See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/371289029

DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Article in Artificial Intelligence Review · June 2023

DOI: 10.1007/s10462-023-10513-4

CITATIONS READS

19 705

3 authors, including:

Jaspal Kaur Saini

IIIT UNA
16 PUBLICATIONS 126 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Jaspal Kaur Saini on 17 October 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Artificial Intelligence Review
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-023-10513-4

DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet

of Things

Divyansh Thakur1 · Jaspal Kaur Saini1 · Srikant Srinivasan2

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2023

Abstract
The integration of Deep Learning (DL) and the Internet of Things (IoT) has revolution-
ized technology in the twenty-first century, enabling humans and machines to perform
tasks more efficiently. The combination of DL and the IoT has resulted in significant
advancements in technology by improving the efficiency, security, and user experience of
IoT devices and systems. The integration of DL and IoT offers several benefits, includ-
ing improved data processing and analysis capabilities, the ability for IoT devices to learn
from data and adapt to changing conditions, and the early detection of system malfunctions
and potential security breaches. This survey paper provides a comprehensive overview of
the impact of DL on IoT, including an analysis of sensor data to detect patterns and make
predictions, and the implications for various industries such as healthcare, manufacturing,
agriculture, and smart cities. The survey paper covers topics such as DL models, frame-
works, IoT connectivity terminologies, IoT components, IoT service-oriented architecture,
IoT applications, the role of DL in IoT, and challenges faced by DL in IoT. The study also
presents quantitative achievements that highlight the potential impact of IoT and DL in
environmental contexts such as precision farming and energy consumption. Overall, the
survey paper provides an excellent resource for researchers interested in exploring the
potential of IoT and DL in their field.

Keywords Deep learning · Deep learning models · Strength of deep learning · Activation
functions · IoT · IoT applications · IoT challenges in deep learning

* Divyansh Thakur
[email protected]
Jaspal Kaur Saini
[email protected]
Srikant Srinivasan
[email protected]
1
School of Computing, Indian Institute of Information Technology Una, Una, India
2
Plaksha University, Mohali, India

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 D. Thakur et al.

1 Introduction

For centuries, humans have dreamed of creating machines that could stimulate the human
brain. Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Russell 2010) is the key solution that mimics the work-
ing of the human brain and incorporates all those functionalities of the human brain into
machines to make machines think and respond like humans. AI is a field of computer sci-
ence that focuses on developing machines or systems capable of carrying out activities that
would typically necessitate human intellect, including speech recognition, decision-mak-
ing, language translation, and visual perception. AI has the capacity to bring about a radi-
cal transformation in numerous industries and can alter our way of life and work. However,
it also presents moral and social difficulties like privacy concerns and job displacement.
Machine learning (ML) is a subset of AI that involves creating algorithms and statistical
models that allow machines to learn from data and make decisions or predictions without
being explicitly programmed (Mitchell 2007). These algorithms can be trained on a variety
of data sources, such as images, text, or sensor readings, to identify patterns and relation-
ships within the data. The main goal of ML is to create models that can make predictions
or decisions that generalize well to new, unseen data. There are three primary types of ML
algorithms: supervised learning (Cunningham et al. 2008), unsupervised learning (Celebi
and Aydin 2016), and reinforcement learning (Sutton and Barto 2018). In supervised learn-
ing, the machine is provided with a labelled dataset and can learn to predict the output for
a new input based on the examples in the dataset. For example, a supervised learning algo-
rithm could be trained to classify images of animals as either dogs or cats based on labelled
examples of each. In unsupervised learning, the machine is given an unlabelled dataset
and must find patterns or structures in the data on its own. This type of learning is often
used for tasks such as clustering or anomaly detection, where the goal is to identify groups
or anomalies in the data. Lastly, reinforcement learning involves the ML by interacting
with an environment and receiving feedback in the form of rewards or penalties. These
three types of ML algorithms play a significant role in enabling machines to learn, adapt,
and improve their decision-making capabilities. With the increasing availability of data and
computing resources, ML has become a critical component in many industries, including
healthcare, finance, and transportation, among others. By allowing machines to learn from
data, ML has the potential to transform how we interact with technology and solve com-
plex problems.
ML algorithms have a diverse range of applications, including image and speech recog-
nition, natural language processing (NLP), and detection of anomalies. The effectiveness
of these algorithms is traditionally determined by the quality of the input data represen-
tation. A flawed representation can result in subpar performance compared to a superior
representation. Additionally, ML may fail when dealing with vast amounts of data and may
necessitate human involvement to improve and train. The growth of big data, the expansion
of computational capacity, and the advancements in algorithms have enabled the creation
of cutting-edge ML models, such as Deep Learning (DL) (Goodfellow et al. 2016), that can
tackle complex tasks.
To manage large quantities of data and minimize human involvement, DL is cru-
cial. The roots of DL can be traced back to Aristotle’s associationism in 300 B.C.,
one of the earliest endeavours to comprehend the human brain. In 1943, the McCull-
och–Pitts (MCP) model (Hayman 1999) marked the beginning of the modern era of DL
and served as the prototype for artificial neural networks (ANNs). Subsequently, the
Hebbian theory (Brown and Milner 2003), originally applied to biological systems in

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

nature, was introduced. In 1958, the perceptron (Minsky and Papert 1988), the first elec-
tronic device in the field of cognition systems, was developed.
DL employs deep neural networks, also referred to as multi-layered neural networks.
These networks are modelled after the human brain’s information processing and are
particularly effective for tasks Examples of these include recognizing images and
speech, processing natural language, and making decisions. DL models can be trained
using extensive data and learn features and representations automatically from the data.
The primary benefit of DL models is that they are capable of making predictions or
decisions based on data without the need for human input or manual feature engineer-
ing. DL models are utilized predominantly in computer vision, NLP, speech recognition,
recommendation systems and prediction. They can be trained through methods such as
supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning, allowing them to execute tasks
such as image/speech recognition, NLP, and decision-making.
DL models form the foundation of various cutting-edge methods and are widely
applied across various industries, including finance, healthcare, transportation, retail,
and more. The field is rapidly evolving, and researchers are constantly exploring new
ways to improve the effectiveness of these models through new architectures and tech-
niques. DL algorithms empower computers to gain knowledge through experience and
perceive the world through a hierarchy of concepts, each described in terms of its rela-
tionship to basic logic (Schmidhuber 2015). These methods have brought about dra-
matic improvements in the domains of speech recognition (Deng 2016) visual object
recognition (Cichy et al. 2016), object detection (Zhao et al. 2019), and many other
areas such as genomics and drug discovery.
The Internet of Things (IoT) (Wortmann and Flüchter 2015), is coming across as the
next wave of revolution in the era of computing sensors or networks (Thakur et al. 2019).
The ability to retrieve data from sensors and actuators embedded in our local environment.
IoT technology allows devices to communicate with each other and with a central system,
enabling the automation of various processes and the collection of data for analysis. This
can lead to increased efficiency, cost savings, and improved decision-making in a wide
range of industries such as manufacturing, transportation, healthcare, and home automa-
tion. IoT devices can be connected through wired or wireless networks, including a wide
range of devices such as smart thermostats, security cameras, industrial machines, and
wearable devices.
The IoT relies on several key technologies to function effectively. One of the most
important is sensor technology (Gharibzahedi et al. 2022), which allows IoT devices to col-
lect data from the physical world. Sensors are capable of measuring a wide range of physi-
cal properties, including temperature, humidity, pressure, and motion. Another critical
technology for IoT is wireless communication (Khanh et al. 2022), as devices must be able
to communicate with one another and other systems. Bluetooth, Zigbee, and LoRaWAN
are common wireless technologies used in IoT. Cloud computing (Phasinam et al. 2022) is
also essential, as IoT devices generate vast amounts of data that require storage and anal-
ysis. Cloud computing provides a cost-effective solution to manage this data and offers
scalability. Furthermore, big data technologies (Zhou 2022) and analytics are used to pro-
cess and analyze this data to extract insights and make decisions. As the volume of data
produced by IoT devices grows, edge computing (Kong et al. 2022) has become crucial
technology, enabling data processing to take place closer to the source and reducing the
amount of data that needs to be transmitted to the cloud.
The IoT is rapidly evolving and is expected to significantly impact many aspects of our
lives, from how we live and work to how we travel and consume goods and services.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

1.1 Duo of DL and IoT

The fusion of IoT and DL has led to a transformative shift in our interaction with
machines and devices. DL, which is a subdivision of ML, involves instructing algo-
rithms to identify patterns in data. Meanwhile, IoT pertains to the interconnected net-
work of physical objects, structures, vehicles, and other devices fitted with sensors, soft-
ware, and connectivity for the purpose of exchanging data. The amalgamation of these
two technologies has facilitated the development of intelligent machines and devices
that can function independently and process vast amounts of information in real-time.
The coupling of DL and IoT has the potential to revolutionize various industries, rang-
ing from healthcare to manufacturing, by enabling efficient decision-making, automa-
tion, and predictive maintenance.
DL integration into IoT enables devices to make decisions and predictions using data,
through neural networks that mimic human brain processing. This integration leads to
more intelligent devices capable of tasks such as object recognition, speech recognition
and anomaly detection. It also results in more efficient and accurate data processing,
improving overall IoT system performance.
DL is a critical technology in the IoT, and it has several key applications. One of the
most important is object recognition (Salari et al. 2022), which uses DL algorithms to
enable IoT devices to recognize and identify objects in images and videos. This can be
used in applications such as security, surveillance, and robotics. DL algorithms can also
be used for anomaly detection (Xia et al. 2022a), which can help identify potential prob-
lems with equipment or systems by analyzing sensor data. Another application is pre-
dictive maintenance (Achouch et al. 2022), where DL algorithms analyze sensor data to
predict when equipment or systems are likely to fail, allowing for proactive maintenance
to be performed. DL algorithms can also be used for speech recognition (Li 2022),
allowing IoT devices to understand and respond to spoken commands in applications
such as voice assistants and home automation. Additionally, DL enables IoT devices to
process and understand natural language input (Khurana et al. 2023), which can be used
in applications such as language-based interaction and personal assistance. Moreover,
DL can be used to create recommender systems (Wu et al. 2022) that provide custom-
ized suggestions to users based on their preferences, past actions, and habits.
Overall, the integration of DL in IoT can improve the performance and functionality
of IoT systems by allowing devices to make decisions and predictions based on data and
also make them more intelligent and efficient. Moreover, DL algorithms can be used
to analyze sensor data from IoT devices to make predictions or detect patterns, which
can be used to improve the efficiency of IoT systems and automate decision-making.
Additionally, DL can be used to improve the security of IoT systems by detecting and
preventing cyberattacks. Some examples of DL in IoT include image recognition on
cameras, voice recognition for smart speakers, and anomaly detection in manufacturing.
This paper is aimed at IoT researchers and developers who aim to create analytics,
AI systems, and learning solutions using DL techniques for their IoT infrastructure. The
paper makes the following contributions:

1. Identifies and discusses the importance of different DL frameworks required for estab-
lishing an IoT network, highlighting the strength of DL in handling large, complex
datasets.

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

2. Provides an in-depth explanation of the functioning of various DL models that can be

used in an IoT network, showcasing the strength of DL in extracting patterns and features
from raw data.
3. Presents a comprehensive overview of the different applications of IoT where DL can be
integrated, including real-world examples, demonstrating the strength of DL in enabling
predictive and prescriptive analytics for IoT systems.
4. Offers a detailed explanation of the components, layers, and terminology related to
connectivity and communication technologies required for setting up an IoT network,
emphasizing the strength of DL in enabling real-time decision-making and automation.
5. Examines the challenges and difficulties in integrating DL and IoT applications, includ-
ing issues related to data management, security, and privacy, highlighting the strength
of DL in enabling effective and efficient data processing and analysis for IoT systems.

2 Paper layout

The paper is organized in the following manner: Section 2 outlines the survey procedure.
Section 3 discusses biological neurons, ANNs, perceptrons, and the functioning of neu-
ral networks. Section 4 discusses DL architectures, activation functions, and DL frame-
works. Section 5 provides a comprehensive overview of IoT characteristics, connectivity
terms, components, service-oriented architecture, layers, communication technologies,
and applications. Section 6 examines the application of DL in IoT devices and applica-
tions. Section 7 highlights the open challenges in IoT for DL. Section 8 concludes the
paper with a summary. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the paper’s overall
structure, while Table 1 presents the same information in a tabular format.

Fig. 1  Visual representation of the layout of a research paper, including its sections, headings, and subhead-
ings

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Table 1  Tabular layout of paper

Section no. Section Sub section no. Sub section

1. Introduction 1.1 Duo of DL and IoT

2. Paper layout – –
3. Research methodology 3.1 Survey scope
3.2 Research questions
3.3 Source of information
4. Findings of the survey – –
5. Neural network 5.1 Biological neurons
5.2 ANNs
5.3 Perceptrons
5.4 Functioning of neural network
6. DL 6.1 Significance of DL
6.2 Activation functions
6.3 DL models
6.4 DL framework
7. IoT 7.1 Characteristics of IoT
7.2 Connectivity terminologies
7.3 IoT components
7.4 IoT service-oriented architecture
7.5 IoT layers
7.6 Communication technologies
7.7 IoT applications
8. Usage of DL in IoT applica- 8.1 DL for IoT applications
tions and IoT devices 8.2 DL in IoT devices
9. Challenges of IoT for DL – –
10. Conclusion – –

3 Research methodology

3.1 Survey scope

In this survey, various DL models and deep neural network architectures are presented,
which are suitable for use in IoT applications and devices have been reviewed. The main
projection of this survey is to focus on the combined capabilities of two evolving tech-
nologies one in the field of AI that is DL and the second in the field of communication
that is IoT. With the help of this survey, various researchers can attain knowledge about
the role of DL in various fields of IoT.

3.2 Research questions

The motive of this in-depth survey is to attain the answers to the following research
questions (RQ):

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• RQ1 What are the various frameworks for DL?

• RQ2 What are the various DL models which can be used in IoT data?
• RQ3 What are the IoT challenges for DL?
• RQ4 What will be the future direction for the usage of DL in IoT?
• RQ5 What are the computational limits of DL?
• RQ6 What are the strengths of DL in IoT?

3.3 Source of information

Due to the extensive scope of research articles, it is recommended that various databases
be utilized to survey the existing literature in the field of the role of DL in IoT, due to
the broad range of research articles. Six research databases were therefore searched in this
study, including:

• Google Scholar (https://​schol​ar.​google.​com/).

• IEEE (https://​www.​ieee.​org/).
• Springer (Home—Springer).
• Elsevier (https://​www.​elsev​ier.​com/​en-​in).
• Science Direct (https://​www.​scien​cedir​ect.​com/).
• ACM digital library (https://​dl.​acm.​org/).

The choice of six research sources in this study was made based on several factors.
Firstly, these six databases are some of the most widely used and respected sources of
scientific literature in the field of computer science and engineering, with a vast collection
of research articles related to DL and IoT. Secondly, searching these six databases ensures
that the study covers a broad range of research articles, which is important given the exten-
sive scope of research in this field. Thirdly, these six databases offer a range of search func-
tionalities and options, which allowed for a comprehensive and focused search on the topic
of DL in IoT. Finally, the choice of six research sources was also guided by practical con-
siderations such as time and resource constraints. Conducting a comprehensive search of
all available databases would have been time-consuming and costly, and six databases were
deemed to be a reasonable compromise between breadth and feasibility. Overall, the choice
of these six research sources was based on their reputation, breadth of coverage, search
functionality, and practical considerations, and was deemed to be appropriate for this study.
The following criteria’s were taken into consideration when choosing the six research
sources:

• Relevance: the sources had to be relevant to our research questions and objectives.
• Credibility: we selected sources that were published by reputable academic publishers
and peer-reviewed journals.
• Recency: we preferred sources that were recently published (within the last 5 years) to
ensure that the information was up-to-date.
• Accessibility: we considered sources that were easily accessible to us, such as open
access or available through our institutional library.
• Diversity: we aimed to include sources from a variety of publishers and journals to
ensure a diverse range of perspectives.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

By using these criteria, we were able to identify six research sources that met our needs
and provided a comprehensive and high-quality foundation for our paper.

4 Findings of the survey

The IoT has emerged as one of the most transformative technologies in recent times, ena-
bling smart and interconnected systems that can operate autonomously and make intelli-
gent decisions based on data. With the increasing amount of data generated by IoT devices
and the need for intelligent decision-making, DL algorithms provide the necessary tools to
process and analyze this data in real-time. As such, there has been a rising trend in adopt-
ing DL in IoT devices and domains, with a broad range of practical applications. In this
survey paper, we investigate the versatility of DL in the realm of IoT and provide insights
into the role of DL frameworks, DL models, challenges in implementing DL in IoT, and
future directions for DL in IoT. Our findings highlight the potential of DL to revolutionize
IoT devices and applications and provide recommendations for organizations looking to
adopt DL in their IoT systems.
One of the key aspects of DL is the use of frameworks, which provide an interface for
developers to build, train, and deploy DL models. There are several popular frameworks
available, including TensorFlow, PyTorch, Deeplearning4j, Microsoft cognitive toolkit,
Keras, MXNet, and Caffe. Each of these frameworks has its own strengths and capabilities,
making it important to choose the right one for a given project.
DL models are used in a variety of ways in IoT, including for anomaly detection, pre-
dictive maintenance, image and speech recognition, time-series forecasting, data compres-
sion and dimensionality reduction, decision-making, and more. Some of the most com-
monly used DL models include Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), Recurrent Neural
Networks (RNNs), Autoencoders (AE), Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs), Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) Networks, Variational Autoencoders (VAE), and others.
Implementing DL models in IoT devices can be challenging due to several factors,
including limited computing power and memory, a lack of labelled data for training mod-
els, power consumption and energy constraints, limited bandwidth and connectivity, secu-
rity and privacy concerns, integration with legacy systems and protocols, scalability and
management of many devices, and cost and deployment barriers. To overcome these chal-
lenges, organizations can adopt techniques such as edge computing, federated learning,
transfer learning, and compatibility standards.
DL will play a crucial role in the future of IoT by enabling devices to make decisions
based on data and perform tasks with minimal human intervention. Integrating DL into IoT
will improve the efficiency of various applications such as predictive maintenance, smart
homes, and autonomous vehicles. The future direction for DL in IoT will likely include
edge computing, predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, computer vision, and NLP.
However, DL models also have several computational limits, including data require-
ments, computational power, overfitting, data privacy and bias, interpretability, conver-
gence, and generalization. It is important to consider these limitations when developing DL
models for IoT applications.

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

5 Neural network

Neural networks imitate the functioning of the human brain, enabling computers to iden-
tify and predict patterns, as well as tackle complex challenges in the realm of ML and DL.
Neural networks consist of interconnected processing units called neurons, which collabo-
rate to analyze and process information. They have proven to be highly effective in solving
complex problems and are widely used in various applications, such as image and speech
recognition, NLP, and autonomous systems. This section provides a summary of neural
networks, ANNs, and the learning process of neural networks.

5.1 Biological neurons

The whole idea behind DL is to have computers artificially mimic biological natural intel-
ligence. Before proceeding to neural networks, we should probably build a general under-
standing of how biological neurons works. Neurons are the basic functional units of our
nervous system, they generate biological signals which help them to transmit information.
All neurons have three main units as shown in Fig. 2 which are:

• Dendrites (Li et al. 2020a) are responsible for receiving incoming signals, they make
neurons produce and stop output signals.
• Cell body (Soma) (Zou et al. 2008) A single neuron can receive thousands of incoming
signals through multiple dendrites and whether or not a neuron generates an output sig-
nal depends on the sum of all excitatory and inhibiting signals. The processing of this
information occurs inside the cell body (soma).
• Axon (Zaimi et al. 2018) The axon is responsible for transmitting output signals from
the neuron to targeted cells. In the brain, a network of neurons connected through
chemical and electrical impulses is referred to as a neural network. Neurons use elec-
trical signals or impulses to perform mental processes like thinking, memory recall,

Fig. 2  Anatomy of a biological neuron showing input and output structures

13
 D. Thakur et al.

and learning. The neuron sends the electrical impulse along its axon or nerve fibre.
The axon terminates in several branches called dendrites. When the impulse reaches the
dendrites, neurotransmitters are released into the space between cells. The cells across
this space have receptors that attach to the neurotransmitters, leading to changes in the
cells.

5.2 ANNs

ANNs are modelled on the architecture and operation of biological neurons in the
human brain. In ANNs, the analogue of biological neurons are layers comprised of
interconnected nodes that transmit signals to other nodes (Pantic et al. 2022). In an
ANN, each node is connected to other nodes with a weight and threshold value. When
the output of a node surpasses the threshold, the node is activated and forwards infor-
mation to the next layer of the network. If not, no data transfer occurs. The structure of
an ANN is depicted in Fig. 3 and consists of the following elements:

• Input layers, where the input data is entered from the outside world and then processed
and categorized.
• Hidden layers, there are a lot of hidden layers in a neural network, where the processing
of the input data takes place.
• Output layers, where the response is generated and delivered, in one output node the
output is found to be either 0 or 1.

Every node takes data input and assigns a weight to it. The node with more weight con-
tributes more to the output than the node with less weight. Some of the ANNs models in
practice are CNN, Multi-Layer Perceptrons (MLP) and RNN.

Fig. 3  Schematic diagram of an ANNs, highlighting its layers and connections

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

5.3 Perceptrons

The concept of perceptron was introduced by American psychologist, Frank Rosenblatt

(https://​news.​corne​ll.​edu/​stori​es/​2019/​09/​profe​ssors-​perce​ptron-​paved-​way-​ai-​60-​years-​
too-​soon) in 1957 at Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. Perceptrons are basic functional
units of ANNs. They are mathematical functions which take some set of inputs along
with parameters and generate output. Each perceptron has three basic functions:

• Take inputs.
• Associate weights with inputs and sum them up.
• Pass the sum in some function to generate output.

Perceptrons consist of a single node, or neuron, that receives input, processes the input
through a set of weights and biases, and produces a single output. The weights and
biases are adjustable, allowing the perceptron to learn from the input–output pairs it is
presented with during training. Perceptrons are considered to be the building blocks of
more complex neural networks and are often used for binary classification problems,
where the goal is to separate the input into two distinct classes based on the output.
A single perceptron cannot learn complex systems, but a multi-layered perceptron,
also known as a neural network, can. This is achieved by connecting multiple percep-
trons and using the output of one as input for the others, enabling the network to learn
about the interactions and relationships between features. Figure 4 illustrates the func-
tioning of a multi-layered perceptron model. The functionalities of different layers are:

• The first layer in a neural network is the input layer, which receives the input vector “x”
for the network to learn from. The input layer has the same number of neurons as the
entries in the input vector, with each neuron corresponding to a specific entry.
• The final layer in a neural network is the output layer, which can contain multiple neu-
rons. The output layer produces the vector “y,” representing the result generated by the
network.

Fig. 4  Perceptron model depicting its key components: inputs, weights, bias, and output

13
 D. Thakur et al.

The layers between the input and output layers in a neural network are referred to as the
hidden layers. These layers perform mathematical operations to generate a prediction vec-
tor “y”.
Here is how the perceptron model operates:

• Input values are fed to the model.

• The input values are multiplied by the weights to calculate the weighted sum and a bias
term is added.
• The procured result decides whether the perceptron will activate or not. If the result is
above the threshold then the perceptron will fire, otherwise, it will not.

The perceptron is considered to be working well if the predicted output is close to the
actual output for a given input. To minimize the impact of these errors on future predic-
tions, the weights need to be adjusted if there is any discrepancy between the expected
and actual results. The correct weights and biases in a perceptron are determined through
a process called training. During training, the model is presented with a set of input–out-
put pairs, and the weights and biases are adjusted to minimize the error between the pre-
dicted and actual outputs. This adjustment of weights and biases is done iteratively until
the model produces an acceptable level of accuracy. Common training algorithms include
gradient descent, stochastic gradient descent, and backpropagation.

5.4 Functioning of neural network

Neural networks learn by adjusting the connections between their artificial neurons in
response to input data. This process is called training, and it involves feeding the network
large amounts of labelled examples so that it can gradually improve its ability to make pre-
dictions or decisions. During training, the network uses a mathematical algorithm called
backpropagation to calculate the error or loss between its predictions and the actual labels.
It then uses this error signal to adjust the weights of its connections, in a way that reduces
the overall error. Over time, with enough training data and iterations, the network learns to
recognize patterns and relationships in the data, and can make accurate predictions even on
new, unseen examples. This ability to generalize from training data is what makes neural
networks so powerful and versatile for tasks such as image recognition, language transla-
tion, and decision making.
A neural network learns by modifying its weights and biases through a training pro-
cess that involves several steps. The first step is forward propagation, where the input data
is processed and used to generate a prediction for the output. The loss function is then
used to measure the difference between the predicted output and the actual output, and
this is minimized through a process called backpropagation. During backpropagation, the
network adjusts its weights and biases based on the error calculated by the loss function.
Gradient descent is used to update the weights and biases in a direction that minimizes the
loss, and this process is repeated until the minimum loss is achieved. This cycle of forward
propagation, loss calculation, backpropagation, and gradient descent is repeated multiple
times until the network converges to a set of weights and biases that result in accurate pre-
dictions. By learning the underlying patterns in the data, the neural network can improve
its predictions over time.
The forward propagation process (Tang et al. 2015) in a neural network involves tak-
ing input X and using it to calculate a prediction vector Y. This is done by multiplying the

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

input vector X and weight matrix W between two layers to produce a vector Z. The activa-
tion function is applied to convert Z into the output of the perceptron and fed to the next
layer. In a multi-layer neural network, this process is repeated using different weight matri-
ces for every two consecutive layers. The value of a perceptron in a layer is a linear com-
bination of activations from the previous layer and some weights. During training, these
weights are adjusted to improve the accuracy of the predictions. After making predictions,
the neural network is evaluated using a loss function to measure the difference between the
prediction and actual value (Li et al. 2019). Equation 1 shows the mathematical expression
for evaluating the loss value. Where L is the loss, ypred is the predicted value, and y is the
actual value
1
L= (y − y)2 (1)
2 pred
Minimizing the loss function leads to more accurate predictions, with two of the most com-
monly used loss functions being Mean Squared Error and Cross-Entropy. To minimize the
loss function and improve the predictions, gradient descent is used, which consists of for-
ward propagation to calculate the prediction vector and backpropagation to fine-tune the
weights and bias terms. Backpropagation involves travelling from the output layer to the
input layer, adjusting the weights and bias terms using the gradient of the loss function.
This process continues until the optimal weights are reached and the neural network is
capable of making desired predictions.

6 Deep Learning

Deep Learning (DL) is a branch of AI that emulates the human brain in processing data
and generating patterns that are valuable in decision-making. The term ‘Deep’ refers to
the multiple layers in the model, while ‘Learning’ refers to the ability to learn from these
layers. In this way, DL models analyse input data to extract high-level abstractions across
multiple layers. The goal of DL is to educate computers to learn through examples and
previous experiences.
DL focuses on creating ANNs with multiple layers, referred to as deep neural networks.
These networks are designed to automatically learn from large amounts of data and make
predictions or decisions based on input data. DL has proven to be highly effective in solv-
ing complex problems in various domains, such as image and speech recognition, NLP,
and self-driving cars. This success is due to the ability of DL algorithms to model high-
level abstractions and representations of data, allowing them to make highly accurate
predictions.
DL models offer high accuracy in recognizing patterns in real-life scenarios by being
fed a training set of labelled data. During the training phase, data is provided to the com-
puter to learn from, while during the testing phase, the trained system is given new data
and asked to predict the label. Deep neural networks consist of three layers: input, hid-
den, and output. Each layer contains multiple units called neurons, which receive multiple
inputs, calculate a weighted sum of these inputs, and produce an output through an activa-
tion function. Each neuron has a weight and bias that are optimized during training.
DL is playing a crucial role in several cutting-edge technologies such as driverless cars
(Kuutti et al. 2020), voice assistants (Andics et al. 2010), sentiment analysis (Zhang et al.
2018a), healthcare (Esteva et al. 2019), agriculture (Kamilaris and Prenafeta-Boldú 2018)

13
 D. Thakur et al.

and many more. According to LeCun et al. (2015a), DL has made significant progress in
solving complex problems that have challenged AI for many years. It is particularly adept
at uncovering intricate patterns in high-dimensional data and is therefore applicable to
numerous fields including engineering, science, business, and agriculture. DL has shown
outstanding results for various tasks in NLP, sentiment analysis, question answering and
language translation.
A strong advantage of DL is feature learning (Li et al. 2014), i.e. DL extracts the fea-
tures automatically from raw data. More complex problems can be easily solved by DL in a
fast manner with the help of a powerful computer system. DL is a rapidly growing field in
AI that focuses on learning high-level representations of data. It uses hierarchical architec-
tures to identify patterns and relationships in complex data and has seen successful appli-
cation in various domains, including semantic parsing (Quispe and Pedrini 2019), trans-
fer learning (Shao et al. 2014), NLP (Otter et al. 2020), computer vision (Alyamkin et al.
2019), and more. With its increasing popularity and proven effectiveness, DL is expected
to continue advancing and expanding into new areas in the future.
In this section, we will provide an overview of several key aspects of DL, including
the significance of this rapidly advancing field, the importance of activation functions, and
various DL models such as CNN, RNN, AE, VAE, and GAN. Additionally, we will explore
DL frameworks and their role in enabling the development and implementation of complex
models in a more efficient and streamlined manner. By gaining an understanding of these
important components, we can appreciate the significant impact that DL is having across
numerous industries and fields, and its potential for continued growth and innovation in the
future.

6.1 Significance of DL

Before the surge in the popularity of DL, conventional ML algorithms such as SVM, Lin-
ear Regression, and Logistic Regression were utilized. These algorithms faced a challenge
in that they were not capable of processing raw data directly, instead requiring a labori-
ous and knowledge-intensive step known as Feature Extraction. However, Neural Networks
became sought after due to their capability of automatically extracting features from raw
data without the need for pre-processing, a process known as Feature Learning. The abun-
dance of data is another factor contributing to the rise of DL. With vast amounts of infor-
mation available, there are numerous opportunities for advancements in this field, leverag-
ing the power of big data to drive innovation.
Dr Andrew Ng (https://​schol​ar.​google.​com/​citat​ions?​user=​mG4im​MEAAA​AJ&​hl=​
en&​oi=​ao) is a renowned professor and AI expert who has compared DL to rocket science.
He has stated that DL models are like rocket engines and the large amounts of data fed
to them serve as fuel, which helps to propel the models towards their intended goal. This
comparison highlights the importance of having large amounts of data to train DL algo-
rithms and the complexity involved in designing and building these models.
The key advantage of DL models is that they can learn to make predictions or decisions
based on the data without human intervention or feature engineering. The models can be
trained using large amounts of data, and they automatically learn features and representa-
tions from the data, allowing them to perform feature extraction without the need for pre-
processing steps. The rise of DL is also attributed to the availability of vast amounts of
data, which provides opportunities for innovation in the field. With advancements in tech-
nology, DL is being widely used in industries such as finance, healthcare, transportation,

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

and retail, and is continuously advancing with researchers developing new architectures
and techniques to improve performance. The future looks bright for DL, with many chal-
lenges and opportunities to improve and bring it to new frontiers.

6.2 Activation functions

The activation functions (Liu and Wang 2008) are essential components in neural net-
works, serving a critical role in their operations. They generate the output of the network,
which ranges from 0 to 1 or − 1 to 1 depending on the activation function used. These
functions are divided into two categories: Linear functions and Non-Linear functions. Lin-
ear functions do not limit the output of the network to any specific range, while non-linear
activation functions are the most commonly used and their outputs are confined to certain
ranges. The following listed are the activation functions that are mostly used:

• Linear (Agostinelli et al. 2014): The output of this function is not confined. It sim-
ply returns the input as the output, without applying any transformation to it. In other
words, it performs a simple linear transformation on the input data. Equation 2 is the
mathematical equation of the linear activation function:
f (x) = x (2)
• Sigmoid (Langer 2021): Function is differentiable, commonly used in binary classifica-
tion problems, where the output of the network should represent the probability of the
input belonging to one of two classes. Equation 3 is the mathematical equation of the
sigmoid activation function:
1
S(x) = (3)
1 + e−x
• Tanh (Karlik and Olgac 2011): It is preferred over the sigmoid activation function for
some problems because it has a wider range of output values and is zero-centred, which
can help with optimization during training. Equation 4 is the mathematical equation of
the Tanh activation function:
2
tanh = −1 (4)
1 + e−x
• ReLu (Schmidt-Hieber 2020): ReLU has become a popular activation function in DL
due to its ease of computation and ability to prevent the vanishing gradient problem
associated with functions such as sigmoid and tanh. Despite its advantages, ReLU is
prone to the “dying ReLU” problem, in which a neuron’s output becomes stuck at zero
and cannot learn during training. Equation 5 is the mathematical equation of the ReLu
activation function:
f (x) = max(0, x) (5)
• Leaky ReLu (Xu et al. 2020a): The Leaky ReLU (rectified linear unit) activation func-
tion is a variation of the traditional ReLU function utilized in ANNs. It addresses the
issue of “dying ReLU”, where a neuron’s output can become zero for negative inputs,
by having a slight negative slope for inputs below zero, determined by the constant

13
 D. Thakur et al.

alpha (usually set to 0.01). Equation 6 is the mathematical equation of the Leaky ReLu
activation function:
f (x) = max(𝛼x, x) (6)
• ArcTan (Zhang et al. 2018b): Also known as the inverse tangent activation function. It
is a smooth, non-linear activation function that can be used as an alternative to popular
activation functions like ReLU, sigmoid, and tanh in ANNs. Equation 7 is the math-
ematical equation of the arctan activation function:

f (x) = tan−1 (x) (7)

• Softmax (Chen et al. 2018): Function gives out probabilities of the states of input
classes, it has the properties of converting the input vector into a probability distribu-
tion, ensuring that the outputs for all classes sum to 1, and representing the confidence
of the model’s prediction for each class. Equation 8 is the mathematical equation of
the softmax activation function, where “z” is a vector of real numbers representing the
input to the activation function, and “k” is the number of elements in the vector.

ez(i)
∑k z(j) (8)
j=1 e

• Swish (Ramachandran et al. 2017): The Swish activation function offers advantages
over conventional activation functions, such as a smoother gradient and reduced satu-
ration for large inputs. Some research has also indicated that the Swish function can
result in better performance than ReLU and other activation functions in specific neural
network configurations. Equation 9 is the mathematical equation of the swish activation
function, where “x” represents the input to the activation function. It can be a scalar
value, a vector, or a tensor, depending on the input to the neural network.
f (x) = x × sigmoid(x) (9)
Table 2 presents the category and output range of various activation functions.

Table 2  Category and output range of various activation functions

Activation function Category Output range

Linear (Agostinelli et al. 2014) Linear − ∞ to ∞

Sigmoid (Langer 2021) Non-linear 0 to 1
Tanh (Karlik and Olgac 2011) Non-linear − 1 to 1
ReLU (Schmidt-Hieber 2020) Piecewise linear (Rebennack and Krasko 0 to ∞
2020)
Leaky ReLU (Xu et al. 2020a) Piecewise linear − ∞ to ∞
ArcTan (Zhang et al. 2018b) Non-linear
∏ ∏
−
2
to 2
Softmax (Chen et al. 2018) Non-linear 0 to 1
Swish (Ramachandran et al. 2017) Non-monotonic (Misra 2019) 1 to ∞

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

6.3 DL models

DL models find extensive use in diverse industries for resolving intricate issues. For
instance, in computer vision, they assist with image classification, object detection, and
segmentation. Similarly, in the domain of NLP, DL models come in handy for tasks like
language translation, text classification, and sentiment analysis. In healthcare, DL models
are utilized for image analysis, diagnosis, and drug discovery. In finance, they are used for
fraud detection and algorithmic trading. DL models can also be applied in areas such as
speech recognition, recommendation systems, and autonomous vehicles. Their ability to
learn from large amounts of data and perform complex tasks has made DL a key player in
the advancement of AI and ML. DL models play a crucial role in IoT data processing and
analysis by allowing:

• Anomaly detection: DL models can identify patterns in large amounts of IoT data and
flag any data points that deviate from these patterns as anomalies.
• Predictive maintenance: DL models can be trained on IoT data to predict when a device
is likely to fail, allowing maintenance to be performed proactively.
• Image and speech recognition: CNNs and RNNs can be used to process and analyze
image and speech data generated by IoT devices.
• Time-series forecasting: LSTMs and other RNN models can be used to analyze time-
series data generated by IoT devices and make predictions about future trends.
• Data compression and dimensionality reduction: AE and other DL models can be used
to reduce the size of IoT data and remove any redundant information.
• Decision-making: Reinforcement learning can be used to train models that make deci-
sions based on IoT data, for example, in the case of an autonomous vehicle or industrial
control system.

In this section, a comprehensive overview of the most commonly used DL algorithms has
been provided.

6.3.1 CNN

A CNN is a DL algorithm that excels in analysing image pixels and recognizing patterns in
images, audio, and signals. It is widely used for various purposes, including medical imag-
ing, audio processing, object detection, and generating synthetic data. A CNN operates by
accepting an image as input, determining the significance of various objects or elements
within the image through adjustable weights and biases, and differentiating between them.
It accomplishes this by utilizing filters that can effectively identify spatial and temporal
relationships within an image. The CNN structure is optimized for image data, as it reduces
the number of parameters and recycles weights. The ultimate goal of a CNN is to extract
higher-level concepts from image information through the application of multiple non-lin-
ear layers. CNNs have demonstrated exceptional results in various fields related to pattern
recognition (Wu et al. 2018), image processing (Han et al. 2020), speech recognition (Noda
et al. 2015), and more. CNNs are a specific type of DL model that have made significant
contributions to the field of computer vision and image analysis. The architecture of CNN
is classified into two main parts:

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Table 3  Available CNNs models Model Year

LeNet-5 (LeCun et al. 2015b) 1998

AlexNet (Alom et al. 2018) 2012
VGG-16 (Simonyan and Zisserman 2014) 2014
Inception-v1 (Szegedy et al. 2015) 2014
GoogLeNet (Ballester and Araujo 2016) 2014
Inception-v3 (Szegedy et al. 2016) 2015
ResNet (He et al. 2016) 2015
Inception-v4 (Szegedy et al. 2017) 2016
Xception (Chollet 2017) 2016
ResNext-50 (Xie et al. 2017) 2017

Fig. 5  CNN architecture, featuring specialized convolutional and pooling layers, and FC layers

• Feature extraction: this is a tool that separates and recognizes the different features of
the image for processing/analysis.
• Classification: output generated from the convolutional process is utilized by a fully
connected (FC) layer and prediction of the class of the image is done based on the fea-
tures extracted in the previous stage.

CNNs are known for their accuracy, especially in the field of image analysis and target
detection. Two challenges in training CNNs are the number of training examples and the
duration of training. To obtain an accurate CNN model, it is crucial to have a substan-
tial number of examples in the training dataset. The features learned by a CNN model are
highly accurate and superior to manually crafted features. Fortunately, the availability of
pre-trained CNN models on popular image datasets simplifies the process of setting up or
adjusting CNN models for computer vision tasks. A commonly used CNN architecture was
first proposed by LeCun (https://​schol​ar.​google.​com/​citat​ions?​user=​WLN3Q​rAAAA​AJ&​
hl=​en&​oi=​ao) and his colleagues for handwriting recognition, which now has become a
benchmark for DL models. Table 3 provides the list of various available CNNs models.

The architecture of a CNN is illustrated in Fig. 5, consisting of convolution layers, pool-

ing layers, and FC layers. Arranging these layers in a specific sequence creates the CNN
architecture. Along with these three layers, CNNs also include two crucial components: the
dropout layer and the activation function.

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Convolutional layer: the initial stage of a CNN structure is the convolutional layer,
which extracts different features from the input image by applying mathematical convo-
lution operations, creating a feature map that contains image information.
• Pooling layer: the pooling layer helps to decrease the computational cost by decreasing
the size of the feature map obtained from the convolutional layer. This is accomplished
by cutting down the connections between layers and processing each feature map sepa-
rately. Different pooling methods can be utilized to enhance the efficiency of the model,
including:
– Max Pooling (Ma et al. 2019a).
– Average Pooling (Wang et al. 2017).
– Sum Pooling (Liu et al. 2016).
• FC layer: the FC layer is composed of neurons, weights, and biases that link neurons
across different layers. It is commonly located just prior to the output layer, serving as
the final component of a CNN structure. The input image obtained from the preceding
layers is converted into a flattened shape and channeled into the FC layer. The resulting
flattened vector undergoes mathematical operations as it advances through subsequent
FC layers, signifying the start of the input image’s categorization or classification pro-
cedure.
• Dropout: when assessing a model, it is important to consider the issue of overfitting
in the training dataset. Overfitting can occur when a model performs very well on the
training data but does not generalize well to new data. To tackle this issue, a dropout
layer can be added to the model. The dropout layer excludes or “drops out” specific
units or neurons from the model during training in a random manner, thereby decreas-
ing the model’s complexity and minimizing the chances of overfitting.
• Activation function: activation functions are an essential hyperparameter in CNN mod-
els. They are used to learn and approximate complex relationships between variables in
the network and add non-linearity to the network. The most commonly used activation
functions were discussed in Sect 6.2.

Table 4 provides information about the work done by various researchers using CNN.

6.3.2 RNN

A RNN is a state-of-the-art neural network algorithm that is specialized in dealing with

sequential data. They are commonly used in NLP (Cambria and White 2014) tasks due to
their ability to handle text and other successive information. They are utilized in technolo-
gies such as Apple’s Siri and Google’s voice search (Park et al. 2019). RNNs are particu-
larly useful because they have an internal memory which allows them to retain informa-
tion from previous steps, making them well-suited for AI problems that involve sequential
data. They are considered to be among the most powerful algorithms in the history of DL
advancements in recent years.
In RNN nodes are connected in a way that forms cycles, meaning the output of a node
can influence the output of another node. The output from the previous step is incorporated
as part of the input in the current step. This neural network is commonly used in applica-
tions where the previous output is necessary to determine the output puts. For example, in

13
 Table 4  Usage of CNNs in various types of research
Author(s) Work done Model

13
Lee et al. (2018) Extract the characteristics of images, and then utilize the AdaBoost method to construct a classifier for identify- CNN
ing the images
Ma et al. (2019b) developed a model called LungBRN for identifying respiratory illness ResNet
Sharma et al. (2017) Proposed a model for getting land cover information through remote sensing images CNN
Khan et al. (2019) Analyse ResNet and GoogleNet models for the detection of malware ResNet, GoogleNet
Liu et al. (2019a) Fruit detection on RGB and NIR images VGG16
Wen et al. (2020) Proposed a model for fault diagnosis using transfer learning ResNet-50
Lu et al. (2019) Suggested a DL model that automatically detects pathological brain in Magnetic Resonance Images (MRI) AlexNet
Shanthi and Sabeenian (2019) Proposed a model for early detection of diabetic retinopathy disease Alexnet
Zhang et al. (2017a) Denoising of images using the DL model DnCNN
Baloglu et al. (2019) Developed a model for detecting myocardial infarction (heart attack) using ECG lead signals DeepCNN
Kollias and Zafeiriou (2020) Put forward a new CNN-RNN approach utilizing various features of CNN for recognizing subtle facial expres- CNN, RNN
sions of human emotions
Mao et al. (2020) For the effective classification of Facial Attributes, a multi-label model based on CNN has been proposed CNN
Tao et al. (2020) Recognition of emotions based on electroencephalography (EEG) and attention-based Convolutional Recurrent ACRNN
Neural Network
Li et al. (2021a) Recognition of emotions based on EEG RNN
Jia et al. (2020) Developed a system for understanding user behavior that utilizes contactless Radio Frequency (RF) technology CNN
and leverages the WiFi Channel State Information (CSI)
Ma et al. (2021) Recognizes facial expressions CNN
Xu et al. (2021) Predict security performance for IoT-based healthcare networks CNN
Zhang et al. (2021a) Classify hyperspectral images (HSI) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data CNN
Jia et al. (2022) Proposed a resource optimization approach in Edge Computing Environment CNN
Kim et al. (2020) Proposed a CNN accelerator that utilizes feature skipping to improve energy efficiency in mobile devices for face CNN
recognition tasks
D. Thakur et al.
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

sentence auto-completion, previous words are taken into consideration before the neural
network can provide suggestions to complete the sentence.
RNNs use memorization to store information from previous steps that have already been
calculated. They use the same parameters every time to operate on the input or the hid-
den layers. This is different from traditional neural networks that have independent lay-
ers and do not store previous outputs in memory. RNNs use dependent activations, which
means they use the same weights and biases for all hidden layers, reducing the complexity
of increasing parameters by remembering the outputs that are fed as input to the next layer.
Equation 10 is the formula for calculating the current hidden state is:

(10)
( )
Ht = f [ Ht − 1 + AT ]

where Ht is the current state, Ht − 1 is the previous state and At is the input. Now that the
hidden state is calculated, we can find out the output by the following formula:
Bt = [W0 + Ht ] (11)
where Bt is the output, Wt is the weight at the output layer, and Ht is the previously cal-
culated hidden state. Figure 6 shows the architecture of RNN. In a RNN, the nodes from
multiple layers are condensed into a single layer.
The network’s parameters are represented by F, G, and H. In this context, “X” repre-
sents the input layer, “A” represents the hidden layer, and “Y” represents the output layer.
The network parameters F, G, and H are utilized to optimize the model’s output. At a given
time step “t”, the current input is a combination of the input at X(t) and the previous input
X(t − 1). The output at any given time is fed back into the network to improve its perfor-
mance. In RNN, the information flows in a loop back to the intermediate hidden layer. The
input layer “X” processes and receives the input for the neural network and transfers it to
the middle layer. The middle layer “A” can comprise multiple hidden layers, each with its
own set of activation functions, weights, and biases. If the parameters of the various hid-
den layers are not impacted by previous layers, meaning the network does not have mem-
ory, then a RNN can be used. The RNN standardizes the activation functions, weights,
and biases across all hidden layers, making them all have the same parameters. Instead of

Fig. 6  Schematic representation of a RNN, emphasizing its recurrent connections and hidden state

13
 D. Thakur et al.

multiple hidden layers, it creates a single layer and repeats it as necessary. Advantages of
RNNs include:

• Memory: RNNs have an internal memory that allows them to retain information from
previous steps, making them well-suited for AI problems that involve sequential data.
• Handling sequential data: RNNs are specialized in dealing with sequential data, mak-
ing them commonly used in tasks such as NLP and speech.
• Predictions: RNNs are useful for providing predictions, such as stock price prediction
and auto-complete features in various word processing software.
• Image processing: RNNs can be used in conjunction with CNNs to extend the effective
pixel neighbourhood, such as extending images or removing objects from an image.
• Real-time processing: RNNs can process data in real-time, which makes them useful in
applications such as speech recognition and machine translation.
• Handling long-term dependencies: RNNs are capable of handling long-term depend-
encies, which makes them useful in tasks such as language modelling and time series
prediction.

Disadvantages of RNNs include:

• Training difficulty: training an RNN can be difficult due to the complex nature of the
network and the need to handle sequential data.
• Vanishing and exploding gradients: when the gradient is too large or too small, it can
make it difficult for the network to learn.
• Limited ability to process long sequences: if activation functions such as read or tanh
are used, RNNs may have difficulty processing very long sequences.
• Large computational cost: RNNs can be computationally expensive, particularly when
working with large datasets or when multiple layers are used.
• High memory requirements: RNNs require large amounts of memory to store the infor-
mation from previous steps, which can be a limitation when working with large data-
sets.
• Inability to parallelize: RNNs are inherently sequential and it’s difficult to parallelize
their computations, which can slow down the training process.
• Limited interpretability: the internal workings of RNNs can be difficult to interpret,
making it hard to understand how the network is making its predictions.

Table 5 provides information about the work done by various researchers using RNN.

6.3.3 LSTM

LSTM is a type of RNN that is specifically designed to handle long sequences of data. It
is particularly useful for training models on time series data, where the order of the data
points is important. One of the main challenges with training RNNs on long sequences is
the problem of vanishing gradients, where the network struggles to learn patterns in the
data. LSTM addresses this problem by using a memory cell, which allows the network to
decide when to erase certain information and keep other information. This allows LSTM
to effectively learn temporal dependencies in sequences. However, LSTMs still have dif-
ficulty learning long-term dependencies in very long sequences. To address the problem of

13
 Table 5  Usage of RNNs in various research
Author(s) Work done Model

Xia et al. (2021) Introduced a GRU-based approach for predicting the demand for electricity and renewable energy in smart grid RNN
networks
Wang et al. (2020a) A method for forecasting and preventative maintenance of high-speed railway power equipment using LSTM-RNN LSTM, RNN
algorithm has been proposed
Jin et al. (2020) Proposed an efficient method using RNNs to solve time-varying Generalized Sylvester Equations, with potential RNN
applications in areas such as robotic control and identifying the location of acoustic sources
Li et al. (2020b) Proposed a rasterization-based architecture for recognizing vector sketches RNN
Wang et al. (2021a) DRLIVE, a visual analytics system, has been created to efficiently examine, comprehend, and diagnose deep rein- RNN
forcement learning models based on RNNs
Zhang et al. (2022) Proposed a RNN approach for predicting the length of time a car user will stay in a given location RNN
Chen et al. (2020a) Evaluated data-driven rollover risk for articulated steering of vehicles RNN
Li et al. (2022) Developed a model for jointly modelling and forecasting time series and event sequence data types RNN, VAE
Khan et al. (2020a) An RNN-based metaheuristic optimization method has been proposed to regulate mobile robots tracking control RNN
while imposing nonholonomic restrictions
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Habi and Messer (2020) Determined rain rate using commercial microwave links RNN
Jin et al. (2020) A RNN model with noise suppression has been suggested as a solution for the time-variant generalized Sylvester RNN
equation
Feigl et al. (2020) Determined human velocity estimation by combining a CNN and a bidirectional RNN RNN, CNN
Zhou et al. (2020) An intelligent recommendation has been proposed for online medical prediagnosis support CNN, RNN
Liu et al. (2019b) Suggested a DL-based approach to analyze payloads for attack detection RNN, CNN
Xie et al. (2020a) Suggested an orthogonal scheme for repetitive motion generation of redundant robot manipulators RNN
Qi et al. (2019) An RNN-based approach has been used for activity recognition and group activity analysis RNN
Hadjeres and Nielsen (2020) Suggested an RNN-based DL model for sequence and music generation RNN
Tan et al. (2020) A self-attentive gated RNN has been proposed for binaural speaker separation RNN
Tasyurek and Celik (2020) A regression-based RNN has been developed for frequently updated data of geographically weighted areas (ecology, RNN
environmental management, public health, tourism)

13
 D. Thakur et al.

learning long-term dependencies in very long sequences, the attention mechanism can be
used in conjunction with LSTMs (Karim et al. 2017). The attention mechanism allows the
network to focus on specific parts of the input sequence, rather than processing the entire
sequence as a whole. This helps the network to learn the dependencies in the data more
effectively.
An LSTM network has an input layer, an output layer and some hidden layers, as
shown in Fig. 10. The main idea of LSTM is that the memory cells present in the hid-
den layer can retain their state and the non-linear gating components control the flow of
data into and out of the cell (Greff et al. 2016). Each LSTM layer contains a memory
cell, input gates, output gates and forget gates. This structure allows LSTM to manage
the flow of information, determining which information should be forgotten and which
should be remembered.
There are different variations of LSTM such as PC-LSTM (Rao et al. 2018), CIFG-
LSTM (Ji et al. 2018), GRU (Gao et al. 2020), and Bi-LSTM (Yu et al. 2020). These
variations have been proposed to improve the performance of LSTM on long sequences.
The cell state acts as a transport highway that transfers relevant information down the
sequence chain. In this way, LSTM can improve the performance of long sequences.
Some of the advantages of LSTM are:

• Handling of long-term dependencies: one of the main advantages of LSTM is its

ability to handle long-term dependencies in sequences. It can learn patterns in the
data that span over a long period.
• Handling of sequential data: LSTM is specifically designed to handle sequential
data, making it suitable for tasks such as speech recognition, language modelling,
and time series forecasting.
• Handling of missing data: LSTM can handle missing data, by selectively choosing
which information to retain and which to discard.
• Robustness to noise: LSTM is robust to noise in the input data, due to its ability to
selectively retain relevant information and discard irrelevant information.
• Variety of architectures: LSTM has a variety of architectures such as PC-LSTM,
CIFG-LSTM, GRU, and Bi-LSTM which can be used to improve the performance of
the model depending on the task and data.
• Attention Mechanism: LSTM can be combined with an attention mechanism which
helps to focus on specific parts of the input sequence, thus allowing the network to
learn the dependencies in the data more effectively

Some of the disadvantages of LSTM are:

• Computational complexity: LSTM networks can be computationally expensive, as

they have more parameters and require more computation than traditional RNNs.
• Difficulty in parallelization: LSTM networks are difficult to parallelize, which can
make training on large datasets time-consuming.
• Overfitting: LSTM networks can be prone to overfitting, especially when trained on
small datasets.
• Difficulty in handling very long sequences: LSTM networks can have difficulty
handling very long sequences, as the information stored in the memory cells may
become irrelevant over time.

13
 Table 6  Usage of LSTMs in various research
Author(s) Work done Model

Essien and Giannetti (2020) Proposed a DL-based model for efficient and smart manufacturing in factories LSTM, AE
Chen et al. (2021a) To reveal real-time traffic demand for traffic management, a bidirectional unidirectional-LSTM network has been LSTM
proposed
Azzam et al. (2020) To reduce semantic pose estimation error a stacked-based LSTM model has been developed LSTM
Du et al. (2020) Proposed an LSTM-based network to recognise emotions from n-channel EEG signals LSTM
Santo et al. (2020) Developed an application for hard disk drive health assessment using DL LSTM
Yuan et al. (2020) Proposed an approach for Industrial Soft Sensor Model Development using SpatIoTemporal LSTM LSTM
Jahangir et al. (2020) Proposed a Forecasting approach in smart grids of electricity LSTM
Ma and Mao (2020) A DL-based model has been developed to predict the remaining life of an electronic component LSTM
Wu et al. (2021) Predicts the remaining useful life of the components LSTM, AE
Ye et al. (2020) To tackle the problem of referring to image segmentation a DL-based solution has been given LSTM
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Khalil et al. (2019) To reduce the computational cost of RNN, an LSTM approach has been given LSTM, RNN
Li et al. (2020c) Detects phishing attacks on huge email data LSTM
Bandara et al. (2020) Generates forecasts for time series data of industries’ production with different season cycles LSTM
Khairdoost et al. (2020) Predicts the real-time driver manoeuvre LSTM
Ke and Vikalo (2021) Classifies radio technologies and modulation LSTM
Wang et al. (2021b) Predicts risk assessment in the local path for autonomous vehicles LSTM
Li et al. (2020d) Predicts the volume of Long-Term traffic LSTM
Ma et al. (2020) Proposed a method to identify unauthorised broadcasting LSTM
Lin et al. (2020) To reduce the high uncertainty effect for the effective working of wind turbine power, a DL-based framework is LSTM
developed

13
 D. Thakur et al.

• Difficulty in interpreting the model: LSTM networks can be difficult to interpret, as

it is not always clear how the network is using the stored information to make pre-
dictions.
• Vanishing Gradients: LSTM networks suffer from the problem of vanishing gradients
when learning through long data sequences, which makes it difficult to train the net-
work.

Table 6 provides information about the work done by various researchers using LSTM.

6.3.4 GANs

GANs are a form of neural network that can learn intricate and high-dimensional distri-
butions by instructing two networks, namely a generator and a discriminator, to compete
against each other (Xu et al. 2020b). The generator produces fresh examples that aim to
imitate actual data, whereas the discriminator endeavors to differentiate between the genu-
ine and generated samples. Over time, the generator enhances its capacity to create realistic
samples, and the discriminator improves its ability to identify counterfeit ones. Neverthe-
less, one of the predicaments encountered with GANs is the phenomenon of mode col-
lapse, wherein the generator produces a restricted set of data variations. To surmount this
issue, researchers have developed techniques like conditional GANs (Iqbal and Ali 2018;
Jiang et al. 2019), which employ supplementary information to guide the generator’s out-
put. GANs find wide-ranging utility in several applications, including image synthesis,
text-to-speech, and anomaly detection.
Figure 7 shows the architecture of a GAN; A GAN consists of a generator and a dis-
criminator. The generator’s task is to create realistic data, which is then used as fake exam-
ples for the discriminator to distinguish from real data. The discriminator’s goal is to iden-
tify the generator’s fake data and penalize it for producing unrealistic results. At the start
of training, the generator produces easily recognizable fake data, which the discriminator
quickly learns to identify. As training continues, the generator improves and becomes bet-
ter at creating convincing fake data that the discriminator finds difficult to distinguish from
real data. Eventually, if the generator is trained effectively, the discriminator may start mis-
taking fake data as real and its accuracy will decline. Both the generator and discriminator

Fig. 7  Illustrating the architecture of a GANs, consisting of a generator network that generates new samples
and a discriminator network that evaluates their authenticity

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

are neural networks, with the generator’s output directly connected to the discriminator’s
input. The discriminator’s classifications provide feedback to the generator through back-
propagation, which the generator uses to adjust its weights.Advantages of GAN:

• High-dimensional data generation: GANs can generate high-dimensional data such as

images, videos, and audio.
• Unsupervised learning: GANs can be trained in an unsupervised manner, which means
that the model does not require labelled data to learn.
• Flexibility: GANs can be used for a wide range of applications, such as image genera-
tion, super-resolution, and text-to-speech synthesis.
• Handling mode collapse: GANs can handle mode collapse, which is a common prob-
lem in generative models where the generator produces only a limited number of varia-
tions of the data.
• Conditional GANs: by using conditional GANs, the generator can generate specific
types of data based on the given conditions.

Disadvantages of GAN:

• Training instability: GANs can be difficult to train due to the instability of the training
process, which can lead to poor performance or complete failure.
• Mode collapse: GANs can suffer from mode collapse, which is a common problem in
generative models where the generator produces only a limited number of variations of
the data.
• Requires a large amount of data: GANs require a large amount of data to train effec-
tively.
• Requires powerful computing resources: GANs require powerful computing resources
to train due to the complexity of the model.
• The complexity of the architecture: GANs have complex architecture which is difficult
to understand and interpret the results.

Table 7 provides information about the work done by various researchers using GAN.

6.3.5 AE

AE are a type of unsupervised ANN that aim to learn an efficient way to compress and
encode data, and then convert it back to a form that is similar to the original. The key fea-
ture of an AE is its encoder–decoder architecture, which is used to train a representation
code. This representation code is typically smaller than the input code and can be con-
sidered a compressed version of the original data, useful for other data mining tasks. AE
architectures typically have three layers: an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer.
The input layer is where the raw data is fed in, the hidden layer is where the compression
and encoding occur, and the output layer is where the data is reconstructed to be similar to
the original input. The output and input layers of an AE have the same number of neurons.
An example of this can be seen when providing an image of a handwritten number to the
AE, it first compresses the image into a lower resolution and then tries to determine the
hidden representation to reconstruct the original image. AE use an unsupervised learning
algorithm that continues to train itself by setting the target output to match the input, this

13
 Table 7  Usage of GANs in various research

13
Author(s) Work done Model

Yeo et al. (2021) Improves the performance of GANs GAN

Xia et al. (2022b) Done a deep survey on GAN inversion GAN
Emami et al. (2020) Introduced the attention mechanism for the image-to-image translation GAN
Souibgui and Kessentini (2020) Proposed a DL-based model to enhance the viewing quality of documents GAN
Tran et al. (2021) Properly manage the distributions of augmented data GAN
Niu et al. (2020) Improved the power of the DL-based model for the detection of defectivity images GAN
Zheng et al. (2020) Proposed a key secret-sharing technology to tackle the problem of less security, tough recovery of lost keys, and GAN
less communication efficiency in the blockchain
Chen et al. (2021b) Introduced a robust face detection method GAN, Xception
Qu et al. (2020) Proposed a novel methodology for obtaining differential privacy during data sharing in cyber-physical social GAN
systems
Albahrani et al. (2020) Proposed a model for high-temperature modelling in industries GAN
Li et al. (2021b) Suggested a GAN model referred to as Hausdorff GAN, designed to resolve intrinsic dimension problems and GAN
produce top-notch data
Hou et al. (2020) Proposed characterization and modeling of power loss in GaN-based HardSwitching half-bridges with dynamic GAN
ON-state resistance in mind
Prakash and Karam (2021) Proposed object detection using GANs on images of varying quality GAN
Shu et al. (2021) A new MS-CartoonGAN was suggested, which transforms photos into various cartoon styles using a hierarchical GAN
semantic loss, an edge-promoting adversarial loss, and a style loss to keep semantic content and create high-
quality cartoon images
Zheng et al. (2021) Presented a novel GAN-based approach, SymReg-GAN, for symmetric image registration. Unlike existing meth- GAN
ods that face limitations in speed, inter-modality relations, or data labelling, SymReg-GAN uses a semi-super-
vised strategy to exploit both labelled and unlabeled data for efficient and precise registration
Zhang et al. (2021b) The newly suggested GAN-FM approach for merging infrared and visible images maintains all important informa- GAN
tion and surpasses current leading methods in keeping clear contrast and vivid textures
D. Thakur et al.
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Fig. 8  Autoencoder architecture, consisting of an encoder network that compresses the input data and a
decoder network that reconstructs it back to its original form

forces the small coding layer to reduce the dimensionality and reconstruct the input. The
design of the AE is depicted in Fig. 8. Here are the terms utilized in the architecture of AE:

• Encoder (Wang et al. 2016): the encoder component in a neural network uses both con-
volutional and pooling layers to condense and convert the input information into a sim-
plified form. The resulting encoded information is then sent to the bottleneck layer for
additional handling.
• Latent Space Representation (Yu and Principe 2019): Latent Space is the space where
the data lies after it has been compressed and encoded by the encoder in the bottleneck.
The bottleneck is an important module in the model that compresses the input data to
a lower dimension while retaining the most important features. The decoder then uses
this compressed, encoded data to reconstruct the original input. The main purpose of
the bottleneck is to extract useful features from the input data and discard less impor-
tant information, making the data more compact and easier to process.
• Decoder (Irsoy and Alpaydın 2017): The decoder module is responsible for converting
the compressed, encoded data from the bottleneck back to its original representation. It
typically consists of multiple layers of transposed convolutional layers, also known as
“deconvolutional” layers, which help to effectively “up sample” the data and restore the
lost information. The goal of the decoder is to generate an output that is as similar as
possible to the original input. In the case of image reconstruction, the decoder aims to
rebuild the lost original image from the compressed data.
• The Reconstruction Loss (Wang et al. 2019): Reconstruction loss in an AE is a measure
of how well the AE can reconstruct its input. It is typically calculated as the difference
between the original input and the output of the decoder portion of the AE, and I used it
as a training objective to minimize during training. Common choices of reconstruction
loss include mean squared error and cross-entropy.

There are mainly seven types of AE, and their usage is mentioned in Table 8.
The advantages of Autoencoder are:

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Table 8  Types of AE
Type of Autoencoder Features

Denoising Autoencoder (Vincent 2011) It generally reduces the loss function between the output
and the aged node
Sparse Autoencoder (Xu et al. 2015) It takes very high-performance values in the hidden layer
and removes zero from all other hidden nodes
Deep Autoencoder (Hong et al. 2015) It is majorly used for real-valued datasets
Contractive Autoencoder (Lv et al. 2018) It is used to learn how to enter input in a small area for
results
Under complete Autoencoder (Thies and This does not need to be redone as it increases the chances
Alimohammad 2019) of data rather than copying the output input
Convolutional Autoencoder (Chen et al. 2017) It can remove audio from an image or re-create missing
parts
Variational Autoencoder (Xie et al. 2020b) It gives us a significant control, i.e. how we want to model
our hidden distribution which other AE can’t do

• Dimensionality reduction: AE can be used to reduce the dimensionality of high-dimen-

sional data while preserving the essential features and relationships.
• Data compression: AE can be used as a lossy data compression method as they can
learn to reconstruct data with a lower number of features, thus making the data more
compact.
• Data denoising: AE can be trained to remove noise from data by learning to reconstruct
the original input from a noisy version of it.
• Data generation: AE can be used for generating new samples of data by sampling in the
latent space and decoding it back to the original space.

AEs have several disadvantages:

• They may suffer from overfitting, particularly if the dataset is small or the encoder and
decoder architectures are too complex.
• AEs may struggle to learn useful features from the data if the encoder and decoder
architectures are not appropriately designed.
• AEs are computationally intensive, especially for large datasets or high-dimensional
data.
• AEs may fail to capture the underlying structure of the data, particularly if the data is
highly structured or non-linear.
• AEs are not generally considered as good as GANs and VAEs for generating new, pre-
viously unseen samples from the data distribution.
• AEs are not designed for adversarial scenarios, where the goal is to generate samples
that are difficult to distinguish from real data.
• AEs are not suitable for tasks where the data is highly irregular or unstructured.

Table 9 provides information about the work done by various researchers using AE.

13
 Table 9  Usage of Autoencoder in various types of research
Author(s) Work done Model

Elkholy et al. (2020) Developed Deep Convolutional Autoencoder-powered hyperspectral unmixing network Deep Convolutional
Autoencoder
network
Yan et al. (2021) Representing and understanding building shapes on maps using Graph Convolutional Autoencoder (GCAE) GCAE
Zeng et al. (2018) Suggested DL-based facial expression recognition with a sparse autoencoder Sparse AE
Li et al. (2016) Suggested DL-based remote sensing image classification with stacked AE Stacked AE
Liu et al. (2018) Diagnosing rolling bearing faults using Autoencoder-based RNN Autoencoder
Lopez-Alvis et al. (2021) Examines the application of Deep Generative Models (DGMs) in resolving inverse problems in geophysical imag- DGM, VAE
ing. DGMs enforce structured spatial patterns in subsurface solutions, backed by additional data like geological
context
Lore et al. (2017) Suggested a Deep Autoencoder method for enhancing natural low-light images Deep AE
Lu et al. (2017) A technique is proposed for identifying the health state of rotary machinery components by utilizing Stacked SDA
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Denoising Autoencoder (SDA)-based methods to diagnose faults

Meng et al. (2018) Enhancement of rolling bearing fault diagnosis using a Denoising Autoencoder (DAE) DAE
Othman et al. (2016) Classifying land-use scenes using Convolutional Features and a Sparse Autoencoder Sparse Autoencoder
Soui et al. (2020) Predicting bankruptcy using Stacked AE Stacked AE
Sun et al. (2021) Constructed multiscale DAE for enhancing target detection DAE
Xu et al. (2017) Assessing the quality of building footprint data Deep autoencoder
Zabalza et al. (2016) Proposed a new Segmented Stacked Autoencoder (SSAE) for efficient dimensionality reduction and feature SSAE
extraction in hyperspectral imaging
Zhao et al. (2020) Classifying HSI using a combination of SSAE and Random Forest SSAE

13
 D. Thakur et al.

6.3.6 VAE

A VAE is a DL model consisting of two main components: an encoder and a decoder. The
encoder of a VAE compresses the input data into a compact representation referred to as
the latent space, and the decoder recreates the original data from this compressed repre-
sentation. VAEs are commonly utilized in unsupervised learning and have the capability to
generate new images by sampling from the latent space (Kingma and Welling 2019). The
optimization of the VAE model is achieved by balancing the reconstruction error and the
divergence between the encoded representation and a target distribution, which is measured
using the Kullback–Leibler divergence (Joyce 2011). The continuous nature of the latent
space in VAEs allows for seamless random sampling and interpolation. Unlike traditional
input representations as fixed vectors, VAEs represent inputs as probability distributions
utilizing two carriers: one carrying the meaning of the distribution and the other indicating
the general deviation of the distribution. The VAE model is trained to minimize both the
reconstruction error and the Kullback–Leibler divergence. VAEs have a continuous latent
space, which enables easy random sampling and interpolation, making them effective in
generating new images.
An Autoencoder transforms an input into a compact vector representation by minimiz-
ing the reconstruction loss between the input and the reconstructed image. A VAE, in con-
trast, generates its output by minimizing both the reconstruction loss and the KL Diver-
gence loss, which measures the difference between the actual and observed probability
distributions. This KL Divergence is a symmetrical score and distance measure between
two probability distributions, and it ensures that the distribution learned by the VAE is not
far from a normal distribution.
∑ P(x)
DKL (P ∥ Q) = P(x)log
Q(x) (12)
x∈X

The architecture of VAE is depicted in Fig. 9, When input data X is fed through the
encoder, it outputs the latent state distributions (mean μ and variance σ), from which a vec-
tor Z is sampled. The assumption is made that the latent distribution is always Gaussian.
The encoder compresses the input X into a smaller dimension, known as the bottleneck
or latent space. Random data is sampled from this space, which is then decoded by the
decoder by backpropagating the reconstruction loss to generate a new output.
VAE has several advantages, including:

Fig. 9  VAE architecture, consisting of an encoder network that maps the input to a probabilistic latent
space, a decoder network that reconstructs the output, and a sampling layer that generates latent variables

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Generating new data: VAEs can generate new data samples that are similar to the train-
ing data, which can be useful in a variety of applications, such as image synthesis, text
generation, and drug discovery.
• Compact representation: VAEs can learn a compact representation of the data, called
the latent code, which can be used for tasks such as data compression and dimensional-
ity reduction.
• Handling missing data: VAEs can handle missing data by learning a probabilistic dis-
tribution over the data, which allows them to impute missing values.
• Outlier detection: VAEs can be used for outlier detection by identifying data samples
that are unlikely under the learned probabilistic model.
• Anomaly detection: VAEs can be used for anomaly detection by identifying data sam-
ples that have a low likelihood under the learned probabilistic model.
• Flexible modelling: VAEs can be used to model a wide variety of data types, including
continuous, discrete, and mixed data.

The disadvantage of VAEs is that they can be difficult to train, as the optimization objec-
tive is a lower bound on the likelihood of the data. Additionally, VAEs can produce blurry
reconstructions and samples, since the model is trained to approximate a continuous latent
space, rather than producing discrete outputs. Another disadvantage of VAEs is that they
are not able to handle discrete data, such as text or categorical data, as well as other gen-
erative models such as GANs or autoregressive models like PixelCNN. Table 10 provides
information about the work done by various researchers using VAEs.

6.4 DL framework

The enhancement in the use of DL architecture in various areas has been supported by the
introduction of several DL frameworks in recent years. Mostly used frameworks are:

• Tensor Flow (https://​www.​tenso​rflow.​org): TensorFlow is an open-source platform for

building and deploying ML models, particularly DL models. It was developed by the
Google Brain team in 2015 and supports multiple programming languages including
Python, C++, and R. TensorFlow’s flexible architecture allows for easy deployment on
a variety of devices, including CPUs, GPUs, and TPUs
• PyTorch (https://​pytor​ch.​org): PyTorch is an open-source ML library developed by
Facebook’s AI Research lab in 2016. It is written in Python, C++, and CUDA and
provides strong GPU acceleration for tensor computation. PyTorch is primarily used
for creating deep neural networks and supports various DL models. It is known for its
simplicity and ease of use, making it popular among researchers and practitioners.
• Deeplearning4j (https://​deepl​earni​ng4j.​kondu​it.​ai): is an open-source DL frame-
work developed in 2019 that is written in Java for the Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
also known as DeepJava Library (DJL). It is the only DL framework that relies on the
widely used programming language Java. DJL is useful for Java programmers as it
allows them to train DL models in a familiar programming environment. DJL aims to
provide a simple, high-level API and support for a wide range of DL models and plat-
forms.

13
 Table 10  Usage of VAEs in various types of research
Author(s) Work done Model

13
Li et al. (2020e) A Sequential Variational Autoencoder (SISVAE) model was suggested for accurately estimating and detecting VAE
anomalies in multi-dimensional time series data. The model incorporates VAE and uses a RNN to uncover
hidden temporal patterns
Yi et al. (2021) A cross-modal variational autoencoder (CMVAE) has been suggested for recommending background music in VAE
micro-videos based on their content
Wang et al. (2020b) A novel generative model called CVA2E is developed for HSI classification VAE, GAN
Chadebec et al. (2022) Proposed a geometry-based VAE for data augmentation in high-dimensional, low-sample size settings VAE
Qiang et al. (2020) Presented the Deep Variational Autoencoder (DVAE), a novel generative model for mapping functional brain DVAE
networks in neuroimaging and brain mapping research. Addresses challenges of limited data and incomplete
supervision in DL techniques applied to fMRI data
Su et al. (2021) Presented DOMI, a novel unsupervised method for detecting outliers in large datacenters using machine data Gaussian mixture VAE
Chen et al. (2020b) Presented a semisupervised classification method using an alternate discriminative mixture VAE VAE
Ruan and Ling (2021) An emotion-controlled conditional VAE was proposed to generate conversational responses with emotional VAE
content
Dewangan and Maurya (2021) Presented an intelligent fault diagnosis method using a deep convolutional variable-beta VAE CNN, VAE
Fan et al. (2021) The Heterogeneous Hypergraph Variational Autoencoder (HeteHG-VAE) was presented, a novel link prediction HeteHG-VAE
technique for heterogeneous information net-works (HINs). The method transformed HIN into a heterogene-
ous hypergraph, uncovering high-level meaning and intricate connections while maintaining simple two-node
relationships
Ye and Bors (2021) Proposed a lifelong learning mixture of expert models using VAEs as experts. Trained by maximizing the sum VAE
of individual component evidence lower bounds on training sample log-likelihood
Khazeiynasab et al. (2021) A new DL algorithm for calibrating generator parameters in power plants utilizing synchrophasor measure- Conditional vari-
ments has been proposed ational autoencoders
(CVAE)
Jiao et al. (2020) Predicts the RUL of lithium-ion batteries using a particle filter and a CVAE with a reweighting strategy to CVAE
enhance precision
Wang et al. (2022) Presented a loop closure detection technique for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) utilizing a VAE VAE
network. This approach addresses the difficulties posed by dynamic underwater surroundings, such as fluctua-
tions in viewpoint, textureless imagery, and rapid objects
D. Thakur et al.
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• The Microsoft cognitive toolkit (https://​learn.​micro​soft.​com/​en-​us/​cogni​tive-​toolk​it/):

Microsoft’s Cognitive Toolkit (CNTK), which is a DL framework that allows for the
training and execution of neural networks. It is open-source and written in C++, and it
uses directed graphs to define neural networks as a series of computational steps. It was
first released in 2019.
• Keras (https://​keras.​io): Keras is a high-level neural networks API, written in Python
that is capable of running on top of TensorFlow 2.0. Keras is a popular choice for cre-
ating DL models because it offers a simple and user-friendly interface, making it eas-
ier for developers to quickly prototype and build models. It follows best practices for
reducing cognitive load by providing consistent and simple APIs and minimizing the
number of actions required for common use cases. Keras also offers a wide range of
pre-built, commonly-used layers and models, allowing developers to focus on building
their models rather than implementing low-level functionality.
• Open Neural Network Exchange (ONNX) (https://​onnx.​ai): ONNX is an open-source
format for representing DL models. It was developed to enable AI developers to easily
transfer models between different frameworks, by providing a common set of operators
and data types. ONNX uses a computation graph model to describe the structure of a
DL model, with nodes in the graph representing the various mathematical operations,
and edges representing the data flowing between them. ONNX is designed to be exten-
sible, allowing for the addition of new operators and data types as needed. This allows
for greater flexibility and interoperability across different frameworks and tools, mak-
ing it easier for developers to use their preferred framework while still being able to
share and use models created in other frameworks.
• Mxnet (https://​mxnet.​apache.​org/​versi​ons/1.​9.1/): MXNet is an open-source DL frame-
work that was developed by the Apache Software Foundation. It was first released in
2015. MXNet is designed to be fast, flexible and efficient, making it well-suited for
both research prototyping and production use. It supports multiple programming lan-
guages, including C++, Python, R, Java, Julia, JavaScript, Scala, Go, and Perl. MXNet
is known for its ability to scale to multiple GPUs and distributed systems, making it
well-suited for large-scale, computationally intensive DL tasks. Additionally, it pro-
vides a high-level, easy-to-use API for specifying neural network models, allowing
developers to quickly prototype and experiment with new models.
• Caffe (https://​caffe.​berke​leyvi​sion.​org): Caffe was developed by the Berkeley Vision
and Learning Center (BVLC) and by community contributors in 2013. It is a DL frame-
work that is written in C++ with a Python interface. It is known for its speed and its
ability to process images and videos quickly, making it a popular choice for computer
vision tasks. Caffe offers an expressive architecture and extensible code, which allows
developers to easily customize and experiment with new models. It has been widely
used in industry and academia for image classification, feature extraction and many
other DL tasks.

7 IoT

The IoT is a network of connected devices, such as sensors and cameras, that gather and
share data through the Internet. The term “Internet” in IoT refers to the global network
that facilitates connection and data sharing between users, while “Things” refers to the
devices that collect and transmit information in various forms. IoT allows these devices to

13
 D. Thakur et al.

communicate with each other, and as of 2021, there are an estimated 9 billion connected
devices worldwide. The use of sensors and connected devices allows for data collection
and sharing in real time. IoT relies not only on hardware but also on software, which plays
a crucial role in connecting and controlling these devices. As a result, users can remotely
manipulate the behaviour of connected devices without the need for direct contact.
The IoT is important because it has the potential to revolutionize the way we live,
work, and interact with the world around us. The IoT is a rapidly growing field that has
the potential to greatly impact our daily lives. By connecting everyday objects and devices
to the internet, IoT can improve efficiency, increase safety, and provide new opportuni-
ties for businesses. Through automation and real-time data analysis, IoT has the potential
to increase productivity and make processes more efficient. Additionally, IoT can enhance
customer experiences through personalized services and real-time information. By provid-
ing data-driven insights, IoT can improve decision-making and lead to better outcomes. In
terms of safety, IoT-connected devices can provide real-time monitoring and help prevent
accidents or other harmful events (Li et al. 2015). On a larger scale, IoT can promote sus-
tainability by reducing waste and promoting the efficient use of resources. Finally, IoT is
also opening up new business opportunities by creating new products and services. Over-
all, IoT represents a significant shift in how we interact with technology and the world
around us.

7.1 Characteristics of IoT

IoT has been rapidly expanding and is expected to continue growing in the coming years.
IoT devices such as smart speakers, smart home systems, and wearable devices have
become more common and have made it easier for people to control and automate their
homes and devices. Some of the key characteristics of IoT include:

• Intelligence: the IoT network is made up of a combination of hardware devices, algo-

rithms, and software. These components work together to collect and transmit data,
allowing for the automation and remote control of devices. Ambient intelligence is a
concept that refers to the ability of IoT networks to respond intelligently to different
situations.
• Connectivity: having a reliable connection between devices on a network is impor-
tant for ensuring a high rate of data transfer. This can be achieved through a variety
of methods, such as using wired connections, implementing network redundancy, and
using network protocols that are designed for efficient data transfer. Additionally, main-
taining strong signal strength and minimizing interference can also help to improve the
reliability of a network connection.
• Efficient: efficiency is a critical aspect of IoT networks. In terms of power consump-
tion, it is important to use low-power devices and protocols to minimize the amount of
energy required for communication. Additionally, using sleep modes and other power-
saving techniques can help to further reduce energy consumption. In terms of data gen-
eration, it is important to use sensors and devices that are designed to generate minimal
amounts of data while still providing accurate information. Additionally, implementing
data compression and aggregation techniques can help to minimise the quantity of data
that needs to be transmitted. Ensuring that the sensor works efficiently is also impor-
tant. This can be achieved by using high-quality sensors that are designed for specific
applications, and by regularly maintaining and calibrating the sensors to ensure their

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

optimal performance. Overall, designing IoT networks with efficiency in mind can help
to reduce power consumption, minimize data generation, and ensure that the sensors
are working properly.
• Scalable: IoT networks are designed to be scalable, allowing users to easily add or
remove devices as their needs change. This scalability allows for flexibility in terms of
the number of devices that can be connected to the network and makes it easy to adapt
the network as new devices or technologies become available. Additionally, it allows
users to easily expand their network as their needs change, whether that means adding
more devices to increase capacity or removing devices to reduce costs.
• The abundance of sleeping nodes: using sleep modes on sensors can be an effective
way to reduce power consumption in an IoT network. When a sensor is not actively
being used, it can be placed in sleep mode to conserve energy. This can be especially
useful in situations where certain sensors may only be needed occasionally, such as
environmental sensors that are used to monitor air quality or temperature. Implement-
ing sleep modes also helps to extend the battery life of the sensors, which can be ben-
eficial for sensors that are placed in remote or hard-to-reach locations. Additionally, it
can also help to reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted, by only sending
data when a sensor wakes up from sleep mode. Overall, using sleep modes on sensors
can be an effective way to conserve energy and extend battery life in an IoT network,
while still providing the necessary data when required.
• Smart sensing: sensors play a crucial role in providing smart sensing functionalities in
IoT networks. For example, infrared (IR) sensors can be used to identify the existence
of objects or materials in a designated region and provide information about the loca-
tion and size of the object (Gorostiza et al. 2011). This can be useful in a wide range
of applications, such as security systems, industrial automation, and robotics. Motion
sensors, on the other hand, can be used to detect the presence of people or objects in a
specific area, and can be used to trigger different actions based on the detected motion.
Additionally, other types of sensors can provide different smart sensing functionalities,
like temperature sensors, humidity sensors, pressure sensors, and many more. These
can be used in different industries like agriculture, healthcare, transportation and many
more. Overall, sensors are an essential part of IoT networks, providing smart sensing
functionalities that can be used to automate different processes, improve security, and
make systems more efficient.
• Dynamic nature: one of the main functions of IoT is to gather and transmit data from
its environment through the use of various devices. These devices are crafted to detect
and gather information regarding the condition and circumstances of their environment,
such as temperature, location, speed, and more. The state of these devices can change
dynamically, depending on various factors such as the device’s power usage, connec-
tion status, and surrounding conditions. For example, a device may be in sleep mode to
conserve power but will wake up and start collecting data when it detects a change in
its environment. Similarly, a device may connect or disconnect from a network depend-
ing on its location and proximity to other devices. The number of devices in a given
environment can also change dynamically, depending on the person, place, and time.
For example, a person may have a different set of devices in their home than at work, or
the number of devices in a given location may change depending on the time of day or
the presence of certain individuals. Overall, the ability to gather and transmit data from
the environment through the use of dynamic and adaptive devices is a key feature of IoT
and enables a wide range of applications and use cases.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

7.2 Connectivity terminologies

IoT connectivity technologies are the foundation for connecting IoT devices and facilitat-
ing communication within an IoT network. IoT connectivity terminologies are classified
into five categories that are IoT LAN (Hashida et al. 2019), IoT WAN (Sanchez-Iborra and
Cano 2016), IoT Node (Cerchecci et al. 2018), IoT Gateway (Kang and Choo 2018), and
IoT Proxy (Jin and Kim 2018) as shown in Fig. 10. These building blocks include IoT LAN
for short-range communication, IoT WAN for wide-area communication, IoT Node for con-
necting different nodes in a LAN, IoT Gateway for transferring data between IoT LAN and
IoT WAN, and IoT Proxy for active application layer functions between IoT nodes.

7.3 IoT components

IoT components are the major key elements of any IoT network. IoT consists of both hard-
ware and software elements. The hardware elements consist of sensors, actuators, and
devices that gather, handle, and transmit information. The Software components include
the IoT platforms, middleware, and applications that provide the ability to manage, analyse,
and act on the data collected by the Hardware components. Together, these components
make up the infrastructure of an IoT network, enabling communication and data exchange
between devices and systems. They are accountable for complete IoT system operation,
from data acquisition to evaluation and response. The following are the IoT components:

• Devices: devices are a key hardware component of IoT networks and play a crucial role
in data gathering and transferring. Devices can be a wide range of hardware such as
routers, sensors, computers, towers, and many other types of equipment. They gather
and quantify information from the physical environment and transmit it to the IoT
system for further analysis and interpretation (Meneghello et al. 2019). The type of
device used depends on the specific application and the type of data being collected.
For example, a temperature sensor would be used to collect temperature data, while
a camera would be used to collect image data. These devices are connected to the IoT
network and communicate with the other components of the system to provide real-
time data and insights.

Fig. 10  IoT connectivity terminologies

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Local network: the network is a key component of IoT systems, connecting all the
different nodes or hardware components. The network enables communication and
data exchange between devices and systems. It can be either wired or wireless and
can range from a simple local area network (LAN) to a wide-area network (WAN)
spanning multiple locations (Stiller et al. 2020). The network infrastructure is
responsible for connecting all the devices and allowing them to communicate with
each other and with the IoT platform. It also provides the necessary security, reli-
ability, and scalability to support a large number of devices and the large amounts of
data that are generated in an IoT system. The network infrastructure includes various
technologies such as Zigbee, Z-wave, LoRa, Sigfox, and many more, which help the
data communication between the devices and the Gateway, which further sends the
data to the cloud or the data centre for further processing and analysis.
• Internet: The Internet plays a crucial role in connecting and sharing information
between various nodes in an IoT network. The internet allows the devices and sys-
tems in an IoT network to communicate with each other and with other systems and
services beyond the local network. This enables the data collected by the devices
to be transmitted to the IoT platform, where it can be analyzed and acted upon. The
internet also allows users to access the data and insights generated by an IoT sys-
tem, regardless of their location. Internet connectivity also helps in remote monitor-
ing and controlling of the devices and systems, which makes the IoT system more
efficient and cost-effective. The internet also enables the integration of various IoT
systems and services, allowing them to share data and resources and creating new
opportunities for innovation. It is important to note that, for secure and reliable com-
munication, the devices and systems need to be connected to the internet via secure
protocols and have robust security measures in place to protect against cyber threats.
• Backend services: backend services act as a bridge between the user and the hard-
ware devices in an IoT system. These services are responsible for processing and
analysing the data collected by the devices, and for providing the necessary func-
tionality to manage and control the devices (Saidi et al. 2022). The backend services
are typically hosted on cloud servers or data centres and can include various compo-
nents such as:
– IoT platform: this is the core component of the backend services and provides the
ability to manage and control the devices, collect and process the data, and provide
APIs and SDKs for developers to build applications on top of the platform.
– Middleware: this component sits between the IoT platform and the devices, and pro-
vides the necessary functionality to connect, manage, and control the devices.
– Analytics and Business Intelligence (BI) tools: these tools are used to analyse the
data collected by the devices and provide insights and intelligence to the users.
– Database management systems: this component is responsible for storing and man-
aging the data collected by the devices.
– Security and Identity Management: this component is responsible for ensuring the
security and protection of the data and devices, and for managing the identities of
the users and devices.
  The backend services work together to provide a seamless experience for the user,
by responding to the outcomes generated from the hardware components, making it
easy for the user to interact with the system, monitor it, and make decisions based
on the data generated by the system.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

• Applications: applications play a vital role in IoT networks, providing users with a user
friendly interface to interact with the ongoing process of the network. Applications can
be built for a wide range of devices and platforms, such as smartphones, tablets, lap-
tops, and web browsers, and can be used to access and control devices, view and ana-
lyse data, and receive alerts and notifications. The applications can be categorized into
two types:
– Web-based applications: these are web-based applications that can be accessed
through a web browser. They provide users with the ability to access and control the
devices, view and analyse the data, and receive alerts and notifications, from any-
where with an internet connection.
– Native applications: these are applications that are developed specifically for a par-
ticular device or platform, such as iOS or Android. They can be downloaded and
installed on the device and provide users with a more seamless and responsive expe-
rience.
The applications can be developed using a wide range of programming languages and
frameworks and can be integrated with various IoT platforms and services. They can be
also integrated with third-party services such as social media, messaging, and location ser-
vices to provide more functionality and value to the users. In summary, Applications are
an important part of IoT systems, providing users with an easy way to interact with the
network and access the information generated by the system, making it more user-friendly
and efficient.

7.4 IoT service‑oriented architecture

Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) refers to a design methodology for software architec-

ture that uses service calls within the layers of architecture to develop applications. SOA
has two major roles: providing services and consuming services. As a service provider,
SOA acts as a maintainer of the service and the organization that makes one or more ser-
vices available for others to use. As a service consumer, SOA locates the metadata of a
service in a registry and creates the necessary user components to bind and use the service
(Mishra and Sarkar 2022). In IoT systems, SOA plays a vital role in providing a flexible
and scalable infrastructure for developing IoT applications. It allows different layers of the
system to communicate and interact with each other through well-defined interfaces and
protocols. The layers involved in IoT-based service-oriented architecture include:

• Sensing Layer: this layer is responsible for sensing the data and sending it to the net-
work layer for further processing.
• Network Layer: this layer is responsible for processing the data and transmitting it to
the service layer.
• Service Layer: this layer deals with service delivery in the form of a repository, service
division, and integration to support the functionality of the IoT system.
• Interface Layer: this layer provides the interface for interacting with the system.
• Security Layer: this layer is spread across all the layers to provide secure data commu-
nication and protect the system from cyber threat

In summary, SOA plays a crucial role in IoT systems by providing a flexible and scal-
able architecture for developing IoT applications, allowing different layers to communicate

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

and interact with each other through well-defined interfaces and protocols, and also provid-
ing security to the system. Figure 11 shows the schematic diagram of IoT service-oriented
architecture.

7.5 IoT layers

The different layers of the IoT play a critical role in enabling the seamless flow of data
between physical devices and end-users. Each layer provides unique functions that are nec-
essary for the overall functioning of the IoT system. In this section, Fig. 12 depicts the lay-
ered design of the IoT and a brief about each layer is described as follows:

• Perception Layer (Zhang et al. 2017b): the perception layer in IoT refers to the physical
devices and components that collect and transmit data within the network. Examples of
hardware in this layer include sensors, routers, and other devices that gather and trans-
mit information. This layer serves as the foundation for the rest of the IoT system by
providing the raw data that is used to make decisions and perform actions.
• Connectivity Layer (Ullah et al. 2019): the connectivity layer in IoT refers to the tech-
nology and protocols used to establish and maintain connections between devices in
the network. This layer is responsible for allowing devices to communicate with each
other and with the outside world. Examples of connectivity technologies in this layer
include WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks. This layer is critical for the
proper functioning of the IoT system, as it enables the flow of data between devices,
and allows for remote monitoring and control of devices.

Fig. 11  IoT service-oriented architecture

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Fig. 12  Layers of IoT

• Network Layer (Bello et al. 2017): the network layer in IoT manages the delivery and
transmission of information between devices. It facilitates inter-device communication
and guarantees smooth data flow. This layer is responsible for the management of the
network and its resources, such as IP addressing, routing tables, and data encryption.
Examples of technologies in this layer include IPv6, 6LoWPAN, and MQTT. This layer
plays a crucial role in the smooth operation of the IoT system as it facilitates inter-
device communication, and network administration, and safeguards data security and
consistency.
• Application Layer (Karagiannis et al. 2015): the application layer in IoT refers to the
software and user interfaces that enable interaction with the network and data collec-
tion. This layer provides the framework for users to access and control the devices con-
nected to the network, as well as to view and analyse the data. Examples of applications
in this layer include smartphone apps, web interfaces, and dashboards that allow users
to monitor and control devices remotely. This layer is important as it provides an easy-
to-use interface for users to interact with the IoT system, and enables them to make use
of the data collected by the network to make decisions and perform actions.

7.6 Communication technologies

Communication technologies in IoT play a crucial role in transmitting and receiving

data between devices in the network. These technologies enable the flow of information
between devices, allowing them to communicate with each other and with the outside
world. Different communication technologies have different characteristics, such as range,
power consumption, and data transfer rates, which make them suitable for different types
of IoT applications. The choice of specific communication technology is influenced by fac-
tors such as the device and sensor types employed, the necessary reach and speed of data
transfer, and the complete network desirous communication technologies are useful in IoT
networks some of them are:

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Wi-Fi (Ma et al. 2019c): Wi-Fi, based on the IEEE 802.11 standard (https://​www.​
ieee8​02.​org/​11/), uses radio frequency to transmit and receive data and operates on the
2.4 GHz frequency band. It is a crucial communication technology in IoT, with a trans-
mitting range of up to 50 m, making it popular in IoT devices due to its high speeds and
long range.
• Bluetooth (Bisdikian 2001): Bluetooth, based on the IEEE 802.15 standard (https://​
www.​ieee8​02.​org/​15/), is low-power-consuming device that operates on the 2.4 GHz
frequency band. It has a data transmission range of up to 10 m, with a transmitting
power ranging from − 20 to + 20 dBm. It’s widely used in IoT to connect devices such
as smart speakers and wearables.
• ZigBee (Muthu Ramya et al. 2011): ZigBee is an open global standard wireless tech-
nology created to address the low-cost and low-power requirements of IoT networks.
It is founded on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard (https://​stand​ards.​ieee.​org/​ieee/​802.​15.4/​
7029/) and operates on the 2.4 GHz frequency band. Compared to other communica-
tion technologies, it is a low-cost and low-power device that ensures secure data trans-
mission. The data transmission range of ZigBee ranges between 10 and 100 m.
• WiMAX (Andrews et al. 2007): Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX) is a long-distance communication technology that uses the IEEE 802.16e
standard (https://​www.​ieee8​02.​org/​16/​tge/), providing a network capacity of up to 80
Mbps.
• 6LoWPAN (Mulligan 2007): 6LoWPAN stands for “IPv6 over Low power Wireless
Personal Area Networks,” and it is a protocol that enables low-power and low-cost
devices to communicate using Internet Protocol (IP), facilitating the establishment of
IoT networks. The protocol is founded on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard that works on the
2.4 GHz frequency band.

7.7 IoT applications

The IoT is a term used to describe the network of connected physical objects such as home
appliances, vehicles, and other devices. Equipped with sensors, electronics, and software,
these objects can gather and exchange data, facilitating real-time interaction among them-
selves and with humans. IoT applications range from smart homes, industrial automation,
and wearable technology, to healthcare and transportation. By enabling real-time commu-
nication and data exchange, IoT applications are transforming traditional industries and
creating new opportunities for innovation and growth. The benefits of IoT applications
include increased efficiency, improved decision-making, cost savings, enhanced safety and
security, improved customer experience, predictive maintenance, and remote monitoring
and control. IoT has a wide range of applications across various industries, including:

• Smart homes: IoT devices such as smart thermostats, lighting, and security systems can
be used to automate and control various functions in a home, making it more energy-
efficient and secure (Samuel 2016).
• Smart cities: IoT-enabled sensors and devices can be used to monitor and control vari-
ous functions in a city, such as traffic flow, air and water quality, and waste manage-
ment (Arasteh et al. 2016).
• Healthcare: IoT-enabled devices such as wearables and remote monitoring systems can
be used to track and manage patients’ health, enabling doctors to provide more person-
alized care (Selvaraj and Sundaravaradhan 2020).

13
 D. Thakur et al.

• Agriculture: IoT-enabled sensors and devices can be used to monitor and control vari-
ous aspects of farming, such as soil moisture, temperature, and crop growth (Thakur
et al. 2020).
• Industrial automation: IoT-enabled sensors and devices can be used to monitor and con-
trol various aspects of industrial processes, such as equipment performance and energy
consumption (Park and Park 2016).
• Retail: IoT-enabled devices such as sensors and RFID tags can be used to track inven-
tory, monitor customer behaviour, and improve the shopping experience (Caro and
Sadr 2019).
• Transport and Logistics: IoT-enabled devices such as GPS tracking and telematics can
be used to track and monitor vehicles, and cargo and improve the efficiency of the sup-
ply chain (Sicari et al. 2019).

In this section, we will delve into some of the most significant and promising applications
of IoT that are rapidly emerging and transforming various industries. These applications
span multiple domains, including Healthcare, Agriculture, Smart Cities, and Smart Homes.
Each of these applications leverages the unique capabilities of IoT devices, such as real-
time data collection, connectivity, and automation, to deliver significant benefits such as
increased efficiency, improved decision-making, cost savings, enhanced safety and secu-
rity, improved customer experience, predictive maintenance, and remote monitoring and
control. By exploring these emerging applications of IoT in-depth, we will gain a better
understanding of the potential of this technology and how it is shaping our world.

7.7.1 Healthcare

IoT technology has revolutionized the healthcare industry by enabling real-time monitoring
and data management of patient’s health status. IoT devices such as sports watches, medi-
cal alert bracelets, and wearable sensors can collect a range of biometric data, including
heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen levels, and more. This data is then analyzed and man-
aged to provide doctors and healthcare professionals with real-time insights into patients’
health status, enabling them to make informed decisions and provide prompt and effec-
tive treatment. Additionally, IoT-enabled remote monitoring and telemedicine solutions
allow patients to receive medical care from the comfort of their homes, reducing the need
for hospital visits and reducing healthcare costs. The impact of IoT on healthcare is only
set to grow, and researchers are continuously exploring new and innovative ways to har-
ness its potential. The study by Kim and Kim (2018) explores the user perspective of IoT
healthcare applications and their usefulness in managing lifestyle diseases. The study by
Baker et al. (2017) provides an in-depth analysis of the various technologies, challenges,
and opportunities involved in integrating IoT into smart healthcare. Farahani et al. (2018)
propose a fog-driven model for IoT eHealth, while Parthasarathy and Vivekanandan (2020)
develop a framework for regular monitoring of arthritis using a time-wrapping algorithm
based on an IoT-based architecture. These studies demonstrate the various ways in which
IoT is transforming the healthcare industry and highlight the importance of continued
research and innovation in this field. The IoT has the potential to revolutionize healthcare
by improving patient outcomes, increasing efficiency, and reducing costs. Here are a few
examples of how IoT is being used in healthcare:

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Remote monitoring: IoT-enabled devices such as wearables, sensors, and telemedicine

equipment can be used to monitor patients’ vital signs and health status remotely. This
can enable doctors to provide more personalized care and reduce the need for hospital
visits
• Medication management: IoT-enabled devices such as smart pill bottles and medication
dispensers can be used to remind patients to take their medication, track usage, and
alert caregivers if there are any issues.
• Clinical decision-making: IoT-enabled devices can be used to collect and transmit large
amounts of data, which can then be analyzed to identify patterns and trends. This can
help doctors make more informed decisions about patient care.
• Clinical trials and research: IoT-enabled devices can be used to collect and transmit
data from patients participating in clinical trials and research studies, which can lead to
new treatments and cures.
• Medical Equipment Management: IoT-enabled devices can be used to monitor the
usage, performance and maintenance of medical equipment, which can help with pre-
ventive maintenance and reduce downtime.

These are just a few examples of the many ways in which IoT is being used in healthcare to
improve patient outcomes, increase efficiency, and reduce costs. As the technology contin-
ues to evolve, new applications and use cases for IoT in healthcare will likely emerge.

7.7.2 Agriculture

IoT has always helped in solving various problems which require constant monitoring
and controlling. Therefore, its applications in the field of agriculture are numerous. IoT-
based sensors and devices help in reducing human effort and save time for many farmers
around the world. IoT technology is being increasingly used in the agriculture industry to
improve crop yields, reduce waste, and optimize resource utilization. IoT devices such as
sensors, drones, and smart irrigation systems can collect real-time data on soil moisture,
temperature, and other environmental factors, and use this information to optimize crop
growth. IoT-enabled precision agriculture techniques, such as variable rate fertilization and
planting, can improve crop yields and reduce waste by using data to determine the optimal
amount of resources required for each area of a field. In addition, IoT devices can be used
to monitor livestock, track and manage farm machinery, and improve food safety through
traceability systems. These technologies are helping farmers to increase productivity,
reduce costs, and improve the sustainability of their operations, making IoT a key driver of
innovation and growth in the agriculture industry. Popović et al. (2017) conducted a study
on an IoT-based platform for precision agriculture, examining various platforms involved.
Tzounis et al. (2017) gave an extensive rundown of the function of IoT in agriculture and
current advancements in IoT for agriculture. Lakhwani et al. (2019) reviewed multiple IoT
applications that support precision agriculture. Muangprathub et al. (2019) put forward an
automatic watering system using IoT and sensor networks to irrigate agricultural lands and
reduce water waste, utilizing sensors and mobile applications. The benefits of using IoT in
agriculture include:

• Increased crop yield and quality: IoT devices can collect data on soil moisture, temper-
ature, light, and other important factors, which can then be used to optimize growing
conditions and increase crop yield and quality.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

• Efficient resource management: IoT devices can help farmers monitor and control water
usage, fertilization, and other resources in real-time, reducing waste and increasing effi-
ciency.
• Improved decision-making: with access to real-time data, farmers can make informed
decisions about planting, harvesting, and other critical activities, leading to improved
yields and lower costs.
• Predictive maintenance: IoT devices can detect and diagnose issues with machinery,
alerting farmers to potential problems before they become critical.
• Enhanced food safety: IoT devices can be used to monitor food production, storage, and
distribution, helping to ensure food safety and reduce waste.
• Improved animal monitoring: IoT devices can be used to monitor animal health, feed
intake, and behaviour, helping to improve animal welfare and productivity.

7.7.3 Smart cities

The IoT technology constitutes of sensors, devices and applications which monitor, con-
trol and communicate with each other and use the data beneficially collected by them.
To develop smart cities using IoT, various sensors, monitors, and smart devices are to be
installed throughout the city and connect to achieve tracking, monitoring, controlling, and
intelligent recognition. The recent growth in smart cities and IoT applications has opened
doors for a lot of opportunities for researchers. Smart cities along with smart homes are
the most prominent applications of IoT in today’s time. The declined cost of sensors and
various other equipment has also been a reason for the growth of smart cities. The growing
population of the world results in many cities being overpopulated, many of them being in
India. This calls for resource utilisation as power consumption in these cities is enormous.
The benefits of using IoT in smart cities include:

• Improved traffic management: IoT devices can be used to monitor and control traffic
flow, reducing congestion and improving safety.
• Increased energy efficiency: IoT devices can be used to monitor and control energy
usage in buildings and infrastructure, reducing waste and saving resources.
• Enhanced public safety: IoT devices can be used to monitor public safety, including
air and water quality, crime, and natural disasters, allowing for rapid response and
improved outcomes.
• Improved waste management: IoT devices can be used to optimize waste collection and
disposal, reducing waste and improving sustainability.
• Better public services: IoT devices can be used to improve public services, such as pub-
lic transportation, healthcare, and education, by allowing for real-time monitoring and
improved decision-making.
• Increased citizen engagement: IoT devices can be used to engage citizens in the man-
agement and development of their city, improving civic participation and community
spirit.

7.7.4 Smart homes

The IoT is transforming the way we live in our homes. Smart homes use IoT devices to
automate and control various systems, such as lighting, heating, cooling, security, and

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

entertainment. With the ability to connect and communicate with these devices through
a central hub, such as a smartphone or tablet, homeowners can easily control their home’s
environment and security from anywhere, at any time. IoT devices can also gather data
on energy usage and consumption patterns, allowing homeowners to optimize their energy
usage and reduce their carbon footprint. Additionally, IoT devices can help to enhance the
overall comfort and convenience of the home, by allowing for customized settings and
automating routine tasks, such as adjusting the temperature or turning off the lights when
no one is home. The integration of IoT in smart homes is revolutionizing the way we live,
work, and play, by providing greater comfort, security, and control over our daily lives. The
benefits of IoT in smart homes include:

• Energy efficiency: automated control of devices, such as HVAC systems, lights, and
appliances, leads to optimized energy consumption and reduced bills.
• Convenience: remote control of devices and monitoring through a smartphone or tablet
offers greater convenience for homeowners.
• Improved safety: the use of sensors and monitoring systems can alert homeowners to
potential safety hazards, such as gas leaks or fires.
• Better health: smart homes can monitor and control indoor air quality, ensuring a
healthier living environment.
• Increased home value: the integration of IoT technology can increase the value of a
home.
• Peace of mind: monitoring systems and remote access provide peace of mind when
homeowners are away from their property.

8 Usage of DL in IoT applications and IoT devices

The IoT has rapidly emerged as a transformative technology that connects various physi-
cal objects, appliances, and devices to the internet, enabling them to exchange data and
communicate with each other. This has resulted in an explosive growth of IoT devices and
applications, ranging from smart homes and cities to industrial automation and health-
care. DL, with its ability to learn from large-scale data and make accurate predictions, has
become a critical enabler for a wide range of IoT applications. In this section, we will dis-
cuss the various applications of DL in IoT devices and systems, including IoT-enabled sen-
sors, edge computing, and network optimization.

8.1 DL for IoT applications

DL is a powerful tool for IoT applications, as it allows for the analysis of large amounts of
data and can be used to make predictions and decisions based on that data. Some examples
of DL for IoT applications include:

• Predictive maintenance: using DL algorithms to analyze sensor data from industrial

equipment, such as machines in a factory, to predict when maintenance is needed.
• Anomaly detection: DL models can identify patterns in large amounts of IoT data and
flag any data points that deviate from these patterns as anomalies.
• Time-series forecasting: LSTMs and other RNN models can be used to analyze time-
series data generated by IoT devices and make predictions about future trends.

13
 D. Thakur et al.

• Decision-making: reinforcement learning can be used to train models that make deci-
sions based on IoT data, for example, in the case of an autonomous vehicle or industrial
control system.
• Smart homes: using DL to analyze sensor data from smart home devices, such as ther-
mostats and security cameras, to make decisions about heating, lighting, and security.
• Autonomous vehicles: using DL to process sensor data from cameras, LIDAR, and
radar to make decisions about steering, braking, and accelerating.
• Surveillance: using DL algorithms to analyze video footage from surveillance cameras
to detect suspicious behaviour or objects.
• Healthcare: utilizing IoT devices with DL algorithms to predict and prevent illnesses
and monitor patients remotely.

Overall, the use of DL for IoT applications allows for the analysis of large amounts of
data, making predictions and decisions based on that data, and the ability to automate
many tasks. In this section, a comprehensive examination of the utilization of DL in vari-
ous developing applications of IoT has been provided.

8.1.1 DL in agriculture

DL and IoT can be used in agriculture to improve crop yields, reduce costs, and increase
efficiency. For example, using IoT sensors and cameras to collect data on soil moisture,
temperature, and crop growth, and then using DL algorithms to analyze the data and pre-
dict future crop yields. Additionally, DL can be used to classify images of crops, detect
pests and diseases, and even control irrigation systems. By automating these tasks, farmers
can make more informed decisions, improve crop yields and reduce costs. Agriculture is a
crucial sector for the economies of both developing and developed countries and the main
source of income for over 50% of a country’s population. Farmers aim to maximize their
agricultural output each harvest season. However, factors such as environmental changes,
intrusion attacks, plant diseases, and others can impact crop productivity. Integrating DL
models is crucial in addressing these factors, just as biological substances and chemicals
are. Detection and classification of plant diseases are key factors in reducing crop produc-
tion and quality. To address this issue, researchers have proposed various DL-based solu-
tions. The use of CNN based DL models in image detection and classification offers effec-
tive and efficient solutions due to its capability to condense the image and extract crucial
information. There are various CNN architectures, such as AlexNet, GoogleNet Inception
V3, VGG Net, and Microsoft ResNet, that can accurately detect and classify plant diseases.
When deploying DL in agriculture, it is necessary to incorporate IoT components such as
sensors, cameras, and UAVs to gather data, as manually collecting data in large agricul-
tural fields in challenging terrain is not feasible. The collected data is then processed using
DL. Table 11 presents a summary of the efforts made by various scientists in the field of
agriculture utilizing DL.

8.1.2 DL in healthcare

DL and IoT can also be used together in healthcare to enhance the capabilities of medi-
cal diagnosis and treatment. IoT refers to the interconnections of physical devices, such
as sensors and actuators, that collect and transmit data over a network. In healthcare, IoT
devices can be used to gather data on a wide range of systems, such as vital signs, medical

13
 Table 11  DL in agriculture
Author(s) Work done DL model

Mustafa et al. (2020) Designed a computerized mixed method for identifying and diagnosing plant illnesses in herb plants SVM
Jiang et al. (2020) Identified four distinct ailments affecting rice plant leaves CNN
Mishra et al. (2020) Detects diseases in corn plant CNN
Sujatha et al. (2021) Compared the use of DL and ML techniques in identifying plant leaves VGG16, InceptionV3, VGG19
Subetha et al. (2021) Conducted comparative analysis of plant pathology classification using ResNet and VGG19 by perform- Resnet and VGG19
ing classification and prediction
Geetharamani and Pandian (2019) Developed deep CNN model for plant leaf disease identification CNN
Karadağ et al. (2020) Detects pepper fusarium disease KNN, ANN
Jasim and Al-Tuwaijari (2020) Conducted plant leaf disease detection and classification CNN
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Militante et al. (2019) Detection and recognition of plant leaf diseases were carried out CNN
Ashok et al. (2020) Detection of tomato leaf diseases was performed CNN
Gayathri et al. (2020) Analysis and detection of tea leaf diseases were conducted LeNet
Tiwari et al. (2020) A DL approach for the detection of potato leaf diseases was employed VGG19
Francis and Deisy (2019) Detect and classifies diseases in plants CNN
Iqbal and Talukder (2020) Potato disease detection involves using image segmentation Random Forest Classifier
Adedoja et al. (2019) The NASNet model has been implemented for the recognition of plant diseases NASNet

13
 D. Thakur et al.

imaging, and patient-generated data. DL, on the other hand, can analyse large and complex
datasets, such as those generated by IoT devices. By using DL algorithms, it is possible to
extract insights and make predictions from the data collected by IoT devices. Together, DL
and IoT can enable a wide range of applications in healthcare, such as:

• Medical imaging: analysing medical images such as X-rays, CT scans and MRIs to
detect diseases and aid in diagnosis.
• Predictive analytics: analysing patient data to predict the likelihood of certain health
outcomes and provide early warning for potential health issues.
• Telemedicine: monitoring patients remotely using IoT devices to gather data on vital
signs and other health metrics.
• Personalized medicine: using DL algorithms to analyse patient data and create person-
alized treatment plans.

Overall, the combination of DL and IoT in healthcare can help to improve the efficiency,
accuracy and effectiveness of medical diagnosis and treatment by providing insights from
large and complex data sets. Health emergencies such as heart attack, cancer, mental ill-
ness, and various illnesses are significant worries in people’s lives. Without adequate
healthcare, society cannot progress. Just as medicine, physical activity, and yoga are cru-
cial for good health, integrating DL into healthcare is crucial for better healthcare. DL has
numerous applications in healthcare, including disease identification and diagnosis, medi-
cal imaging, disease forecasting, intelligent medical records, customized medical treat-
ment, and more.
DL functions similarly to the human brain, creating new neurons and learning from fed
information through algorithms and neural networks to produce more precise outcomes.
In medical image analysis, DL is divided into classification, segmentation, detection, and
others. In classification, images are categorized into the presence or absence of disease.
Object classification can be used to identify specific parts of an image for more accurate
classification. Detection is the following step in classification and a crucial step in segmen-
tation, where important features such as organs can be extracted. Segmentation is then used
for image processing of organs, such as brain scans. DL algorithms have been successful
in classifying and predicting disease patterns and treatment options for patients. Table 12
summarizes the contributions of numerous researchers in the field of healthcare through
the use of DL.

8.1.3 DL in smart vehicle

DL and IoT can join forces in smart vehicles to improve autonomous driving and ensure a
safer and more comfortable driving experience. IoT is a network of physical devices, vehi-
cles, home appliances, and other items embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and
connectivity which enables these objects to collect and exchange data. In a smart vehicle,
IoT devices can be used to gather data on a wide range of systems, such as navigation,
engine performance, and vehicle safety. By using DL algorithms, it is possible to extract
insights and make predictions from the data collected by IoT devices. Combined, DL and
IoT can facilitate numerous uses in intelligent automobiles, including:

13
 Table 12  DL in healthcare
Author(s) Work Done Model

Mukherjee et al. (2020) Proposed DL method for Human activity recognition using smartphone sensors EnsemConvNet
Shah et al. (2020) Assessed healthcare service quality through analyzed patient opinions found online CNN-LSTM
Ahmed et al. (2021) Detection of patient discomfort through the use of IoT devices and DL Mask-R CNN
Alhussein and Muhammad (2018) Mobile Healthcare Framework for Voice Pathology Detection was developed VGG16, CaffeNet
Gao et al. (2018) A DL-based human monitoring system for healthcare was developed LSTM
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Veeramakali et al. (2021) Developed a secure diagnostic model using DL, Blockchain, and IoT Optimal Deep
Neural Networks
(ODNN)

13
13
Table 13  DL in smart vehicles
Author(s) Work done Model

Zhu et al. (2020) The crowd sensed the application of DL DLMV

Miglani and Kumar (2019) Mobility prediction was reviewed, challenges were identified, and solutions using DL were proposed CNN
Wirges et al. (2018) DL-based grid map augmentation was performed UNet, Resnet
Zhao et al. (2017) The prediction of the steering angle and speed of automobiles was carried out DBN
Khan et al. (2020b) The prediction of a driver’s behaviour using DL and blockchain technology was conducted CNN
Lina López et al. (2018) Smart charging of electric vehicles was facilitated using DL KNN, SNN, DNN
Canli and Toklu (2021) Smart parking was implemented using DL LSTM
Ahmad et al. (2020) The security of smart vehicles from relay attacks was addressed using DL CART​
Kim et al. (2021) Dynamic object classification for intelligent vehicles was performed using DL CNN
Xing et al. (2021) The analysis of driving behaviour and the prediction of connected vehicles were conducted using DL RNN, LSTM
D. Thakur et al.
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

• Autonomous driving: analysing sensor data from cameras, lidar, radar, GPS, and other
sources to navigate and make decisions on the road.
• Predictive maintenance: analysing sensor data to predict when maintenance is needed
and schedule it at the most convenient time.
• Vehicle safety: analysing sensor data to detect potential hazards and act to avoid acci-
dents.
• Advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) (Tigadi et al. 2016): Using sensors and
DL algorithms to assist drivers in navigating, braking, and steering.

The combination of DL and IoT in smart vehicles can help to create a more convenient,
safe and efficient driving experience by automating many of the tasks that human drivers
currently perform.
Table 13 condenses the input of various experts in the smart vehicle sector utilizing DL.

8.1.4 DL in smart homes

DL and IoT can also be used together in smart homes to enhance the capabilities of home
automation and create a more convenient and efficient living experience for residents. In
a smart home, IoT devices can be used to gather data on a wide range of systems, such as
lighting, heating, and appliances. By using DL algorithms, it is possible to extract insights
and make predictions from the data collected by IoT devices. Together, DL and IoT can
enable a wide range of applications in smart homes, such as:

• Smart lighting: adjust lighting levels and colour temperature based on the preferences
of the residents and the current time of day.
• Smart heating and cooling: automatically adjust the temperature based on the weather
forecast and the preferences of the residents.
• Smart appliances: automatically controlling appliances such as washing machines, dry-
ers, and ovens based on the preferences and routines of the residents.
• Home surveillance: monitoring the home using IoT cameras and DL algorithms to
detect suspicious behaviour and improve security.

Overall, the combination of DL and IoT in smart homes can help to create a more conveni-
ent, efficient and secure living environment for residents. Table 14 summarizes the input
from various experts in the smart home sector using DL.

8.2 DL in IoT devices

DL in IoT devices refers to the integration of deep neural networks in the IoT environment.
IoT devices generate vast amounts of data that can be used to train DL models, enabling
the development of smart and autonomous systems. DL algorithms are capable of learning
patterns and relationships in large amounts of data and are widely used for various applica-
tions such as image recognition, NLP, and predictive analytics. By incorporating DL into
IoT devices, it becomes possible to enable real-time decision-making and automate com-
plex tasks, leading to improved efficiency and reduced human intervention. Some examples

13
13
Table 14  DL in smart homes
Author(s) Work done Model

Dey et al. (2018) Predicting energy consumption in homes through DL GMDH

Mehmood et al. (2019) Identifying objects with IoT and DL MQTT
Bianchi et al. (2019) Human activity recognition using DL and IoT CNN
Danaei Mehr and Polat (2019) Recognise human healthcare using DL and IoT CNN
Fang and Hu (2014) Recognise human activity using DL and IoT DBN
Liciotti et al. (2020) Proposed A sequential DL application for activity recognition in smart homes LSTM
Natani et al. (2019) DL was used for multi-resident activity recognition in ambient sensing smart homes RNN
Popa et al. (2019) A DL model was developed for home automation and energy reduction LSTM
Choi et al. (2013) Human behaviour prediction for smart homes using DL is being done DBN-R
D. Thakur et al.
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

of IoT devices that use DL include smart homes, wearable devices, and autonomous vehi-
cles. However, there are still some challenges in implementing DL in IoT devices such as
limited computational resources, power constraints, and data privacy and security issues.
Despite these challenges, the integration of DL in IoT devices holds great promise for the
future and is poised to revolutionize the way we interact with technology. Here are a few
examples of IoT devices that use DL:

• Smart home devices: these devices use DL to analyse data from sensors and cameras to
automatically control lighting, temperature, and security systems.
• Wearable devices: fitness trackers and smartwatches use DL algorithms to analyse data
such as heart rate, sleep patterns, and physical activity to provide personalized health
insights.
• Autonomous vehicles: DL algorithms are used in self-driving cars to detect and
respond to road conditions, traffic signals, and other vehicles in real-time.
• Industrial IoT devices: DL algorithms are used in manufacturing and production envi-
ronments to optimize production processes and improve efficiency.
• Healthcare IoT devices: DL algorithms are used in medical devices such as smart insu-
lin pumps and continuous glucose monitoring systems to provide personalized health
insights and recommendations.

These are just a few examples of how DL is being integrated into IoT devices. With the
continuous advancement of technology, we can expect to see more innovative applications
of DL in IoT devices in the future

9 Challenges of IoT for DL

This section delves into the difficulties encountered by DL when processing IoT data or
using IoT devices. The challenges are outlined below:

• Lack of dataset: in DL, a large dataset is needed to train the model and improve its
performance. The lack of datasets for IoT applications can be a hurdle for integrating
DL models in IoT. Researchers often have to create their datasets and work with limited
data. This can be a time-consuming and challenging process, particularly for datasets
related to human health or other sensitive areas. There are a few platforms that provide
IoT datasets, but they are often limited in scope. This is one of the reasons why there is
a need for more robust and diverse IoT datasets to be made available to researchers.
• Pre-processing: preparing and pre-processing data for training DL models is a crucial
step in the process. Raw data from IoT devices often need to be cleaned and trans-
formed to be in the appropriate format for the model. This includes tasks such as
removing outliers, handling missing values, and scaling the data. In addition, the data
needs to be split into training, validation, and test sets for the model to be properly
trained and evaluated. Without this step, the model may not perform well or may be
prone to overfitting.
• Security and privacy: data security and privacy are important considerations when
working with DL models, particularly when it comes to IoT data. As you mentioned,
IoT datasets are often created by researchers for specific research projects, which can
make them valuable targets for data breaches or hacking attempts. Additionally, the

13
 D. Thakur et al.

data collected by IoT devices may contain sensitive information about individuals, such
as personal health data or location information, which must be protected to maintain
privacy. Several steps can be taken to secure and protect IoT data, such as:
– Encrypting the data both in transit and at rest
– Using secure protocols for communication between devices and servers
– Regularly updating software and firmware to address any known vulnerabilities
– Implementing access controls and authentication mechanisms to limit who can
access the data.
– Conducting regular security audits and vulnerability assessments.
– Anonymizing or de-identifying data before using it for training models
• Challenges of 6V’s: the massive volume of data can pose significant challenges for
DL models, particularly in terms of computational complexity and the need for large
amounts of labelled data. The high number of parameters and attributes in voluminous
data can result in complex DL models with long run time complexity, and noisy or
unlabelled data can negatively impact model accuracy. Managing the variety of data
received from different IoT devices can also be a challenge, as conflicts in data man-
agement can lead to errors in the DL model. Additionally, the high velocity of data
can be a concern as it can overwhelm the DL model and cause it to crash if it is not
able to process the input data quickly enough. The veracity of IoT-generated data is
also important, as data from untrustworthy sources can compromise the security of the
system. In addition to this, proper data filtering is important in online streaming data,
as it can vary, which might cause different inputs to the model and lead to poor perfor-
mance.
• Model interpretability: DL models can be difficult to interpret due to their complex-
ity and the use of non-linear functions. This can make it challenging to understand the
reasoning behind the model’s decisions and to identify potential biases in the data. This
can be a significant issue for IoT applications, as decisions made by these models may
have real-world consequences, and end users need to understand the reasoning behind
these decisions. Researchers have developed methods such as saliency maps, feature
visualization, and LIME to help interpret the decision of DL models

10 Conclusion

In this research, the versatility of DL is investigated in the IoT realm. It’s noted that there is
a rising trend in adopting DL in IoT devices and domains, with a broad range of practical-
ity. DL has shown great potential in revolutionizing IoT devices and applications. With the
increasing amount of data generated by IoT devices and the need for intelligent decision-
making, DL algorithms provide the necessary tools to process and analyse this data in real-
time. As technology advances, DL will likely play a critical role in shaping the future of
IoT and unlocking new possibilities in various areas. The significant impact of this litera-
ture, as outlined in the designed research questions in Sect. 2.2, on the scientific commu-
nity is outlined below.
RQ1 The role of DL frameworks is to provide an interface for developers to build, train,
and deploy DL models. As discussed in Sect. 6.4, different frameworks for DL are avail-
able, and each has its working capabilities. The Trending and most usable frameworks are

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

TensorFlow, which offers a comprehensive ecosystem for building and deploying ML mod-
els. PyTorch provides an easy-to-use interface for building and training dynamic neural
networks. Deeplearning4j, A Java-based framework for building and deploying DL mod-
els for production environments. The Microsoft cognitive toolkit, A Microsoft-developed
framework for building and deploying DL models on a variety of platforms. Keras, A high-
level API that enables the quick and easy building of neural networks. MXNet, A flexible
and efficient framework for building and deploying DL models, particularly for large-scale
distributed systems. Caffe, A fast, lightweight framework for building and deploying DL
models.
RQ2 DL models play a crucial role in IoT data processing and analysis by allowing
Anomaly detection, Predictive maintenance, Image and speech recognition, Time-series
forecasting, Data compression and dimensionality reduction, Decision-making, and more.
CNNs, RNNs, AE, GANs, LSTM Networks, VAE, and more DL models frequently used to
handle IoT data and efficiently manage IoT networks.
RQ3 IoT devices pose several challenges for implementing DL models, including
Limited computing power and memory on IoT devices, Lack of labelled data for training
models Power consumption and energy constraints, Limited bandwidth and connectivity,
Security and privacy concerns, Integration with legacy systems and protocols, Scalability
and management of many devices, Cost and deployment barriers. To overcome IoT chal-
lenges for DL, organizations can adopt techniques such as edge computing to reduce data
transfer, federated learning to improve privacy and security, transfer learning to reduce data
labelling requirements, and ensure device interoperability through compatibility standards.
Organizations can also invest in powerful computing resources and implement data protec-
tion measures to ensure data privacy and security.
RQ4 DL will play a crucial role in the future of the IoT by enabling devices to make
decisions based on data and perform tasks with minimal human intervention. It will allow
IoT devices to process and analyse large amounts of data in real-time, making accurate
predictions and enhancing their decision-making abilities. Integrating DL into IoT will
improve the efficiency of various applications such as predictive maintenance, smart
homes, and autonomous vehicles. The future direction for DL in IoT will be focused on
making devices more intelligent, secure, and efficient in data processing, communication,
and decision-making. The future direction for using DL in IoT will likely include Edge
computing, where DL models will be deployed directly on IoT devices for real-time deci-
sion-making. DL algorithms will be used to predict equipment failures in predictive main-
tenance. Anomaly detection in IoT data to improve system performance and security. Com-
puter vision for object detection and recognition in IoT applications. NLP for voice-based
interaction with IoT devices.
RQ5 The computational limits of DL include, Data Requirements: DL models neces-
sitate ample amounts of information to attain substantial precision. Computational Power:
Training large models requires significant computational resources, including memory and
processing power. Overfitting: DL models are prone to overfitting, meaning they perform
well on the training data but not on new, unseen data, Data Privacy and Bias: Collect-
ing and using large amounts of personal data for training can raise privacy concerns, and
models may also perpetuate existing biases. Interpretability: DL models can be difficult to
interpret and understand, making it challenging to debug or analyse errors. Convergence:
DL models can be difficult to train, and convergence is not guaranteed. Generalization: DL
models can have difficulty generalizing to new, unseen data.
RQ6 DL has shown great potential in the field of IoT due to its ability to learn from
large and complex datasets, and to make accurate predictions based on this learning. DL

13
 D. Thakur et al.

algorithms can help in extracting meaningful insights from massive amounts of data gen-
erated by IoT devices, thereby enabling smarter decision-making and predictive mainte-
nance. DL algorithms are also highly adaptable and can learn from data in real-time, which
is essential for managing the dynamic and ever-changing nature of IoT environments.
Additionally, DL can help in reducing power consumption and optimizing resource utiliza-
tion in IoT systems, thus improving their efficiency and reliability. Overall, DL provides
a powerful tool for realizing the full potential of IoT and can help in solving many of the
challenges faced in IoT, making it a highly desirable technology for future IoT applications.

Author contributions DT wrote the manuscript.JKS and SS provided the relevant information and ideas. All
the authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding No funding was received.

Declarations
Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest to declare. All authors have seen and agree with the con-
tents of the manuscript.

Ethical approval The reported work did not involve any human participation and/or did not harm the welfare
of animals.

References
Achouch M, Dimitrova M, Ziane K, Sattarpanah Karganroudi S, Dhouib R, Ibrahim H, Adda M (2022) On
predictive maintenance in industry 4.0: overview, models, and challenges. Appl Sci 12(16):8081
Adedoja A, Owolawi PA, Mapayi T (2019) Deep learning based on NASNet for plant disease recognition
using leave images. In: 2019 international conference on advances in big data, computing and data
communication systems (icABCD). pp 1–5
Agostinelli F, Hoffman M, Sadowski P, Baldi P (2014) Learning activation functions to improve deep neural
networks. arXiv preprint. https://​arxiv.​org/​abs/​1412.​6830
Ahmad U, Song H, Bilal A, Alazab M, Jolfaei A (2020) Securing smart vehicles from relay attacks using
machine learning. J Supercomput 76(4):2665–2682
Ahmed I, Jeon G, Piccialli F (2021) A deep-learning-based smart healthcare system for patient’s discomfort
detection at the edge of internet of things. IEEE Internet Things J 8(13):10318–10326
Albahrani SA, Mahajan D, Kargarrazi S, Schwantuschke D, Gneiting T, Senesky DG, Khandelwal S
(2020) Extreme temperature modeling of ALGAN/GAN HEMTS. IEEE Trans Electron Devices
67(2):430–437
Alhussein M, Muhammad G (2018) Voice pathology detection using deep learning on mobile healthcare
framework. IEEE Access 6:41034–41041
Alom MZ, Taha TM, Yakopcic C, Westberg S, Sidike P, Nasrin MS, Van Esesn BC, Awwal AAS, Asari VK
(2018) The history began from Alexnet: a comprehensive survey on deep learning approaches. arXiv
preprint. https://​arxiv.​org/​abs/​1803.​01164
Alyamkin S, Ardi M, Berg AC, Brighton A, Chen B, Chen Y, Cheng H-P, Fan Z, Feng C, Fu B et al (2019)
Low-power computer vision: status, challenges, and opportunities. IEEE J Emerg Sel Top Circuits
Syst 9(2):411–421
Andics A, McQueen JM, Petersson KM, Gál V, Rudas G, Vidnyánszky Z (2010) Neural mechanisms for
voice recognition. NeuroImage 52(4):1528–1540
Andrews JG, Ghosh A, Muhamed R (2007) Fundamentals of WiMAX: understanding broadband wireless
networking. Pearson Education, London
Arasteh H, Hosseinnezhad V, Loia V, Tommasetti A, Troisi O, Shafie-khah M, Siano P (2016) IoT-based
smart cities: a survey. In: 2016 IEEE 16th international conference on environment and electrical
engineering (EEEIC). IEEE, pp 1–6

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Ashok S, Kishore G, Rajesh V, Suchitra S, Sophia SGG, Pavithra B (2020) Tomato leaf disease detection
using deep learning techniques. In: 2020 5th international conference on communication and elec-
tronics systems (ICCES). IEEE, pp 979–983
Azzam R, Alkendi Y, Taha T, Huang S, Zweiri Y (2020) A stacked LSTM-based approach for reducing
semantic pose estimation error. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 70:1–14
Baker SB, Xiang W, Atkinson I (2017) Internet of things for smart healthcare: technologies, challenges, and
opportunities. IEEE Access 5:26521–26544
Ballester P, Araujo RM (2016) On the performance of GoogleNet and Alexnet applied to sketches. In: Thir-
tieth AAAI conference on artificial intelligence
Baloglu UB, Talo M, Yildirim O, Tan RS, Acharya UR (2019) Classification of myocardial infarction with
multi-lead ECG signals and deep CNN. Pattern Recogn Lett 122:23–30
Bandara K, Bergmeir C, Hewamalage H (2020) LSTM-MSNet: leveraging forecasts on sets of related time
series with multiple seasonal patterns. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 32(4):1586–1599
Bello O, Zeadally S, Badra M (2017) Network layer inter-operation of device-to-device communication
technologies in internet of things (IoT). Ad Hoc Netw 57:52–62
Bianchi V, Bassoli M, Lombardo G, Fornacciari P, Mordonini M, De Munari I (2019) IoT wearable sen-
sor and deep learning: an integrated approach for personalized human activity recognition in a smart
home environment. IEEE Internet Things J 6(5):8553–8562
Bisdikian C (2001) An overview of the bluetooth wireless technology. IEEE Commun Mag 39(12):86–94
Brown RE, Milner PM (2003) The legacy of Donald O. Hebb: more than the Hebb synapse. Nat Rev Neu-
rosci 4(12):1013–1019
Caffe. https://​caffe.​berke​leyvi​sion.​org
Cambria E, White B (2014) Jumping NLP curves: a review of natural language processing research. IEEE
Comput Intell Mag 9(2):48–57
Canli H, Toklu S (2021) Deep learning-based mobile application design for smart parking. IEEE Access
9:61171–61183
Caro F, Sadr R (2019) The Internet of Things (IoT) in retail: bridging supply and demand. Bus Horiz
62(1):47–54
Celebi ME, Aydin K (eds) (2016) Unsupervised learning algorithms, vol 9. Springer, Cham, p 103
Cerchecci M, Luti F, Mecocci A, Parrino S, Peruzzi G, Pozzebon A (2018) A low power IoT sensor node
architecture for waste management within smart cities context. Sensors 18(4):1282
Chadebec C, Thibeau-Sutre E, Burgos N, Allassonnière S (2022) Data augmentation in high dimensional
low sample size setting using a geometry-based variational autoencoder. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal
Mach Intell. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TPAMI.​2022.​31857​73
Chen M, Shi X, Zhang Y, Wu D, Guizani M (2017) Deep feature learning for medical image analysis with
convolutional autoencoder neural network. IEEE Trans Big Data 7(4):750–758
Chen L, Zhou M, Su W, Wu M, She J, Hirota K (2018) Softmax regression based deep sparse autoencoder
network for facial emotion recognition in human–robot interaction. Inf Sci 428:49–61
Chen X, Chen W, Hou L, Hu H, Bu X, Zhu Q (2020a) A novel data-driven rollover risk assessment for
articulated steering vehicles using RNN. J Mech Sci Technol 34(5):2161–2170
Chen J, Du L, Liao L (2020b) Discriminative mixture variational autoencoder for semisupervised classifica-
tion. IEEE Trans Cybern 52(5):3032–3046
Chen P, Fu X, Wang X (2021a) A graph convolutional stacked bidirectional unidirectional-LSTM neural
network for metro ridership prediction. IEEE Trans Intell Transport Syst. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​
TITS.​2021.​30654​04
Chen B, Liu X, Zheng Y, Zhao G, Shi Y-Q (2021b) A robust GAN-generated face detection method based
on dual-color spaces and an improved Xception. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst Video Technol. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1109/​TCSVT.​2021.​31166​79
Choi S, Kim E, Oh S (2013) Human behavior prediction for smart homes using deep learning. In: 2013
IEEE RO-MAN. IEEE, pp 173–179
Chollet F (2017) Xception: deep learning with depthwise separable convolutions. In: Proceedings of the
IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. pp 1251–1258
Cichy RM, Khosla A, Pantazis D, Torralba A, Oliva A (2016) Comparison of deep neural networks to spati-
otemporal cortical dynamics of human visual object recognition reveals hierarchical correspondence.
Sci Rep 6(1):1–13
Cunningham P, Cord M, Delany SJ (2008) Supervised learning. In: Machine learning techniques for multi-
media: case studies on organization and retrieval. pp 21–49
Danaei Mehr H, Polat H (2019) Human activity recognition in smart home with deep learning approach. In:
2019 7th international Istanbul smart grids and cities congress and fair (ICSG). IEEE, pp 149–153

13
 D. Thakur et al.

De Santo A, Galli A, Gravina M, Moscato V, Sperlì G (2020) Deep learning for HDD health assessment: an
application based on LSTM. IEEE Trans Comput 71(1):69–80
Deeplearning4j. https://​deepl​earni​ng4j.​kondu​it.​ai
Deng L (2016) Deep learning: from speech recognition to language and multimodal processing. APSIPA
Trans Signal Inf Process. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1017/​ATSIP.​2015.​22
Dewangan G, Maurya S (2021) Fault diagnosis of machines using deep convolutional beta-variational
autoencoder. IEEE Trans Artif Intell 3(2):287–296
Dey N, Fong S, Song W, Cho K (2018) Forecasting energy consumption from smart home sensor network
by deep learning. In: Smart trends in information technology and computer communications: second
international conference, SmartCom 2017, Pune, India, August 18–19, 2017, revised selected papers
2. Springer, pp 255–265
Du X, Ma C, Zhang G, Li J, Lai Y-K, Zhao G, Deng X, Liu Y-J, Wang H (2020) An efficient LSTM network
for emotion recognition from multichannel EEG signals. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2020.​30137​11
Elkholy MM, Mostafa M, Ebied HM, Tolba MF (2020) Hyperspectral unmixing using deep convolutional
autoencoder. Int J Remote Sens 41(12):4799–4819
Emami H, Aliabadi MM, Dong M, Chinnam RB (2020) SPA-GAN: spatial attention GAN for image-to-
image translation. IEEE Trans Multimed 23:391–401
Essien A, Giannetti C (2020) A deep learning model for smart manufacturing using convolutional LSTM
neural network autoencoders. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 16(9):6069–6078
Esteva A, Robicquet A, Ramsundar B, Kuleshov V, DePristo M, Chou K, Cui C, Corrado G, Thrun S, Dean
J (2019) A guide to deep learning in healthcare. Nat Med 25(1):24–29
Fan H, Zhang F, Wei Y, Li Z, Zou C, Gao Y, Dai Q (2021) Heterogeneous hypergraph variational autoen-
coder for link prediction. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 44(8):4125–4138
Fang H, Hu C (2014) Recognizing human activity in smart home using deep learning algorithm. In: Pro-
ceedings of the 33rd Chinese control conference. pp 4716–4720
Farahani B, Firouzi F, Chang V, Badaroglu M, Constant N, Mankodiya K (2018) Towards fog-driven IoT
eHealth: promises and challenges of IoT in medicine and healthcare. Future Gener Comput Syst
78:659–676
Feigl T, Kram S, Woller P, Siddiqui RH, Philippsen M, Mutschler C (2020) RNN-aided human velocity
estimation from a single IMU. Sensors 20(13):3656
Francis M, Deisy C (2019) Disease detection and classification in agricultural plants using convolutional
neural networks—a visual understanding. In: 2019 6th international conference on signal process-
ing and integrated networks (SPIN). IEEE, pp 1063–1068
Gao Y, Xiang X, Xiong N, Huang B, Lee HJ, Alrifai R, Jiang X, Fang Z (2018) Human action monitor-
ing for healthcare based on deep learning. IEEE Access 6:52277–52285
Gao S, Huang Y, Zhang S, Han J, Wang G, Zhang M, Lin Q (2020) Short-term runoff prediction with
GRU and LSTM networks without requiring time step optimization during sample generation. J
Hydrol 589:125188
Gayathri S, Wise DCJW, Shamini PB, Muthukumaran N (2020) Image analysis and detection of tea leaf
disease using deep learning. In: 2020 international conference on electronics and sustainable com-
munication systems (ICESC). IEEE, pp 398–403
Geetharamani G, Pandian A (2019) Identification of plant leaf diseases using a nine-layer deep convolu-
tional neural network. Comput Electr Eng 76:323–338
Gharibzahedi SMT, Barba FJ, Zhou J, Wang M, Altintas Z (2022) Electronic sensor technologies in
monitoring quality of tea: a review. Biosensors 12(5):356
Goodfellow I, Bengio Y, Courville A (2016) Deep learning. MIT Press, Cambridge
Gorostiza EM, Galilea JLL, Meca FJM, Monzú DS, Zapata FE, Puerto LP (2011) Infrared sensor system
for mobile-robot positioning in intelligent spaces. Sensors 11:5416–5438
Greff K, Srivastava RK, Koutník J, Steunebrink BR, Schmidhuber J (2016) LSTM: a search space odys-
sey. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 28(10):2222–2232
Habi HV, Messer H (2020) Recurrent neural network for rain estimation using commercial microwave
links. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 59(5):3672–3681
Hadjeres G, Nielsen F (2020) Anticipation-RNN: enforcing unary constraints in sequence generation,
with application to interactive music generation. Neural Comput Appl 32(4):995–1005
Han F, Yao J, Zhu H, Wang C (2020) Underwater image processing and object detection based on deep
cnn method. J Sens. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​2020/​67073​28
Hashida H, Kawamoto Y, Kato N (2019) Efficient delay-based internet-wide scanning method for IoT
devices in wireless LAN. IEEE Internet Things J 7(2):1364–1374

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Hayman S (1999) The McCulloch–Pitts model. In: IJCNN’99. International joint conference on neural
networks. proceedings (Cat. No. 99CH36339), vol 6. IEEE, pp 4438–4439
He K, Zhang X, Ren S, Sun J (2016) Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: Proceedings of
the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. pp 770–778
Hong C, Yu J, Wan J, Tao D, Wang M (2015) Multimodal deep autoencoder for human pose recovery.
IEEE Trans Image Process 24(12):5659–5670
Hou R, Shen Y, Zhao H, Hu H, Lu J, Long T (2020) Power loss characterization and modeling for GAN-
based hardswitching half-bridges considering dynamic on-state resistance. IEEE Trans Transport
Electrif 6(2):540–553
IEEE 802.11. https://​www.​ieee8​02.​org/​11/
IEEE 802.15. https://​stand​ards.​ieee.​org/​ieee/​802.​15.4/​7029/
IEEE 802.15. https://​www.​ieee8​02.​org/​16/​tge/
IEEE 802.15. https://​www.​ieee8​02.​org/​15/
Ilsvrc-2015. https://​schol​ar.​google.​com/​citat​ions?​user=​mG4im​MEAAA​AJ&​hl=​en&​oi=​ao
Ilsvrc-2015. https://​news.​corne​ll.​edu/​stori​es/​2019/​09/​profe​ssors-​perce​
ptron-​paved-​way-​ai-​60-​years-​too-​soon
Ilsvrc-2015. https://​schol​ar.​google.​com/​citat​ions?​user=​WLN3Q​rAAAA​AJ&​hl=​en&​oi=​ao
Iqbal T, Ali H (2018) Generative adversarial network for medical images (MI-GAN). J Med Syst
42(11):1–11
Iqbal MA, Talukder KH (2020) Detection of potato disease using image segmentation and machine
learning. In: 2020 international conference on wireless communications signal processing and net-
working (WiSPNET). pp 43–47
Irsoy O, Alpaydın E (2017) Unsupervised feature extraction with autoencoder trees. Neurocomputing
258:63–73
Jahangir H, Tayarani H, Gougheri SS, Golkar MA, Ahmadian A, Elkamel A (2020) Deep learning-based
forecasting approach in smart grids with microclustering and bidirectional LSTM network. IEEE
Trans Ind Electron 68(9):8298–8309
Jasim MA, Al-Tuwaijari JM (2020) Plant leaf diseases detection and classification using image processing
and deep learning techniques. In: 2020 international conference on computer science and software
engineering (CSASE). IEEE, pp 259–265
Ji Z, Li S, Pang Y (2018) Fusion-attention network for person search with free-form natural language. Pat-
tern Recogn Lett 116:205–211
Jia L, Gu Y, Cheng K, Yan H, Ren F (2020) BeAware: convolutional neural network (CNN) based user
behavior understanding through WiFi channel state information. Neurocomputing 397:457–463
Jia Y, Liu B, Dou W, Xu X, Zhou X, Qi L, Yan Z (2022) CroAPP: a CNN-based resource optimization
approach in edge computing environment. IEEE Trans Ind Inform. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TII.​2022.​
31544​73
Jiang K, Wang Z, Yi P, Wang G, Lu T, Jiang J (2019) Edge-enhanced GAN for remote sensing image super-
resolution. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 57(8):5799–5812
Jiang F, Lu Y, Chen Y, Cai D, Li G (2020) Image recognition of four rice leaf diseases based on deep learn-
ing and support vector machine. Comput Electron Agric 179:105824
Jiao R, Peng K, Dong J (2020) Remaining useful life prediction of lithium-ion batteries based on condi-
tional variational autoencodersparticle filter. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 69(11):8831–8843
Jin W, Kim D (2018) Development of virtual resource based IoT proxy for bridging heterogeneous web ser-
vices in IoT networks. Sensors 18(6):1721
Jin L, Yan J, Du X, Xiao X, Fu D (2020) RNN for solving time-variant generalized Sylvester equation with
applications to robots and acoustic source localization. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 16(10):6359–6369
Joyce JM (2011) Kullback–Leibler divergence. In: International encyclopedia of statistical science.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 720–722
Kamilaris A, Prenafeta-Boldú FX (2018) Deep learning in agriculture: a survey. Comput Electron Agric
147:70–90
Kang B, Choo H (2018) An experimental study of a reliable IoT gateway. ICT Express 4(3):130–133
Karadağ K, Tenekeci ME, Taşaltın R, Bilgili A (2020) Detection of pepper fusarium disease using machine
learning algorithms based on spectral reflectance. Sustain Comput Inform Syst 28:100299
Karagiannis V, Chatzimisios P, Vazquez-Gallego F, Alonso-Zarate J (2015) A survey on application layer
protocols for the internet of things. Trans IoT Cloud Comput 3(1):11–17
Karim F, Majumdar S, Darabi H, Chen S (2017) LSTM fully convolutional networks for time series clas-
sification. IEEE Access 6:1662–1669
Karlik B, Olgac AV (2011) Performance analysis of various activation functions in generalized MLP archi-
tectures of neural networks. Int J Artif Intell Expert Syst 1(4):111–122

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Ke Z, Vikalo H (2021) Real-time radio technology and modulation classification via an LSTM auto-encoder.
IEEE Trans Wirel Commun 21(1):370–382
Keras. https://​keras.​io
Keras. https://​onnx.​ai
Khairdoost N, Shirpour M, Bauer MA, Beauchemin SS (2020) Real-time driver maneuver prediction using
LSTM. IEEE Trans Intell Veh 5(4):714–724
Khalil K, Eldash O, Kumar A, Bayoumi M (2019) Economic LSTM approach for recurrent neural networks.
IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II Express Briefs 66(11):1885–1889
Khan RU, Zhang X, Kumar R (2019) Analysis of ResNet and GoogleNet models for malware detection. J
Comput Virol Hacking Tech 15(1):29–37
Khan AH, Li S, Chen D, Liao L (2020a) Tracking control of redundant mobile manipulator: an RNN based
metaheuristic approach. Neurocomputing 400:272–284
Khan MZ, Khan MUG, Irshad O, Iqbal R (2020b) Deep learning and blockchain fusion for detecting driv-
er’s behavior in smart vehicles. Internet Technol Lett 3(6):e119
Khanh QV, Hoai NV, Manh LD, Le AN, Jeon G (2022) Wireless communication technologies for IoT in 5G:
vision, applications, and challenges. Wirel Commun Mob Comput 2022:1–12
Khazeiynasab SR, Zhao J, Batarseh I, Tan B (2021) Power plant model parameter calibration using condi-
tional variational autoencoder. IEEE Trans Power Syst 37(2):1642–1652
Khurana D, Koli A, Khatter K, Singh S (2023) Natural language processing: state of the art, current trends
and challenges. Multimed Tools Appl 82(3):3713–3744
Kim S, Kim S (2018) User preference for an IoT healthcare application for lifestyle disease management.
Telecommun Policy 42(4):304–314
Kim S, Lee J, Kang S, Lee J, Yoo H-J (2020) A power-efficient CNN accelerator with similar feature skip-
ping for face recognition in mobile devices. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst I 67(4):1181–1193
Kim K, Kim C, Jang C, Sunwoo M, Jo K (2021) Deep learning-based dynamic object classification using
LiDAR point cloud augmented by layer-based accumulation for intelligent vehicles. Expert Syst Appl
167:113861
Kingma DP, Welling M (2019) An introduction to variational autoencoders. Found Trends® Mach Learn
12(4):307–392
Kollias D, Zafeiriou S (2020) Exploiting multi-CNN features in CNN-RNN based dimensional emotion rec-
ognition on the OMG in-the-wild dataset. IEEE Trans Affect Comput 12(3):595–606
Kong L, Tan J, Huang J, Chen G, Wang S, Jin X, Zeng P, Khan M, Das SK (2022) Edge-computing-driven
internet of things: a survey. ACM Comput Surv 55(8):1–41
Kuutti S, Bowden R, Jin Y, Barber P, Fallah S (2020) A survey of deep learning applications to autonomous
vehicle control. IEEE Trans Intell Transport Syst 22(2):712–733
Lakhwani K, Gianey H, Agarwal N, Gupta S (2019) Development of IoT for smart agriculture a review. In:
Emerging trends in expert applications and security: proceedings of ICETEAS 2018. Springer, pp
425–432
Langer S (2021) Approximating smooth functions by deep neural networks with sigmoid activation func-
tion. J Multivar Anal 182:104696
LeCun Y, Bengio Y, Hinton G (2015a) Deep learning. Nature 521(7553):436–444
LeCun Y et al (2015b) LeNet-5, convolutional neural networks, vol 20, no 5, p 14. http://​yann.​lecun.​com/​
exdb/​lenet
Lee S-J, Chen T, Yu L, Lai C-H (2018) Image classification based on the boost convolutional neural net-
work. IEEE Access 6:12755–12768
Li J (2022) Recent advances in end-to-end automatic speech recognition. APSIPA Trans Signal Inf Process
11(1):1–64
Li J, Huang X, Gamba P, Bioucas-Dias JM, Zhang L, Benediktsson JA, Plaza A (2014) Multiple feature
learning for hyperspectral image classification. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 53(3):1592–1606
Li S, Xu LD, Zhao S (2015) The internet of things: a survey. Inf Syst Front 17:243–259
Li W, Fu H, Yu L, Gong P, Feng D, Li C, Clinton N (2016) Stacked autoencoder-based deep learning for
remote-sensing image classification: a case study of African land-cover mapping. Int J Remote Sens
37(23):5632–5646
Li S, Liu X, Wang Y, Wang X (2019) A cubic quality loss function and its applications. Qual Reliab Eng Int
35(4):1161–1179
Li X, Tang J, Zhang Q, Gao B, Yang JJ, Song S, Wu W, Zhang W, Yao P, Deng N et al (2020a) Power-
efficient neural network with artificial dendrites. Nat Nanotechnol 15(9):776–782
Li L, Zou C, Zheng Y, Su Q, Fu H, Tai C-L (2020b) Sketch-R2CNN: an RNN-rasterization-CNN architec-
ture for vector sketch recognition. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph 27(9):3745–3754

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Li Q, Cheng M, Wang J, Sun B (2020c) LSTM based phishing detection for big email data. IEEE Trans Big
Data. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TBDATA.​2020.​29789​15
Li R, Hu Y, Liang Q (2020d) T2F-LSTM method for long-term traffic volume prediction. IEEE Trans Fuzzy
Syst 28(12):3256–3264
Li L, Yan J, Wang H, Jin Y (2020e) Anomaly detection of time series with smoothness-inducing sequential
variational auto-encoder. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 32(3):1177–1191
Li C, Zhang Z, Song R, Cheng J, Liu Y, Chen X (2021a) EEG-based emotion recognition via neural archi-
tecture search. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2021.​31303​87
Li W, Liang Z, Ma P, Wang R, Cui X, Chen P (2021b) Hausdorff GAN: improving GAN generation quality
with Hausdorff metric. IEEE Trans Cybern. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TCYB.​2021.​30623​96
Li L, Yan J, Zhang Y, Zhang J, Bao J, Jin Y, Yang X (2022) Learning generative RNN-ODE for collabora-
tive time-series and event sequence forecasting. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​
TKDE.​2022.​31851​15
Liciotti D, Bernardini M, Romeo L, Frontoni E (2020) A sequential deep learning application for recognis-
ing human activities in smart homes. Neurocomputing 396:501–513
Lin L, Li M, Ma L, Nazari M, Mahdavi S, Yunianta A (2020) Using fuzzy uncertainty quantization and
hybrid RNN-LSTM deep learning model for wind turbine power. IEEE Trans Ind Appl. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1109/​TIA.​2020.​29994​36
Lina López K, Gagné C, Gardner M-A (2018) Demand-side management using deep learning for smart
charging of electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Smart Grid 10(3):2683–2691
Liu Q, Wang J (2008) A one-layer recurrent neural network with a discontinuous hard-limiting activation
function for quadratic programming. IEEE Trans Neural Netw 19(4):558–570
Liu L, Shen C, van den Hengel A (2016) Cross-convolutional-layer pooling for image recognition. IEEE
Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 39(11):2305–2313
Liu H, Zhou J, Zheng Y, Jiang W, Zhang Y (2018) Fault diagnosis of rolling bearings with recurrent neural
network-based autoencoders. ISA Trans 77:167–178
Liu Z, Wu J, Fu L, Majeed Y, Feng Y, Li R, Cui Y (2019a) Improved kiwifruit detection using pre-trained
VGG16 with RGB and NIR information fusion. IEEE Access 8:2327–2336
Liu H, Lang B, Liu M, Yan H (2019b) CNN and RNN based payload classification methods for attack
detection. Knowl Based Syst 163:332–341
Lopez-Alvis J, Laloy E, Nguyen F, Hermans T (2021) Deep generative models in inversion: the impact of
the generator’s nonlinearity and development of a new approach based on a variational autoencoder.
Comput Geosci 152:104762
Lore KG, Akintayo A, Sarkar S (2017) LLNet: a deep autoencoder approach to natural low-light image
enhancement. Pattern Recogn 61:650–662
Lu C, Wang Z-Y, Qin W-L, Ma J (2017) Fault diagnosis of rotary machinery components using a stacked
denoising autoencoder-based health state identification. Signal Process 130:377–388
Lu S, Lu Z, Zhang Y-D (2019) Pathological brain detection based on Alexnet and transfer learning. J Com-
put Sci 30:41–47
Lv N, Chen C, Qiu T, Sangaiah AK (2018) Deep learning and superpixel feature extraction based on con-
tractive autoencoder for change detection in SAR images. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 14(12):5530–5538
Ma M, Mao Z (2020) Deep-convolution-based LSTM network for remaining useful life prediction. IEEE
Trans Ind Inform 17(3):1658–1667
Ma Z, Chang D, Xie J, Ding Y, Wen S, Li X, Si Z, Guo J (2019a) Fine-grained vehicle classification with
channel max pooling modified CNNs. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 68(4):3224–3233
Ma Y, Xu X, Yu Q, Zhang Y, Li Y, Zhao J, Wang G (2019b) LungBRN: a smart digital stethoscope for
detecting respiratory disease using Bi-ResNet deep learning algorithm. In: 2019b IEEE biomedical
circuits and systems conference (BioCAS). IEEE, pp 1–4
Ma Y, Zhou G, Wang S (2019c) WiFi sensing with channel state information: a survey. ACM Comput Surv
(CSUR) 52(3):1–36
Ma J, Liu H, Peng C, Qiu T (2020) Unauthorized broadcasting identification: a deep LSTM recurrent learn-
ing approach. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 69(9):5981–5983
Ma F, Sun B, Li S (2021) Facial expression recognition with visual transformers and attentional selective
fusion. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2021.​31221​46
Mao L, Yan Y, Xue J-H, Wang H (2020) Deep multi-task multi-label CNN for effective facial attribute clas-
sification. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2020.​29691​89
Mct. https://​learn.​micro​soft.​com/​en-​us/​cogni​tive-​toolk​it/
Mehmood F, Ullah I, Ahmad S, Kim D (2019) Object detection mechanism based on deep learning algo-
rithm using embedded IoT devices for smart home appliances control in CoT. J Ambient Intell Human
Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12652-​019-​01272-8

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Meneghello F, Calore M, Zucchetto D, Polese M, Zanella A (2019) IoT: Internet of Threats? A survey of
practical security vulnerabilities in real IoT devices. IEEE Internet Things J 6(5):8182–8201
Meng Z, Zhan X, Li J, Pan Z (2018) An enhancement denoising autoencoder for rolling bearing fault diag-
nosis. Measurement 130:448–454
Miglani A, Kumar N (2019) Deep learning models for traffic flow prediction in autonomous vehicles: a
review, solutions, and challenges. Veh Commun 20:100184
Militante SV, Gerardo BD, Dionisio NV (2019) Plant leaf detection and disease recognition using deep
learning. In: 2019 IEEE Eurasia conference on IoT, communication and engineering (ECICE). IEEE,
pp 579–582
Minsky M, Papert SA (2017) Perceptrons, reissue of the 1988 expanded edition with a new foreword by
Léon Bottou: an introduction to computational geometry. MIT Press, Cambridge
Mishra SK, Sarkar A (2022) Service-oriented architecture for internet of things: a semantic approach. J
King Saud Univ Comput Inf Sci 34(10):8765–8776
Mishra S, Sachan R, Rajpal D (2020) Deep convolutional neural network based detection system for real-
time corn plant disease recognition. Procedia Comput Sci 167:2003–2010
Misra D (2019) Mish: a self regularized non-monotonic activation function. arXiv preprint. https://​arxiv.​
org/​abs/​1908.​08681
Mitchell TM (2007) Machine learning, vol 1. McGraw-Hill, New York
Muangprathub J, Boonnam N, Kajornkasirat S, Lekbangpong N, Wanichsombat A, Nillaor P (2019) IoT and
agriculture data analysis for smart farm. Comput Electron Agric 156:467–474
Mukherjee D, Mondal R, Singh PK, Sarkar R, Bhattacharjee D (2020) EnsemConvNet: a deep learning
approach for human activity recognition using smartphone sensors for healthcare applications. Mul-
timed Tools Appl 79(41):31663–31690
Mulligan G (2007) The 6LoWPAN architecture. In: Proceedings of the 4th workshop on embedded net-
worked sensors. pp 78–82
Mustafa MS, Husin Z, Tan WK, Mavi MF, Farook RSM (2020) Development of automated hybrid intelli-
gent system for herbs plant classification and early herbs plant disease detection. Neural Comput Appl
32(15):11419–11441
Muthu Ramya C, Shanmugaraj M, Prabakaran R (2011) Study on ZigBee technology. In: 2011 3rd interna-
tional conference on electronics computer technology, vol 6. IEEE, pp 297–301
MXNet. https://​mxnet.​apache.​org/​versi​ons/1.​9.1/
Natani A, Sharma A, Peruma T, Sukhavasi S (2019) Deep learning for multi-resident activity recognition in
ambient sensing smart homes. In: 2019 IEEE 8th global conference on consumer electronics (GCCE).
IEEE, pp 340–341
Niu S, Li B, Wang X, Lin H (2020) Defect image sample generation with GAN for improving defect recog-
nition. IEEE Trans Autom Sci Eng 17(3):1611–1622
Noda K, Yamaguchi Y, Nakadai K, Okuno HG, Ogata T (2015) Audio-visual speech recognition using deep
learning. Appl Intell 42(4):722–737
Othman E, Bazi Y, Alajlan N, Alhichri H, Melgani F (2016) Using convolutional features and a sparse
autoencoder for land-use scene classification. Int J Remote Sens 37(10):2149–2167
Otter DW, Medina JR, Kalita JK (2020) A survey of the usages of deep learning for natural language pro-
cessing. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 32(2):604–624
Pantic I, Paunovic J, Cumic J, Valjarevic S, Petroianu GA, Corridon PR (2022) Artificial neural networks in
contemporary toxicology research. Chemico-Biol Interact 369:110269
Park SH, Park JK (2016) IoT industry & security technology trends. Int J Adv Smart Converg 5(3):27–31
Park K, Kim J, Lee J (2019) Visual field prediction using recurrent neural network. Sci Rep 9(1):1–12
Parthasarathy P, Vivekanandan S (2020) A typical IoT architecture-based regular monitoring of arthritis
disease using time wrapping algorithm. Int J Comput Appl 42(3):222–232
Phasinam K, Kassanuk T, Shinde PP, Thakar CM, Sharma DK, Mohiddin MK, Rahmani AW (2022) Appli-
cation of IoT and cloud computing in automation of agriculture irrigation. J Food Qual 2022:1–8
Popa D, Pop F, Serbanescu C, Castiglione A (2019) Deep learning model for home automation and energy
reduction in a smart home environment platform. Neural Comput Appl 31(5):1317–1337
Popović T, Latinović N, Pešić A, Zečević Ž, Krstajić B, Djukanović S (2017) Architecting an IoT-enabled
platform for precision agriculture and ecological monitoring: a case study. Comput Electron Agric
140:255–265
Prakash CD, Karam LJ (2021) It GAN do better: GAN-based detection of objects on images with varying
quality. IEEE Trans Image Process 30:9220–9230
pytorch. https://​pytor​ch.​org
Qi M, Wang Y, Qin J, Li A, Luo J, Van Gool L (2019) StagNet: an attentive semantic RNN for group activ-
ity and individual action recognition. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst Video Technol 30(2):549–565

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Qiang N, Dong Q, Ge F, Liang H, Ge B, Zhang S, Sun Y, Gao J, Liu T (2020) Deep variational autoencoder
for mapping functional brain networks. IEEE Trans Cogn Dev Syst 13(4):841–852
Qu Y, Yu S, Zhou W, Tian Y (2020) GAN-driven personalized spatial-temporal private data sharing in
cyber-physical social systems. IEEE Trans Netw Sci Eng 7(4):2576–2586
Quispe R, Pedrini H (2019) Improved person re-identification based on saliency and semantic parsing with
deep neural network models. Image Vis Comput 92:103809
Ramachandran P, Zoph B, Le QV (2017) Searching for activation functions. arXiv preprint. https://​arxiv.​
org/​abs/​1710.​05941
Rao G, Huang W, Feng Z, Cong Q (2018) LSTM with sentence representations for document-level senti-
ment classification. Neurocomputing 308:49–57
Rebennack S, Krasko V (2020) Piecewise linear function fitting via mixed-integer linear programming.
INFORMS J Comput 32(2):507–530
Ruan Y-P, Ling Z (2021) Emotion-regularized conditional variational autoencoder for emotional response
generation. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2021.​30738​09
Russell SJ (2010) Artificial intelligence a modern approach. Pearson Education Inc., London
Saidi SJ, Matic S, Gasser O, Smaragdakis G, Feldmann A (2022) Deep dive into the IoT backend ecosys-
tem. In: Proceedings of the 22nd ACM internet measurement conference. pp 488–503
Salari A, Djavadifar A, Liu XR, Najjaran H (2022) Object recognition datasets and challenges: a review.
Neurocomputing
Samuel SSI (2016) A review of connectivity challenges in IoT-smart home. In: 2016 3rd MEC international
conference on big data and smart city (ICBDSC). IEEE, pp 1–4
Sanchez-Iborra R, Cano M-D (2016) State of the art in LP-WAN solutions for industrial IoT services. Sen-
sors 16(5):708
Schmidhuber J (2015) Deep learning in neural networks: an overview. Neural Netw 61:85–117
Schmidt-Hieber J (2020) Nonparametric regression using deep neural networks with ReLU activation func-
tion. Ann Stat 48(4):1875–1897
Selvaraj S, Sundaravaradhan S (2020) Challenges and opportunities in IoT healthcare systems: a systematic
review. SN Appl Sci 2(1):139
Shah AM, Yan X, Shah SAA, Mamirkulova G (2020) Mining patient opinion to evaluate the service quality
in healthcare: a deep-learning approach. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 11(7):2925–2942
Shanthi T, Sabeenian RS (2019) Modified Alexnet architecture for classification of diabetic retinopathy
images. Comput Electr Eng 76:56–64
Shao L, Zhu F, Li X (2014) Transfer learning for visual categorization: a survey. IEEE Trans Neural Netw
Learn Syst 26(5):1019–1034
Sharma A, Liu X, Yang X, Shi D (2017) A patch-based convolutional neural network for remote sensing
image classification. Neural Netw 95:19–28
Shu Y, Yi R, Xia M, Ye Z, Zhao W, Chen Y, Lai Y-K, Liu Y-J (2021) GAN-based multi-style photo car-
toonization. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TVCG.​2021.​30672​01
Sicari S, Rizzardi A, Coen-Porisini A (2019) Smart transport and logistics: a node-RED implementation.
Internet Technol Lett 2(2):e88
Simonyan K, Zisserman A (2014) Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition.
arXiv preprint. https://​arxiv.​org/​abs/​1409.​1556
Soui M, Smiti S, Mkaouer MW, Ejbali R (2020) Bankruptcy prediction using stacked auto-encoders. Appl
Artif Intell 34(1):80–100
Souibgui MA, Kessentini Y (2020) DE-GAN: a conditional generative adversarial network for document
enhancement. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TPAMI.​2020.​30224​06
Stiller B, Schiller E, Schmitt C, Ziegler S, James M (2020) An overview of network communication tech-
nologies for IoT. Handbook of Internet-of-Things, 12.
Su Y, Zhao Y, Sun M, Zhang S, Wen X, Zhang Y, Liu X, Liu X, Tang J, Wu W et al (2021) Detecting out-
lier machine instances through Gaussian mixture variational autoencoder with one dimensional CNN.
IEEE Trans Comput 71(4):892–905
Subetha T, Khilar R, Christo MS (2021) A comparative analysis on plant pathology classification using
deep learning architecture—ResNet and VGG19. Mater Today. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matpr.​2020.​
11.​993
Sujatha R, Chatterjee JM, Jhanjhi NZ, Brohi SN (2021) Performance of deep learning vs machine learning
in plant leaf disease detection. Microprocess Microsyst 80:103615
Sun Q, Liu X, Bourennane S, Liu B (2021) Multiscale denoising autoencoder for improvement of target
detection. Int J Remote Sens 42(8):3002–3016
Sutton RS, Barto AG (2018) Reinforcement learning: an introduction. MIT Press, Cambridge

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Szegedy C, Liu W, Jia Y, Sermanet P, Reed S, Anguelov D, Erhan D, Vanhoucke V, Rabinovich A (2015)
Going deeper with convolutions. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pat-
tern recognition. pp 1–9
Szegedy C, Vanhoucke V, Ioffe S, Shlens J, Wojna Z (2016) Rethinking the inception architecture for com-
puter vision. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. pp
2818–2826
Szegedy C, Ioffe S, Vanhoucke V, Alemi AA (2017) Inception-v4, inception-ResNet and the impact of
residual connections on learning. In: Thirty-first AAAI conference on artificial intelligence
Tan K, Xu B, Kumar A, Nachmani E, Adi Y (2020) SAGRNN: self-attentive gated RNN for binaural
speaker separation with interaural cue preservation. IEEE Signal Process Lett 28:26–30
Tang J, Deng C, Huang G-B (2015) Extreme learning machine for multilayer perceptron. IEEE Trans Neu-
ral Netw Learn Syst 27(4):809–821
Tao W, Li C, Song R, Cheng J, Liu Y, Wan F, Chen X (2020) EEG-based emotion recognition via channel-
wise attention and self attention. IEEE Trans Affect Comput. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TAFFC.​2020.​
30257​77
Tasyurek M, Celik M (2020) RNN-GWR: a geographically weighted regression approach for frequently
updated data. Neurocomputing 399:258–270
tesnsorflow. https://​www.​tenso​rflow.​org
Thakur D, Kumar Y, Kumar A, Singh PK (2019) Applicability of wireless sensor networks in precision
agriculture: a review. Wirel Pers Commun 107(1):471–512
Thakur D, Kumar Y, Vijendra S (2020) Smart irrigation and intrusions detection in agricultural fields using
IoT. Procedia Comput Sci 167:154–162
Thies J, Alimohammad A (2019) Compact and low-power neural spike compression using undercomplete
autoencoders. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 27(8):1529–1538
Tigadi A, Gujanatti R, Gonchi A, Klemsscet B (2016) Advanced driver assistance systems. Int J Eng Res
Gen Sci 4(3):151–158
Tiwari D, Ashish M, Gangwar N, Sharma A, Patel S, Bhardwaj S (2020) Potato leaf diseases detection using
deep learning. In: 2020 4th international conference on intelligent computing and control systems
(ICICCS). IEEE, pp 461–466
Tran N-T, Tran V-H, Nguyen N-B, Nguyen T-K, Cheung N-M (2021) On data augmentation for GAN train-
ing. IEEE Trans Image Process 30:1882–1897
Tzounis A, Katsoulas N, Bartzanas T, Kittas C (2017) Internet of things in agriculture, recent advances and
future challenges. Biosyst Eng 164:31–48
Ullah I, Ahmad S, Mehmood F, Kim D (2019) Cloud based IoT network virtualization for supporting
dynamic connectivity among connected devices. Electronics 8(7):742
Veeramakali T, Siva R, Sivakumar B, Senthil Mahesh PC, Krishnaraj N (2021) An intelligent internet of
things-based secure healthcare framework using blockchain technology with an optimal deep learning
model. J Supercomput 77(9):9576–9596
Vincent P (2011) A connection between score matching and denoising autoencoders. Neural Comput
23(7):1661–1674
Wang Y, Yao H, Zhao S (2016) Auto-encoder based dimensionality reduction. Neurocomputing
184:232–242
Wang S, Jiang Y, Hou X, Cheng H, Du S (2017) Cerebral micro-bleed detection based on the convolution
neural network with rank based average pooling. IEEE Access 5:16576–16583
Wang W, Yang D, Chen F, Pang Y, Huang S, Ge Y (2019) Clustering with orthogonal autoencoder. IEEE
Access 7:62421–62432
Wang Q, Bu S, He Z (2020a) Achieving predictive and proactive maintenance for high-speed railway power
equipment with LSTM-RNN. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 16(10):6509–6517
Wang X, Tan K, Du Q, Chen Y, Du P (2020b) C ­ VA2E: a conditional variational autoencoder with an adver-
sarial training process for hyperspectral imagery classification. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens
58(8):5676–5692
Wang J, Zhang W, Yang H, Michael Yeh C-C, Wang L (2021a) Visual analytics for RNN-based deep rein-
forcement learning. IEEE Trans Vis Comput Graph. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TVCG.​2021.​30767​49
Wang H, Lu B, Li J, Liu T, Xing Y, Lv C, Cao D, Li J, Zhang J, Hashemi E (2021b) Risk assessment and
mitigation in local path planning for autonomous vehicles with LSTM based predictive model. IEEE
Trans Autom Sci Eng. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TASE.​2021.​30757​73
Wang Y, Ma X, Wang J, Hou S, Dai J, Gu D, Wang H (2022) Robust AUV visual loop-closure detection
based on variational autoencoder network. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 18(12):8829–8838
Wen L, Li X, Gao L (2020) A transfer convolutional neural network for fault diagnosis based on ResNet-50.
Neural Comput Appl 32(10):6111–6124

13
DeepThink IoT: The Strength of Deep Learning in Internet of Things

Wirges S, Stiller C, Hartenbach F (2018) Evidential occupancy grid map augmentation using deep learning.
In: 2018 IEEE intelligent vehicles symposium (IV). IEEE, pp 668–673
Wortmann F, Flüchter K (2015) Internet of things. Bus Inf Syst Eng 57(3):221–224
Wu H, Huang Q, Wang D, Gao L (2018) A CNN-SVM combined model for pattern recognition of knee
motion using mechanomyography signals. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 42:136–142
Wu J-Y, Wu M, Chen Z, Li X-L, Yan R (2021) Degradation-aware remaining useful life prediction with
LSTM autoencoder. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 70:1–10
Wu S, Sun F, Zhang W, Xie X, Cui B (2022) Graph neural networks in recommender systems: a survey.
ACM Comput Surv 55(5):1–37
Xia M, Shao H, Ma X, de Silva CW (2021) A stacked GRU-RNN-based approach for predicting renewable
energy and electricity load for smart grid operation. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 17(10):7050–7059
Xia X, Pan X, Li N, He X, Ma L, Zhang X, Ding N (2022a) GAN-based anomaly detection: a review.
Neurocomputing
Xia W, Zhang Y, Yang Y, Xue J-H, Zhou B, Yang M-H (2022b) GAN inversion: a survey. IEEE Trans Pat-
tern Anal Mach Intell. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TPAMI.​2022.​31810​70
Xie S, Girshick R, Dollár P, Tu Z, He K (2017) Aggregated residual transformations for deep neural net-
works. In: Proceedings of the IEEE conference on computer vision and pattern recognition. pp
1492–1500
Xie Z, Jin L, Luo X, Sun Z, Liu M (2020a) RNN for repetitive motion generation of redundant robot manip-
ulators: an orthogonal projection-based scheme. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1109/​TNNLS.​2020.​30283​04
Xie M, Li C, Liu X, Wong T-T (2020b) Manga filling style conversion with screentone variational autoen-
coder. ACM Trans Graph 39(6):1–15
Xing Y, Lv C, Mo X, Hu Z, Huang C, Hang P (2021) Toward safe and smart mobility: energy-aware deep
learning for driving behavior analysis and prediction of connected vehicles. IEEE Trans Intell Trans-
port Syst 22(7):4267–4280
Xu J, Xiang L, Liu Q, Gilmore H, Wu J, Tang J, Madabhushi A (2015) Stacked sparse autoencoder (SSAE)
for nuclei detection on breast cancer histopathology images. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 35(1):119–130
Xu Y, Chen Z, Xie Z, Wu L (2017) Quality assessment of building footprint data using a deep autoen-
coder network. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 31(10):1929–1951
Xu J, Li Z, Du B, Zhang M, Liu J (2020a) Reluplex made more practical: leaky ReLU. In: 2020a IEEE
symposium on computers and communications (ISCC). IEEE, pp 1–7
Xu D, Wei C, Peng P, Xuan Q, Guo H (2020b) GE-GAN: a novel deep learning framework for road traf-
fic state estimation. Transport Res C 117:102635
Xu L, Zhou X, Tao Y, Liu L, Yu X, Kumar N (2021) Intelligent security performance prediction for
IoT-enabled healthcare networks using an improved cnn. IEEE Trans Ind Inform 18(3):2063–2074
Yan X, Ai T, Yang M, Tong X (2021) Graph convolutional autoencoder model for the shape coding and
cognition of buildings in maps. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 35(3):490–512
Ye F, Bors AG (2021) Lifelong mixture of variational autoencoders. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn
Syst. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TNNLS.​2021.​30964​57
Ye L, Liu Z, Wang Y (2020) Dual convolutional LSTM network for referring image segmentation. IEEE
Trans Multimed 22(12):3224–3235
Yeo Y-J, Shin Y-G, Park S, Ko S-J (2021) Simple yet effective way for improving the performance of
GAN. IEEE Trans Neural Netw Learn Syst 33(4):1811–1818
Yi J, Zhu Y, Xie J, Chen Z (2021) Cross-modal variational auto-encoder for content-based micro-video
background music recommendation. IEEE Trans Multimed. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TMM.​2021.​
31282​54
Yu S, Principe JC (2019) Understanding autoencoders with information theoretic concepts. Neural Netw
117:104–123
Yu X-M, Feng W-Z, Wang H, Chu Q, Chen Q (2020) An attention mechanism and multi-granularity-
based Bi-LSTM model for chinese Q&A system. Soft Comput 24(8):5831–5845
Yuan X, Li L, Shardt YAW, Wang Y, Yang C (2020) Deep learning with spatiotemporal attention-based
LSTM for industrial soft sensor model development. IEEE Trans Ind Electron 68(5):4404–4414
Zabalza J, Ren J, Zheng J, Zhao H, Qing C, Yang Z, Du P, Marshall S (2016) Novel segmented stacked
autoencoder for effective dimensionality reduction and feature extraction in hyperspectral imag-
ing. Neurocomputing 185:1–10
Zaimi A, Wabartha M, Herman V, Antonsanti P-L, Perone CS, Cohen-Adad J (2018) AxonDeepSeg:
automatic axon and myelin segmentation from microscopy data using convolutional neural net-
works. Sci Rep 8(1):1–11

13
 D. Thakur et al.

Zeng N, Zhang H, Song B, Liu W, Li Y, Dobaie AM (2018) Facial expression recognition via learning
deep sparse autoencoders. Neurocomputing 273:643–649
Zhang K, Zuo W, Chen Y, Meng D, Zhang L (2017a) Beyond a Gaussian denoiser: residual learning of
deep CNN for image denoising. IEEE Trans Image Process 26(7):3142–3155
Zhang G, Kou L, Zhang L, Liu C, Da Q, Sun J (2017b) A new digital watermarking method for data
integrity protection in the perception layer of IoT. Secur Commun Netw. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1155/​
2017/​31260​10
Zhang L, Wang S, Liu B (2018a) Deep learning for sentiment analysis: a survey. Wiley Interdiscip Rev
Data Min Knowl Discov 8(4):e1253
Zhang H, Weng T-W, Chen P-Y, Hsieh C-J, Daniel L (2018b) Efficient neural network robustness certi-
fication with general activation functions. Advances in neural information processing systems, vol
31
Zhang M, Li W, Tao R, Li H, Du Q (2021a) Information fusion for classification of hyperspectral and
LiDAR data using IP-CNN. IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens 60:1–12
Zhang H, Yuan J, Tian X, Ma J (2021b) GAN-FM: infrared and visible image fusion using GAN with full-
scale skip connection and dual Markovian discriminators. IEEE Trans Comput Imaging 7:1134–1147
Zhang Q, Zeng F, Xiao Z, Jiang H, Regan AC, Yang K, Zhu Y (2022) Toward predicting stay time for
private car users: a RNN-NALU approach. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 71(6):6007–6018
Zhao C, Gong J, Lu C, Xiong G, Mei W (2017) Speed and steering angle prediction for intelligent
vehicles based on deep belief network. In: 2017 IEEE 20th international conference on intelligent
transportation systems (ITSC). IEEE, pp 301–306
Zhao Z-Q, Zheng P, Xu S-T, Wu X (2019) Object detection with deep learning: a review. IEEE Trans
Neural Netw Learn Syst 30(11):3212–3232
Zhao T, Li F, Tian P (2020) A deep-learning method for device activity detection in MMTC under
imperfect CSI based on variationalautoencoder. IEEE Trans Veh Technol 69(7):7981–7986
Zheng W, Wang K, Wang F-Y (2020) GAN-based key secret-sharing scheme in blockchain. IEEE Trans
Cybern 51(1):393–404
Zheng Y, Sui X, Jiang Y, Che T, Zhang S, Yang J, Li H (2021) SymReg-GAN: symmetric image registra-
tion with generative adversarial networks. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell 44(9):5631–5646
Zhou M (2022) Evolution from AI, IoT and Big Data analytics to metaverse. IEEE/CAA J Autom Sin
9(12):2041–2042
Zhou X, Li Y, Liang W (2020) CNN-RNN based intelligent recommendation for online medical pre-diagno-
sis support. IEEE/ACM Trans Comput Biol Bioinform 18(3):912–921
Zhu X, Luo Y, Liu A, Tang W, Bhuiyan MZA (2020) A deep learning-based mobile crowdsensing scheme
by predicting vehicle mobility. IEEE Trans Intell Transport Syst 22(7):4648–4659
Zou J, Han Y, So S-S (2008) Overview of artificial neural networks. In: Artificial neural networks. pp 14–22

Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under
a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted
manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable
law.

13
View publication stats