PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES Arithmetic Means - The terms between any two consecutive

terms of an arithmetic sequence.

An arithmetic sequence - is a sequence where every term
after the first is obtained by adding a constant called the
common difference.

The sequences 1,4,7,10……and 15,11,7,3,…. are examples of

arithmetic sequences since each one has a common difference
of 3 and -4.

Arithmetic Rule

Geometric Sequence - is a sequence in which each term is

obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a fixed number
called the common ratio of the sequence.

Formula for the nth term

 difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the
next number in list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

EXAMPLE 2

USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO

MAKE A CONJECTURE

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply

Example
the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
1. Find the 10th term of the harmonic sequence 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1/6, and subtract 3. Complete the above procedure for several
1/8, ... different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
• Get the reciprocal: 2, 4, 6, 8, ... resulting number and the size of the original number.
• Use the formula an = a1 + (n − 1)d Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the
procedure would produce the following results:
• Substitute:
Original Number: 5
Therefore, 1/20 is the 10th term of the harmonic sequence 1⁄2,
1⁄4, 1/6, 1/8 Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40

Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING Divide by 2: 46/2 = 23
INDUCTIVE REASONING Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20
Inductive Reasoning - is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples. The conclusion
formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a SOLUTION
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20.
Starting with 6 as our original number produces a final result
of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting
EXAMPLE 1 with 100 produces a final result of 400.
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO PREDICT A NUMBER In each of these cases, the resulting number is four times the
original number. We conjecture that the following the given
Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next
procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times
number in each of the following lists.
the original number.
(a) 3, 6, 9, 12, 15.?
INDUCTIVE REASONING TO SOLVE AN APPLICATION
(b) 1, 3 , 6, 10, 15.?
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo
Galilei (1564– 1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that
the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing,
SOLUTION called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of
(A) the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured
Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.” The following table
number. Thus, we predict that the most probable next number shows some results obtained for pendulums of various
in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18. lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches
has been designated as 1 un

(B)

The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and third

numbers differs by 3. It appears that the difference between
any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding
 regions is 31 (see the figure below), not 32 as you may have
guessed.

With seven dots the maximum number of regions is 57. This

EXAMPLE 3
is a good example to keep in mind. Just because a pattern
USE INDUCTIVE REASONING TO SOLVE AN holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will
APPLICATION continue. When you use inductive reasoning, you have no
guarantee that your conclusion is correct.
Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer
each of the following.

a. If a pendulum has a length of 25 units, what is its Deductive Reasoning

period/heartbeats?
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive

SOLUTION
reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by
a. In the table on the previous page, each pendulum has a applying general principles and procedures.
period that is the square root of its length. Thus, we
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion
conjecture that a pendulum with a length of 25 units will have
by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
a period of 5 heartbeats.

b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a

period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. EXAMPLE 4
A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is
USE DEDUCTIVE REASONING TO ESTABLISH A
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears
CONJECTURE
that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following
procedure produces a number that is four times the original
CONCLUSION number.

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to
As an illustration, consider the circles shown below. For each the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract
circle, all possible line segments have been drawn to connect
Let n represent the original number. Multiply the number by
each dot on the circle with all the other dots on the circle.
8: 8n
The maximum numbers of regions formed by connecting dots
Add 6 to the product: 8n+6
on a circle
Divide the sum by 2: (8n+6)/2=4n+3
For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the
line segments that connect the dots on the circle. Your results Subtract 3: 4n+3−3=4n
should agree with the results in the following table.
SOLUTION

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in

this example produces a number that is four times the original
number

INDUCTIVE REASONING VS DEDUCTIVE REASONING

There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to
double the number of regions. Guess the maximum number of Example 5 Determine Types of Reasoning
regions you expect for a circle with six dots. Check your
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an
guess by counting the maximum number of regions formed by
example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
the line segments that connect six dots on a large circle. Your
drawing will show that for six dots, the maximum number of
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every Sarah must be the chef. Place a / in that box. Since Sarah is
other year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this the chef, none of the other three people can be the chef. Write
year the tree will produce plums. X3 for these conditions. There are now X’s for three of the
four occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
Solution
editor. Insert a / to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
specific examples, so it is an example of inductive
reasoning.

Logical Puzzle

•Example 6 Solve a Logic Puzzle

From clue 4, Brian is not a Banker. Write X4 for this
•Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a condition. Since there are three X’s in the Banker column,
different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From Sean must be the banker. Place a / in that box. Thus, Sean
the following clues, determine the occupation of each cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3
neighbor. X’s in the Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a /
in that box
•(1) Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
•(2) Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
•(3) The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time. S
•(4) The banker lives next door to Brian. ean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and
Brian is the dentist

SOLUTION

From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the INTUITION, PROOF, AND CERTAINTY
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row. 1. INTUITION

The term intuition comes from the Latin word intueri,

roughly translated as “to look inside” or “to contemplate.”

There are a lot of definition of an intuition and one of these is

that it is an immediate understanding or knowing something
without reasoning. It does not require a big picture or full
understanding of the problem, as it uses a lot of small pieces
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by of abstract information that you have in your memory to
clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row. We know from create a reasoning leading to your decision just from the
clue 1that the banker is not the last to get home, and we know limited information you have about the problem in hand.
from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah Intuition comes from noticing, thinking and questioning.
is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah’s
row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this

condition. There are now X’s for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore,
 * A statement is a true statement if and only if it is true in all
cases. If you can find one case
The figure above is called Ponzo illusion (1911). There are
two identical yellow lines drawn horizontally in a railway for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample,
track. If you will be observing these two yellow lines, your then the statement is a false statement.
mind tells you that the upper yellow line looks longer than the
Verify that each of the following statements is a false
below yellow line. But in reality, the two lines have equal
statement by finding a counterexample. For all x:
length. For sure, you will be using a ruler to be able to
determine which of the two is longer than the other one. The a. |x|>0
exact reasoning could go like this. The upper yellow line
looks longer because of the converging sides of the railway. b. x^2>x
The farther the line, the longer it looks. The nearer line, the
Solution
shorter it looks. Now, have you tried to use a ruler? What
have you noticed? A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need
only find one counterexample to verify that the statement is
false.
ITS ROLE IN DECISION MAKING
•a. Let x=0. Then |x|>0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we
While we may be mostly unaware of our day-to-day decision have found a counterexample.
making, it is likely to be a mix of intuitive and deliberate
Thus “for all x, |x|>0” is a false statement.
thinking (Hogarth, 2010).
•b. For x=1 we have 1˄2=1 or 1 =1. Since 1 is not greater
And the role of intuition appears to be no different in our
than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all x,
everyday thought processes than in more crucial decisions.
x2>x” is a false statement.
Intuitive decision making is based on our past experiences
3. Certainty
and, therefore, repeatedly successful in similar situations,
where previous outcomes and learning were useful and Certainty is a class of knowledge and prediction that have no
accurate. chance of error. – Dependable, reliable, known or proved to
be true.
Where the current or future situation is significantly different,
we must use our intuition with caution. Without rational
analysis, any decision taken could be ineffective at best or
dangerous at worst. 7 COMMON TYPES OF CERTAINTY

1. High Probability – Future predictions always involve

some degree of uncertainty.
2. PROOF
Example: If you look down at your shoe and it is untied, you
A proof in mathematics is a convincing argument that some may believe with some certainty that you will be able to reach
mathematical statement is true. down and tie it.

A proof should contain enough mathematical detail to be 2. Almost Surely – In probability theory, a probability of
convincing to the person(s) to whom the proof is addressed. 100% is referred to as “almost surely.”

In essence, a proof is an argument that communicates a Example: If you flip a coin, the result will almost surely be
mathematical truth to another person (who has the appropriate one of the following: heads, tails, and a coin that lands on its
mathematical background). A proof must use correct, logical side.
reasoning and be based on previously established results.
These previous results can be axioms, definitions, or 3. Almost Never – Almost never is the opposite of almost
previously proven theorems. These terms are discussed in the surely in probability theory. It refers to a 0% chance of an
sections below. outcome.

Example: When throwing a die, there is almost never a face of

seven.
Example 6

Use counterexample to prove the sentence

4. Objective Truth – An objective truth is something that is Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
almost surely true based on rigorous (accurate) and Make a table or a chart.
objective (actual) evidence. Work backward.
Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
Example: It is an objective truth that the Earth is roughly
Look for a pattern.
spherical, or more accurately the Earth is an oblate spheroid.
Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable
5. Pragmatic Truth – Pragmatic truth is taking everything represents.
you know to be true about something and not going any Perform an experiment.
further. Guess at a solution and check your result.

Example: If you know that the Philippines is a democratic Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).
country, then you are certain that the Philippines is a Work carefully.
democratic country and nothing more. You may have heard Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
that it is a democratic country but you don’t consider this true Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that
unless you are certain. you may have to devise another plan or modify your existing
plan.
6. Certain Belief – It is relatively common for an individual
to view a belief as certain. This doesn’t mean that others
Step 4: Review the Solution (check and interpret).
can’t hold contrary beliefs that they also judge as certain.
Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the
Example: A father may be certain that his daughter did not problem.
cheat on an exam based on faith in her character. The Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
principal of the school may be equally certain in his belief Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution
that the daughter did cheat based on trust in the testimony of that could apply to other problems.
another student. NUMERIC WORD PROBLEMS

7. Infallibility – Infallibility is the belief that something or

someone can’t be wrong. Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that
number. Find the number.
Example: An art student who believes that a particular
artwork is certainly priceless because it is acclaimed by a Example 1:
respected institution.
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Week 9 Since we are looking for a number,
we will let
EM-SOLVING STRATEGY x = a number.
George Polya, known as the father of modern problem-
solving, did extensive studies and wrote numerous Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).
mathematical papers and three books about problem-solving. Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that
number.
Four – steps for problem – solving 2(x-1) = x+4
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve).
Can you restate the problem in your own words?
2(x-1) = x+4
Can you determine what is known about these types of
2x – 2 = x+4
problems?
2x – x = 4 + 2
Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you
X=6
to solve the problem?
Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
Step 4: Review the Solution (check and interpret).
problem?
Therefore, I conclude that the value of x is 6.
What is the goal?
FINAL ANSWER: The number is 6.
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate).
Make a list of the known information. PERCENT PROBLEMS
Make a list of information that is needed.
Draw a diagram. Example 2: Find 45% of 125.
Step 1: Understand the problem.
We are looking for Data Processing and Management
a number that is 45% of 125, we will let x = the value we are
looking for Data Management
- is a process by which information is acquired and
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate). processed to ensure the accessibility and reliability of the
A number that is 45% of 125 data for its users. One of the most important tools in
x = .45(125) processing and managing such information is statistics.
Statistics is utilized in most areas of human endeavor. It
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve). is usually used in education, research, business,
x = .45(125) agriculture, and other fields and even in everyday life
x = 56.25 activities.

Step 4: Review the Solution (check and interpret). Statistics - is a science which deals with the collection,
56.25 is 45% of 125. organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data
FINAL ANSWER: The number is 56.25. so as to give a more meaningful information.

Two Branches of statistics

CONSECUTIVE INTEGERS

Consecutive integers are integers that follow one another in Descriptive statistics - refers to the collection, organization,
order. summary, and presentation of data while inferential statistics
Consecutive EVEN integers are even integers that follow one deals with the interpretation and analysis of data where
another in order. conclusion is drawn based from the subset of the population.
Consecutive ODD integers are odd integers that follow one
another in order. Basic Terms
Some of the basic terminologies and notations involved in
statistics are the following:
Example 3: The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the
integers. a. Population - a collection or set of things or objects under
consideration
Step 1: Understand the problem. b. Sample - a subset or representative group of the
Make sure that you read the question carefully several times. population
We are looking for 3 consecutive c. Data - refers to the information gathered in a research
integers, we will let d. Array – listing of observations which are arranged in an
x = 1st consecutive integer increasing or decreasing magnitude
x + 1 = 2nd consecutive integer e. Parameter - a value which is computed from a
x + 2 = 3rd consecutive integer population
f. Statistic – a value which is computed from a sample
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate). g. Variable – a characteristic of interest that has been
The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. observed or measured on every member of the population
x + (x + 1) + (x +2) = 258 or sample.

Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve). Classification of Statistical Data

x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 258
3x + 3 = 258 • Primary data – information gathered from respondents by
3x = 258 – 3 the researcher himself.
3x = 255 • Secondary data – information obtained from published
3x/3 = 255/3 materials or data gathered by other individuals or agencies.
x = 85 These are the data which are transcribed from original
sources.
Step 4: Review the Solution (check and interpret).
The sum of 85, 86 and 87 does check to be 258. A variable may be quantitative or qualitative where
FINAL ANSWER: The three consecutive integers are 85, 86,
and 87. quantitative variable is further classified as
discrete or continuous. Remark: The scale of measurement depends mainly on the
method of measurements and not on the property being
Quantitative/Numerical variable measured.
– describes the amount or number of an element of a sample For instance, the weight of a pack of milk measured in
or population kilograms has an interval scale but if the boxes are labelled as
▪ Discrete – takes on a countable amount (it is usually one of small, medium or large, the weight is measured in an
expressed as whole number) ordinal scale.
Example: number of books owned by a student
▪ Continuous – measured in a continuous scale (it takes any Measure of Central Tendency
value within a range or interval)
Example: height of the students (in feet) A measure of central tendency (or central location) is a
single value that is used to identify the “center” of the data set
Qualitative/Categorical variable or set of observations.
– describes the quality, category, or character of an
element of a population or sample. Three Measures of Central Tendency
Examples: gender (male or female) hair color (black, brown,
blonde) level of satisfaction of a student on his grade (highly Mean
satisfied, satisfied, not satisfied) Example1: The scores of five students who are selected
randomly in a class of the Math 01 are as follows: 44, 37, 41,
35, and 32. Find the average score.
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Measurement
- numbers or symbols are used to code or classify each The means of subgroups can be combined to come up with
element in the population. the group mean known as weighted mean.
Note that the assigned numbers have no numerical meaning.
Examples: gender, educational background, employment
status Example2: If the final examination of a class in statistics is
given the weight 2, the average quizzes the weight 3, and a
Ordinal Measurement project report weight 1, what would be the mean grade of a
– uses numerical category that expresses the meaningful student who got the grades of 90, 85, and 87 respectively.
order. There is no indication of distance between positions.
The numbers become meaningful because they reveal whether
one class or category is more or less than the other. Categories Remarks
are ranked according to the order of their value on the The mean may not be an actual observation in the date set.
property like first, second, third; oldest, next oldest, youngest. The mean reflects the magnitude of every observation since
Example: rank in the beauty contest every observation contributes to the value of the mean.
The mean is not a good measure of central tendency if there is
Interval Measurement an extreme value or observation since it is easily affected by
– has equal intervals. There is significance to the distance extreme values. The best measure of center for this case is the
between any two values. It tells us that one unit differs by a median.
certain amount of the property from another unit. It has no
absolute zero. Median
Example: Aptitude test, temperature Example3
The number of books owned by the eleven children are as
follows: 5, 2, 4, 6, 5, 10, 7, 6, 9, 8,6. What is the median?
Solution:
Ratio Measurement Arrange the data in an array form: 2, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9,
– A variable measured at this level not only includes the 10. Since the list contains 11 numbers then the median is the
concepts of order and interval, but also includes the idea of middlemost value (6th number) which is 6.
’nothingness’, or absolute zero.
Example: Measurement of height, weight, ages example4

Remarks
1. The median value may not be an actual observation in the
data set.
2. The median is a positional value; hence, it is not affected
by the presence of extreme observations.
3. When the data is qualitative, median is not a possible
measure so described the center by determining the
mode.

Mode
The mode is an observation that occurs most frequently in the
given data set.
Example5:
Find the mode in the following sets of scores.
a) 36, 36, 12, 29, 35, 45. 50, 45, 45, 53
b) 8, 7, 6, 5, 6, 9, 2, 3, 11,
11, 43, 10
c) 39, 23, 25, 25, 63, 37, 45, 37, 48, 51, 28, 45, 50
d) 2, 9, 8, 12, 5, 13, 6, 10
Solution:
45
6 and 11
25, 37 and 45
No mode

Example6:
What is the modal color of the shirt worn by the students if
the data gathered were as follows: white, gray, gray, black,
white, red, red, gray, black, white, white, red, gray, red, gray,
black, red, red, gray, gray, black?
Solution:
Since gray has the highest frequency, it follows that the modal
color of the shirt worn by the students is gray.

Remarks
1. The mode can be used for both quantitative and qualitative
data.
2. It is very much affected by the method of grouping.
3. It is determined by the frequency and not by the values of
the observations.