Handout 7

Various electrical faults on an alternator

Various abnormal operating conditions of a turbo-alternator

Difference between transformer and generator differential protection

Transformer Generator
Primary and secondary voltages are in general Same voltage for CTs on two sides of the
different generator winding
Turns-ratio of the CTs are different because of Turns-ratio of CTs on the two sides of the
ratio of transformation of the transformer generator winding is same
Tap changer may be present No such device is present
The percentage bias setting for the transformer The percentage bias setting for the generator
differential relay is large compared to that for the differential relay is small compared to that for the
generators e.g. 20-40% power transformers. e.g. 5-10%
Stator Faults
The three-phase armature winding on the stator can develop:

• Phase to phase faults.

• Phase to ground faults.
• Inter-turn faults between turns of the same phase.

Stator Phase and Ground Faults

Phase and ground faults on the stator armature winding can be easily detected by a conventional
percentage differential protection scheme as shown in figure. However, it is unable to detect the inter-
turn faults between the turns of the same phase.
Brushless exciter without a pilot exciter
Brushless exciter with a pilot exciter
Advantage: No external 3-φ supply required
Rotor Faults
The rotor carries the field winding, which is kept isolated from the ground. Neither the positive nor the
negative terminal of the dc supply is grounded. Thus, any ground fault on the rotor field winding does
not affect the working of the alternator.

In case of a subsequent (second) ground fault, there will be a distortion in the distribution of main flux.
The flux will get concentrated on one pole but dispersed over the other. The resulting asymmetry in
flux will cause severe vibrations of the rotor.

An external voltage source is superimposed on the rotor circuit. This external voltage source is
grounded such that a dc fault current flows through the earth fault relay (64) only when there is a rotor
winding to earth fault.
Unbalanced Loading
If there is an unbalanced loading of the generator then the stator currents have a negative
sequence component. The stator field due to these negative sequence currents, rotates at
synchronous speed but in a direction opposite to the direction of the field structure on the rotor.
Thus, the negative sequence stator field rotates at a speed -NS while the rotor rotates at a speed
of +Ns. Therefore, there is a relative velocity of between the two. This causes double frequency
currents, of large amplitude, to be induced in the rotor conductors and iron.

Eddy current loss ∝ f2(Bmax)2

Hysteresis loss ∝ f(Bmax)n where n=1.6 to 2 depending upon the core material.

Therefore, both the eddy current as well as the hysteresis losses increase due to these double
frequency induced currents in the rotor.
The protection against unbalanced loading can be implemented be extracting the negative sequence
components of the stator current and then by applying the inverse-time OC relay as shown in figure.
Loss of excitation
The generator delivers both real as well as reactive power to the grid. The real power comes from the
turbine while the reactive power is due to the field excitation. Consider a generator delivering the
complex power, S = P + jQ to the grid. Corresponding to real power P, there is the shaft mechanical
power input Pm, and corresponding to reactive power Q, there is the field current If as shown in figure.

Now, consider that the field excitation is lost while the mechanical input remains intact. Since the
generator is already synchronized with the grid, it would attempt to remain synchronized by running
as an induction generator. As an induction generator, the machine speeds up slightly above the
synchronous speed and draws its excitation from the grid. Operation as an induction generator
necessitates the flow of slip frequency current in the rotor, the current flowing in the damper winding
and also in the slot wedges and the surface of the solid rotor body. This heats up the rotor.

The machine continues to deliver active power of P, MW but draws reactive power of QLOE, MVAR.
The generator is not designed as an induction machine; so abnormal heating of the rotor and
overloading of the stator winding will take place.
If the grid were able to meet the reactive power demand only partially then this would be reflected by
a fall of the generator terminal voltage. The generator would be under excited. There are certain limits
on the degree to which a generator can be operated within the under-excited mode. Therefore, the
operation in case of loss of excitation must be quickly detected and to shutdown the generator.

The simplest method by which loss of excitation can be detected is to monitor the field current of the
generator. If the field current falls below a threshold, a loss of field signal can be raised. A
complicating factor in this protection is the slip frequency current induced in the event of loss of
excitation and running as an induction generator.

On loss of excitation, the terminal voltage begins to decrease and the current begins to increase,
resulting in a decrease of impedance and also a change of power factor. Thus, loss of excitation can
be unambiguously detected by a mho relay located at the generator terminals as shown in the
following section.

Protection Against Loss of Excitation Using Offset Mho Relay

During normal steady-state operation, the impedance seen from the stator terminals, i.e. the apparent
impedance lies in quadrant I, of the R-X plane as shown in figure. After the loss of excitation, the
apparent impedance enters quadrant IV.

The exact locus of the apparent impedance and the rate at which it is traced out depends upon the
initial complex power that was being delivered by the generator. If the initial power output was high
then the locus is traced out quickly. However, if the initial power output was low then the locus is
traced out rather slowly [taking up to a few seconds).

In order to keep the generator online as long as it is safe, the generator may not be instantaneously
tripped in case of loss of excitation. As soon as loss of excitation is detected by the relay, an alarm
may be sounded and an attempt may be made to see if excitation can be restored.
A mho type distance relay with offset characteristic may be used for protection against loss of
excitation. The offset is by an amount equal to Xd’/2. The impedance setting of the relay is |Xd| at an
angle of -90" as shown in figure. In order to give time for change over to the standby exciter by the
control circuitry, the relay operation can be delayed by about 0.5-3 s.
E=4.44 f B A N

Digitally simulated positive sequence impedence trajectory of a 200MVA generator connected to an infinite bus through a
8% impedance transformer when field voltage was removed at 0 secs.

Loss of Prime Mover

In case of loss of prime mover, i.e. loss of mechanical input, the machine continues to remain
synchronized with the grid, running as a synchronous motor. The machine, now, draws a small
amount of active power (compared to its rating) from the grid in order to drive the turbine and meet
the losses taking place in the machine. At the same time, the machine supplies reactive power to the
grid since its excitation is intact. This is depicted in figure. Running in this mode is not harmful to the
generator, but is definitely harmful to a prime mover like a steam turbine. Temperature of the trapped
steam in the turbine rises and damages the blades. Therefore, the loss of prime mover needs quick
detection followed by tripping of generator.
When the prime mover is lost, the generator starts drawing real power from the grid, supplying the
reactive power to the grid as before. The real power drawn from the grid is quite small compared with
the generator rating. The generator draws real power, which is just enough to meet the losses and
the load put on it by the turbine. Hence, the magnitude of stator current is smaller than when it was
generating, but the stator current undergoes 180° phase shift as shown in figure.

This suggests that if we use a reverse power relay to detect the loss of prime mover. However the
magnitude of the reverse power is quite small. Hence, the reverse power relay for detecting the loss
of prime mover needs to have a high degree of sensitivity.

Overspeeding
Consider that an alternator is supplying its rated real electrical power Pe to the grid. Its mechanical
input Pm is nearly equal to Pe (except for the losses) and the machine runs at constant synchronous
speed Ns.

Now, consider that due to some fault the generator is tripped and disconnected from the grid. Thus,
Pe becomes zero. However, the mechanical power input Pm cannot be suddenly reduced to zero.
Therefore, we land in a situation where the generator has full input mechanical power but no output
electrical power. This would cause the machine to accelerate to dangerously high speeds, if the
mechanical input is not quickly reduced by the speed-governing mechanism.

Sensing the overspeeding and taking steps such as to stop input to the turbine can provide the
protection against such an eventuality. The speed-governing mechanism or the speed governor of the
turbine is basically responsible for detecting this condition. The over-speeding can also be detected
either by an over-frequency relay or by monitoring the output of the tachogenerator mounted on the
generator shaft. The logic of protection against over-speeding is shown figure.