrid cross showing phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1.

Fig. 9.5; page:145,NCERT

Q 12- Describe law of dominance, law of segregation and law of segregation.

Low of dominance:- When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then
only one character expresses itself in the F1 generation. This character is the dominant
character and the character/factor which cannot express itself is called the recessive
character.

Law of segregation: - The phenomenon of separation of the two alternating factors of one
character, during gamete formation so that one gamete receives only one factor of a
character is called as ‗Law of Segregation.

Law of independent assortment: the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted
into gametes independently of one another

Q 13- In a monohybrid cross of tall Pea plants denoted by TT and short pea plants denoted
by tt, Vaibhav obtained only tall plants (denoted by Tt) in F1 generation. However, in F2
generation she obtained both tall and short plants. Using the above information, explain the law
of dominance.

69
 TT x tt ………………………………………………...Parents
T t
Tt………………………………………………………………. F1

Tt x Tt …………………………………….self cross

T t T t ………………………………..Gametes
F2
T t
T TT, Tall Tt Tall
T Tt, Tall Tt, Dwarf
Q 14- Mendel crossed tall pea plants with dwarf pea plants in his experiment. Write his
observations giving reasons on the F1 and F2 generations.

In F1 generation only tall plants are visible therefore tall (T) is dominant whereas dwarf (t) is
recessive.
In F2 generation both tall and dwarf are visible. Dwarf is visible only in homozygous condition.
Q 15- State the importance of chromosomal difference between sperms and eggs of
humans. Also mention the criteria of sex determination.
Ans:
Human sperm: 22 + XY
Human egg : 2 + XX
Sex of the child will be determined by which sperm type fuses with the egg. Sex of the child will
be male if 22 + Y sperm fuses with the egg.
It will be female if 22 + X sperm fuses with the ovum.

70