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KCSE PHYSICS PAPER 1: 2021

DISCUSSION

Dr. Margaret Chege1 and Ms. Jane Kimondo2

1
Kenyatta University, Physics Department, Nairobi
2
Kenyoho Secondary School, Thika

October 2022
 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

2021 Physics paper 1

NOTE: Questions have been re-arranged with questions from similar or

related topics grouped together.

1. Figure 1 shows part of the thimble scale of a screw gauge with 50 divisions. On the
diagram, draw the sleeve scale to show a reading of 3.87mm (1 mark)

2. Figure 2 shows a siphon used to empty a tank.

In order to start the siphon, state why:

(a) it must be full of liquid (1 mark)
Pressure exerted by solids
Pressure refers to the force a body exerts perpendicularly per unit
surface area i.e.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝) = (i)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝐹
𝑝= (ii)
𝐴
There are thus two factors that determine the pressure a solid exerts
on a surface it is in contact with;

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

(i) Force (or weight); The more the force, the more the pressure
and vice versa. If we consider two buddies, Biggi and Smolli,
walking on the beach or on soft mud, and if Biggi with mass m b,
is heavier than Smolli with mass m s , and assuming the area A of
their feet in contact with the ground is equal, then, pressure p b
exerted by Biggi will be;
𝑚𝑏 𝑔
𝑝𝑏 =
𝐴
Pressure p s exerted by Smolli will be;
𝑚𝑠 𝑔
𝑃ℎ =
𝐴
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Since 𝑚𝑏 > 𝑚𝑠 it follows that 𝑝𝑏 > 𝑝𝑠 . Biggi will therefore sink
deeper in the sand or in soft ground compared to Smolli.
(ii) Cross-sectional area; the smaller the cross -sectional area of
contact, the greater the pressure and vice -versa. Someone in
sharp pointed shoes sinks in soft mud or beach san d more than
if he was wearing flat shoes. In nature, camels for example have
broad hooves to prevent them from sinking in the soft sand,
while elephants have flat ‘feet’ to prevent them from sinking in
the ground owing to their massive weight.
Pressure exerted by liquids
Consider a closed rectangular tank of height h and cross-sectional
area A. Suppose the tank is filled with a liquid, say water, of density
ρ.

A
The pressure p the column of water exerts on the base of the tank is
given by:
𝐹
𝑝=
𝐴
Now, the force F is equal to the weight W of the water column. If m
be the mass of the water in the tank and g the acceleration due to
gravity, then:
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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (iii)
Hence;
𝑚𝑔
𝑝= (iv)
𝐴
From definition of density and considering V to be the volume of
water in the tank, it follows that;
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 (v)
But;
𝑉 = 𝐴ℎ (vi)
Hence;
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴ℎ (vii)
Using equation (vii) in equation (iv) leads to;
𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑝=
𝐴
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ (viii)
Equation(viii) is used to evaluate pressure exerted by liquids and
gases (fluids). It shows that the pressure exerted is independent of
the surface area. It however depends on:
(i) Density; The pressure exerted by a fluid is directly proportional
to its density. For example, a column of water exerts more
pressure on the base of a container compared to a column of
paraffin of equal dimensions. A column of mercury on the other
hand exerts more pressure than a column of water of equal
dimensions. Mercury has a density of 13,546 kg/m 3 , water 1000
kg/m 3 and oil (paraffin) 900 kg/m 3 .
(ii) Height of the fluid column (depth); Pressure exerted by a fluid
column increases with depth below the surface. For example,
dams are constructed with thicker walls near the base to enable
them withstand the relatively higher pressure. Additionally, if
for example a long tube with vertical holes on the side is filled
with water, the length of waterjet from the bottommost hole
will be the longest due to the relatively high pressure, with the
length of the waterjets gradually reducing as the holes get
closer to the surface.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

DAM

Atmospheric pressure
As weird as it may sound, air has mass and therefore weight (force)
as a result of gravitational attraction. The vertical force exerted on a
surface by an air column as a result of gravitational attraction i s
referred to as atmospheric pressure or air pressure.
The pressure exerted by an air column of height h is given as;
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Where ρ is the density of the air column. The density of air on the
earth’s surface is not uniform. At the sea level for instance, air
molecules are more concentrated but as the elevation (altitude)
increases, the concentration reduces. This means that density of air
is higher at lower altitudes (for example Mombasa) compared to
higher altitudes (for example Nairobi). Since pressure is directly
proportional to density, it follows that atmospheric pressure reduces
with altitude. Atmospheric pressure is maximum at the sea level with
a value of 101,325 Pa.
Atmospheric pressure is commonly measured using a barometer. A
barometer is simply a column of mercury in a glass tube inverted in
an open vessel containing more mercury. The length of the mercury
column is used to determine the magnitude of the atmospheric
pressure. To make a simple mercury barometer, an evacuated tube
(tube with air pumped out) is placed upside down in an open glass
bowl containing mercury. The atmosphere exerts pressure on the
surface of the mercury in the bowl but not in the tube given that it is
sealed at the top. Considering that the tube is nearly at zer o pressure,
the higher atmospheric pressure pushes the mercury into the tube.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Atmospheric Atmospheric
pressure pa pressure pa
pa pa

This ceases when the pressure the mercury column exerts at point X,
which is at the same level as the mercury in the bowl, is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. At sea level, the length of mercury the atmosphere
can hold at normal temperature is 760 mm. Atmospheric pressure is therefore
often given as 760 mmHg (760 mm of mercury). It is important to note that the
atmosphere can hold longer columns of less dense liquids. For example, the
atmosphere can hold a water column with a vertical height of up to 10.3 m.
An experiment normally used to demonstrate the existence of atmospheric
pressure is the crashed can experiment. In the experiment, a metal can is
partially filled with water and heated while open. Once the water starts boiling,
the can is sealed, immediately removed from the heat, then left to cool down
(or cold water poured on it to hasten the cooling process). It is observed that
the metal can crashes as it cools down.

The reason for this is that as the water heats up, the steam generated drives
out the air in the metal can and takes its place and all through, the atmospheric
pressure is equal to the pressure inside the open can. When the can is sealed
and allowed to cool down, the vapour condenses (becomes water) thereby
leaving a partial vacuum in the sealed can. At this point, the atmospheric
pressure is greater than the pressure inside the can hence exerts force on the

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

can crashing it in the process. It is important to note that atmospheric pressure

(pa) acts equally in all directions.
To further illustrate the presence of atmospheric pressure, a glass tumbler is
filled with a fluid, say water, and covered with a flat cardboard. While
supporting the cardboard, the can is turned upside down after which the
support is withdrawn.
pa

Fluid
Cover
Fluid

Fluid pa
pa

The water column, say of density ρ and height h, remains in the tumbler so long
as the pressure it exerts on the cardboard cover is less than the atmospheric
pressure i.e., 𝜌𝑔ℎ < 𝑝𝑎 .
NOTE 1: The higher the pressure deference, the greater the impact. A can with
less water would crash more as more air would have been pushed out by water
vapour.
NOTE 2: Pressure in a liquid is the same at all points at that level. For example,
if tubes of different shapes, sizes, and orientation are dipped in a liquid, the rise
of the liquid in all the tubes on account of atmospheric pressure will rest at the
same horizontal level.
Atmospheric pressure

Liquid
level

NOTE 3: Suppose two open containers are connected via a tube with a tap.
Suppose too that with the tap closed, one of the containers has more water
than the other.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑝𝑎
𝑝𝑎

𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
y
x
A B

The pressure at A (pA) equals the atmospheric pressure (pa) plus the pressure
due to the water column (pwater) while the pressure at B (pB) equals the pressure
exerted by the atmosphere only, i.e.,
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (i)
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝑎 (ii)
When the tap in the connecting pipe is opened, water flows from container A
to container B on account of the pressure difference. The flow ceases when the
pressure at points A and B are equal. This happens irrespective of the shape of
the containers. This means that the pressure a liquid (or fluid) exerts at all
points on the same horizontal level (xy) is equal.

𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎

𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
x y
A B

NOTE 4: Syphon
A syphon can be used to drain water from a tank. A syphon is a tube that allows
a liquid to move up the tube from a source, over the bend of the tube and down
the longer limb.
Syphon
x

The water level (x) must however be at a higher level than the outlet (y) and
the syphon be filled with water at the start of the siphoning. A combination of
factors that include atmospheric pressure, gravity and cohesive force between

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

the water molecules is said to be responsible for the movement of water (or
any other liquid) through a syphon.
NOTE 5: U-tube manometer
That pressure in a liquid is equal at all points in a given level is behind the
working principle of a U-tube manometer, a device used for measuring pressure
or comparing densities of two liquids. A U-tube manometer is simply a U-tube
containing two immiscible liquids (liquids that do not mix) with the height of
the liquid columns being used to determine the relative density of, or pressure
exerted by, the liquid of interest.
Suppose a U-tube is partially filled with some liquid, say water. The water
attains the same level in both tubes, X and Y.
X Y

A B

This means that points A and B are at the same pressure (equal to atmospheric
pressure and pressure of the water column above the points). If air is blown
into tube X, pressure at A exceeds that at B. Consequently, water will be pushed
down tube X and up tube Y until the pressure at A balances that at B.

X Y

A B

Suppose now instead of blowing into tube X, an immiscible liquid R of density

𝜌𝑅 is gradually poured into the tube until it touches point A.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑝𝑎
𝑝𝑎
X Y

ℎ
ℎ𝑅 R
A B

If the height of liquid R column be hR, the pressure at A (pA) is equal to the sum
of the atmospheric pressure and the pressure exerted by the liquid R column,
i.e.
𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑔𝜌𝑅 ℎ𝑅 (i)
Pressure at B (pB) equals the sum of the atmospheric pressure and the pressure
exerted by the water column above it. If ρ be the density of water and h the
height of the water column, then;
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ (ii)
Considering that pressure at A is equal to the pressure at B, it follows that;
𝑝𝑎 + 𝑔𝜌𝑅 ℎ𝑅 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ (iii)
𝜌𝑅 ℎ𝑅 = 𝜌ℎ (iv)
Since ℎ𝑅 < ℎ, it follows that less of liquid R is required to give the same
pressure as water. This means that the density of liquid R is greater than that
of water.
NOTE 6: Applications of atmospheric pressure
- Syringe when used to draw a liquid: When the syringe piston is pushed down
(before use) air in the syringe is pushed out. When the piston is pulled up
(during use) pressure inside the syringe reduces and the higher atmospheric
pressure pushes the liquid up into the syringe.
- Straw: When a person sucks through a straw, the pressure in the straw
reduces and the higher atmospheric pressure pushes the liquid up. A straw
with a hole on the side cannot be used to draw up a liquid as air sucked out
is balanced by air getting in through the hole. The pressure in the straw is
therefore always equal to the atmospheric pressure.
- Vacuum cleaner: When a vacuum cleaner is switched on, air is sucked out
from inside the cleaner thereby reducing the pressure inside. The higher
atmospheric pressure then forces air and dust particles into the cleaner.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

NOTE 3: Pascals principle

Pascal’s principle (Pascal’s law) states that for a liquid at rest and
enclosed in a container, pressure applied at one point is equally
transmitted throughout the liquid. Pascal law is applied for instant in
a hydraulic press. The press is made up of a u-tube of different cross-
sectional areas A 1 (effort piston) and A 2 (load piston) with A 1 < A 2 .
When a force 𝐹1 is applied in the smaller tube, the pressure p
generated is given by;
𝐹1
𝑝= (i)
𝐴1
This pressure is distributed evenly throughout the liquid and
consequently, a force F 2 is generated at the load piston such that;
𝐹2
𝑝= (ii)
𝐴2
Equation (ii) implies that if A 2 is large, F 2 has to be equally large so as
to keep the pressure constant.
Equations (i) and (ii) can be combined into a single equation as;
𝐹1 𝐹2
= (iii)
𝐴1 𝐴2
A small force at the effort piston generates a significantly large force
at the load piston hence the load is easily compressed.
𝐹1 = 𝑝𝐴1

Load
𝐴1 𝐴2

𝐹2 = 𝑝𝐴2

The same principle is also applied in hydraulic lift where a small

amount of force (effort) generates a larger force that is used to lift a
large load.
Continuity equation and Bernoulli’s Principle:
Continuity equation is concerned with transport and conservation of mass.
Imagine water flowing steadily in a pipe of different cross-section areas as
shown. Let 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be the cross-sectional areas of the wider (X) and
narrower (Y) pipes, respectively. Suppose the two pipes are of equal length 𝑑.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

X Y
𝐴1 𝐴2

d
d
If in time 𝑡1 the wider pipe (X) is filled with water, then all that water must pass
through the narrower pipe (Y) before X can fill-up with ‘new’ water again. This
means that the volume flow rate (volume of water divided by time) of water in
pipe Y must be equal to the volume flow rate of water in pipe X.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑋 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑌 (i)
If all the water that passed through pipe X in time 𝑡1 passes through pipe Y in
time 𝑡2, then;
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑋 𝐴1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑋 = = = 𝐴1 (ii)
𝑡1 𝑡1 𝑡1
𝑑
But = 𝑣1 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑋) hence;
𝑡1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑋 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 (iii)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑌 𝐴2 𝑑 𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑌 = = = 𝐴2 (iv)
𝑡2 𝑡2 𝑡2
𝑑
But = 𝑣2 (speed of water in Y) hence;
𝑡2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑌 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (v)
Equating (iii) and (v)
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (vi)
Equation (vi) represents the continuity equation. It implies that if 𝐴1 > 𝐴2 then
𝑣2 > 𝑣1 . Put another way, when a liquid flows from a wider pipe to a narrower
pipe, the speed of the liquid increases. This happens so as to maintain a
constant volume flow rate of the liquid. Assumptions made while deriving
equation (vi) include:
- Liquid is flowing steadily (no turbulence as this would lead to an increase in
pressure)
- Liquid is not compressible
- Liquid is non-viscous so as to reduce frictional drag. Examples of non-
viscous liquids include water, petrol, paraffin etc. An example of a viscous
liquid is glycerine.
Bernoulli’s principle is concerned with transport and conservation of
energy that include kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and
energy on account of pressure. Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe of
different cross-sectional areas and at different elevations from a
reference point as shown.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑑𝑥2
𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴2
𝑣2 𝐴2

𝑑𝑥1
𝐹1 = 𝑝1 𝐴1
𝑣1
𝐴1 ℎ2

ℎ1

Direction of flow
The liquid possesses energy in the form of:
(i) Kinetic energy (K): Suppose in time t, a liquid of mass m and
density ρ moves through a small distance dx 1 in the wide pipe
with velocity v 1 . When the liquid flows into the narrow pipe, the
velocity increases, say to v 2, in accordance with the continuity
equation, covering a distance dx 2 within time t (time t constant
hence dx 2 > dx 1 ). The change in kinetic energy ∆𝐾 when the
liquid moves from the wider to the narrow pipe becomes;
1 1 1
∆𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) (vii)
2 2 2
But 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 where 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥1 = 𝐴2 𝑑𝑥2 is the volume of the
liquid that has moved through the pipe in time t. Hence;
1
∆𝐾 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) (viii)
2
(ii) Gravitational potential energy. The liquid in the wide and
narrow pipes possess potential energy by virtual of their
elevation. If h 1 and h 2 be the elevations of the liquids in the
wide and narrow pipes respectively, then the change in
potential energy ∆𝑈 when the liquid flows from the wide to the
narrow pipe is given by:
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1) (ix)
But 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉 hence;
∆𝑈 = 𝑔𝜌𝑑𝑉(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) (x)
(iii) Work done by pressure: Suppose the liquid in the wide pipe is
under pressure p 1 . This pressure generates force F 1 considering;
𝐹1
𝑝1 = (xi)
𝐴1
𝐹1 = 𝑝1 𝐴1 (xii)

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Similarly, if p 2 be the pressure of the liquid in the narrow pipe

and F 2 the force generated, then;
𝐹2
𝑝2 = (xiii)
𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 (xiv)
The forces F 1 and F 2 drive the liquid through distances dx 1 and
dx 2 respectively and therefore do work equal to the product of
the force and the respective distance. The change in the work
done ∆𝑊𝑝 on account of pressure is therefore equal to;
∆𝑊𝑝 = 𝑝2 𝐴2 𝑑𝑥2 − 𝑝1 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥1 (xv)
But 𝐴2 𝑑𝑥2 = 𝐴1 𝑑𝑥1 = 𝑑𝑉 hence;
∆𝑊𝑝 = 𝑝2 𝑑𝑉 − 𝑝1 𝑑𝑉 (xvii)
∆𝑊𝑝 = (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )𝑑𝑉 (xviii)
Given that the total energy of the system is conserved, it follows that
no change in total energy occurs as the liquid moves from the wide to
the narrow pipe. The total change in energy therefore equals zero,
that is;
∆𝑊 + ∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0 (xix)
Using equations (viii), (x) and (xviii) in equation (xix) leads to;
1
𝜌𝑑𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 ) + 𝑔𝜌𝑑𝑉(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )𝑑𝑉 = 0 (xx)
2
1 1
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ2 − 𝑔𝜌ℎ1 = 0 (xxi)
2 2
1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ1 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ2 (xxii)
2 2
In general, equation (xxii) may be expressed as;
1
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝑔𝜌ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (xxiii)
2
Equation (xxiii) is a mathematical representation of Bernoulli’s
principle. It shows that a reduction in the speed of a fluid leads to an
increase in pressure.
NOTE 1: Motion of a fluid is represented by lines called streamlines.
If the streamlines are close together, speed is high and pressure is
low. If far apart, speed is low hence pressure is high.
NOTE 2: Implications of Bernoulli’s principle
- Consider a liquid flowing in a pipe of different cross -sectional areas
A 1, A 2 and A 3 where A 1 >A 2 >A 3 , with velocities v 1 , v 2 and v 3
respectively. Suppose too that tubes 1,2 and 3 are fixed in the
sections of the pipe with cross section areas A 1 A 2 and A 3
respectively. If the atmospheric pressure is lower than the liquid
pressure, the higher liquid pressure pushes the liquid up the tub es

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

with the liquid attaining the highest level in tube 1, followed by

tube 2 and lastly tube 3.

2
1
1 2

According to the continuity equation

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴3 𝑣3
This means that since 𝐴1 > 𝐴2 > 𝐴3 then 𝑣1 < 𝑣2 < 𝑣3 .
By Bernoulli’s equation (assuming h to be negligible);
1 1 1
𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑣22 𝑝1 = 𝑝3 + 𝜌𝑣32
2 2 2
Since 𝑣1 < 𝑣2 < 𝑣3 , then 𝑝1 > 𝑝2 > 𝑝3 . Liquid pressure therefore
increases with the cross-sectional area. It is for this reason that the liquid
attains the highest level in tube 1.
- A speeding car appears to fly (barely touch the ground). This is
because the speed of air above the car is hig her than under the car
leading to regions of low and high pressure respectively, with the
higher pressure forcing the car upwards.
Lower air pressure

Higher air pressure

-

- Rooftops are blown away during wind storms due to lower

pressure over the roof compared to inside the house.
- Vegetation bends towards busy roads because speeding cars
create a region of low pressure near the road. The higher pressure

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

on the other side of the vegetation pushes the vegetation towards

the road.
- When air is blown between two papers, the papers move c loser as
pressure between them reduces.

To the question:
The syphon should be filled with the liquid to drive out air hence remove the
effect of atmospheric pressure which would otherwise prevent water from
flowing out as pressure inside the tube would be equal to pressure outside the
tube.

(b) End X must be below the level of the liquid in the tank (1 mark
To create pressure difference

3. Figure 9 shows a folded piece of paper. A stream of air is blown underneath the
paper.

Explain why the paper collapsed. (2 marks)

When air is blown underneath the paper, the air molecules are forced to move
faster thereby creating a region of lower pressure in accordance with
Bernoulli’s principle. The higher atmospheric pressure above the paper forces
it downwards hence the collapse.

4. Figure 3(a) shows a horizontal tube containing air trapped by a mercury thread of
length 5cm. The length of the enclosed air column is 7.5cm. The atmospheric pressure
is 76cmHg.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

The tube is then turned vertically with its mouth facing down as shown in Figure 3(b).
(a) Determine the length l of the air column. (3 marks)
Gas laws and the kinetic theory of gases
NOTE 1: Gas laws
When an inflated balloon is left out in the sun, it increases in volume
without extra air being pumped in. If the balloon is taken out of the
sun and placed in a cold room, the volume reduces without any air
escaping. Out in the sun, the temperature of air in the balloon rises
and the gas expands leading to an increase in volume. In t he cold
room, the temperature of the air in the balloon reduces and
consequently the air contracts hence volume reduces. This implies
that when temperature of air (gas) increases, the volume of the gas
increases and vice versa. For this to happen, the pres sure and mass
of the gas must be kept constant. Hence
𝑉∞𝑇 (i)
𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (ii)
𝑇
𝑉1 𝑉2
= (iii)
𝑇1 𝑇2
Equation (i-iii) represents Charles law which states that pressure
constant, the volume of a given mass (moles) of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature of the gas.
Now, suppose that the balloon is loosely inflated. If the volume of the
balloon is gradually decreased without letting out any air, the balloon
becomes firmer and eventually bursts. The reason for th ese
observations is that initially, the pressure of air inside the balloon is
equal to the atmospheric pressure hence the balloon remains
inflated. However, as the volume of the balloon is reduced, the
trapped air particles are forced closer to each other (air is

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

compressible). This leads to increased collisions of particles within

the balloon leading to an increase in pressure. At some point, the
pressure inside the balloon increases much higher than the
atmospheric pressure causing the balloon to burst. T hus, when the
volume of a fixed mass of gas at a constant temperature reduces,
pressure increases and vice-versa, i.e.,
1
𝑝∞ (iv)
𝑉
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (v)
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 (vi)
Equations (iv-vi) represent Boyles law and only hold if the
temperature and mass (number of moles) of the gas are kept
constant.
Suppose now that a rigid and empty metal can is sealed in such a way
that the air inside remains trapped. When the can is gradually heated,
it eventually explodes. The reason for this is that as the temperature
of the air in the can increases, the kinetic energy of the air molecules
increases leading to increased collisions and therefore an increase in
pressure. When the air pressure exceeds the atmospheric pressure,
the can eventually explodes. Thus, an increase in temperature of a
fixed mass of gas, volume constant, leads to an increase in the gas
pressure and vice versa. Hence;
𝑝∞𝑇 (vii)
𝑝
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (viii)
𝑇
𝑝1 𝑝2
= (ix)
𝑇1 𝑇2
Equations (vii-ix) represents pressure law and only holds when
volume and mass (number of moles) of the gas are constant
The three laws, Charles’s, Boyle’s and pressure laws, are collectively
referred to as gas laws. Real gases obey the gas laws only at very low
pressure. A hypothetical gas that obeys the gas laws perfectly at all
time is referred to as an ideal gas.
For a gas system containing n moles of an ideal gas, equations (i) (iv)
and (vii) can be combined into a single equation as;
𝑝𝑉∞𝑇 (x)
𝑝𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (xi)
𝑇
The constant is equal to the product of the number of moles of the gas (n) and
a constant of proportionality R referred to as the universal gas constant.
Equation (xi) may therefore be written as;
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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (xii)
Equation (xii) is referred to as the ideal gas equation. If for example the state
of a gas system of n moles changes from (𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑇1 ) to (𝑝2 𝑉2 𝑇2 ) then by equation
(xii), it follows that;
𝑝1 𝑉1
= 𝑛𝑅 (xiii)
𝑇1
𝑝2 𝑉2
= 𝑛𝑅 (xiv)
𝑇2
The right-hand side of equation (xiii) equals the right-hand side of equation
(xiv) hence;
𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
= (xv)
𝑇1 𝑇2
NOTE 2: Gas laws verification
According to Charles law, volume V of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to the temperature T, pressure constant.
𝑉∞𝑇 (i)
For a column of air of length l and cross-sectional area A;
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 (ii)
If the cross-sectional area is kept constant, Charles law can be
expressed as;
𝑙∞𝑇 (iii)
To prove Charles’ law, air is trapped in a test -tube using a moveable
index. The test-tube is dipped in cold water and after the index has
stabilized the temperature of the trapped air T i (which is equal to the
temperature water) and the corresponding posi tion of the index L i
obtained.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

The water is gradually heated while being continuously stirred and

the temperature of air in the tube, T and the corresponding position
of the index l obtained periodically. A graph of l against T is then
plotted. A straight line inclined to the horizontal proves Charles’ law.
Important points to note;
- To keep the pressure constant, the test tube is kept open and the
index fixed in such a way that it is free to move up and down
without letting trapped air out.
- The length of the air column trapped in the test-tube is used in
place of volume since the cross-sectional area is constant.
- Water is continuously stirred to distribute heat evenly to ensure
that the temperature of air is accurately measured.
(ii) Boyle’s law:
An air column is trapped in a test tube of cross-sectional area A by a mercury
thread of length 𝐿𝑚 that is free to move about without letting air in or out of
the tube. The tube is placed horizontally and the length of the air column 𝐿ℎ
measured.

𝐿ℎ 𝐿𝑚

If V1 be the volume of the trapped air, then

𝑉1 = 𝐴𝐿ℎ (i)
The mercury thread is not resting on the trapped air column hence does not
exert pressure (pm) on the air. The atmosphere on the other hand exerts
pressure pa in all directions. Considering that the system is at equilibrium, it
follows that the pressure p1 the trapped air exerts is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.

𝑝1 𝑝𝑎

𝑝𝑚

That is;
𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑎 (ii)
Multiplying equations (i) and (ii) leads to;
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝𝑎 𝐴𝐿ℎ (iii)

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

The tube is now placed in an upright position and the length 𝐿𝑢 of the air
column measured (the length of the air column should be observed to decrease,
that is, 𝐿𝑢 < 𝐿ℎ ).

𝐿𝑚

𝐿𝑢

If 𝑉2 be the volume of the tapped air, then;

𝑉2 = 𝐴𝐿𝑢 (iv)
The mercury thread this time rests on the trapped air column hence exerts
pressure (pm) on it. The atmosphere too exerts pressure pa on the air column.

𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚

𝑝𝑚

The resultant pressure pam on the trapped air is therefore equal to;
𝑝𝑎𝑚 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚 (v)
It is this increased pressure that leads to a reduction in length of the
trapped air column. Since the system is in equilibrium, the pressure
the mercury column and the atmosphere exert on the trapped air
should be equal to the pressure p 2 the gas exerts in the opposite
direction.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚

𝑝2

That is;
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚 (vi)
Multiplying ((i) by (vi) leads to;
𝑝2 𝑉2 = (𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚 )𝐴𝐿𝑢 (vii)
If the trapped air obeys Boyle’s law, then equations (iii) and (vii) should be
equivalent, that is;
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑝𝑎 𝐿ℎ = (𝑝𝑎 + 𝑝𝑚 )𝐿𝑢 (viii)
Suppose now the tube is turned upside down.

𝐿𝑑

𝐿𝑚

𝐿ℎ 𝐿𝑚

The length of the air column, say 𝐿𝑑 should be observed to increase, that is,
𝐿𝑑 > 𝐿ℎ ). If 𝑉2 be the volume of the tapped air, then;
𝑉2 = 𝐴𝐿𝑑 (ix)
The mercury thread does not exert pressure on the trapped air. However, the
thread exerts pressure pm on the atmosphere. This counters the pressure pa the
atmosphere exerts on the trapped gas (pm and pa are in opposite direction).

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑝𝑚 𝑝𝑎 𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚
The resultant pressure pam on the trapped air is therefore equal to;
𝑝𝑎𝑚 = 𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚 (x)
The reduced resultant pressure on the trapped air is responsible for
the longer column. If p 2 be the pressure the trapped air exerts, then
at equilibrium this pressure should be equal to the resultant pressure
due to the atmosphere and the mercury column.

𝑝2

𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚
𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚 (x)
Multiplying ((ix) by (x) leads to;
𝑝2 𝑉2 = (𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚 )𝐴𝐿𝑑 (xi)
If the air obeys Boyle’s law, then equations (iii) and (xi) should be equivalent,
that is;
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑝𝑎 𝐿ℎ = (𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚 )𝐿𝑑 (xi)
NOTE 3: Kinetic theory of gases
According to the kinetic theory of gases, gas molecules with temperature above
the absolute zero (0 K) are in constant random motion (called Brownian
motion), colliding with each other and with the walls of the container they are
placed in. These collisions account for gas pressure. If for example the
temperature of a fixed mass of gas is increased, the kinetic energy of the
particles increases and to keep pressure constant, the particles drift further
apart leading to an increase in volume. This accounts for Charles law. If on the

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

other hand the gas is restricted to a rigid container (constant volume), an

increase in kinetic energy causes the gas molecules to collide faster leading to
an increase in gas pressure in accordance with the pressure law. If the
temperature is kept constant and the volume of the gas reduced (gases are
compressible), the gas particles move closer to each other hence the collisions
and consequently the gas pressure increases which is in line with Boyle’s law.
The random movement of molecules of a gas above 0 K is the basis of the kinetic
theory of gases. A number of assumptions are however made in relation to the
kinetic theory of gases;
- Molecules of a given gas are identical
- Collisions between particles and the container are perfectly elastic and
therefore energy and momentum are conserved.
- Molecules do not exert any force on other molecules except during
collisions. The influence of gravity on the particles is also ignored.
- The number of particles is high enough for statistics to be meaningfully
applied.
- The size of molecules is negligible compared to their separation.
- The laws of Newtonian (classical) mechanics apply (as opposed to quantum
mechanics).

To the question
𝑝𝑎 𝐿ℎ = (𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑚 )𝐿𝑑
76 × 7.5 = (76 − 5)𝐿𝑑
76 × 7.5
𝐿𝑑 = = 8.028 𝑚
71

(b) State the reason why the mercury thread did not fall out in Figure 3(b).
The upward atmospheric pressure is greater than the downward pressure
exerted by the trapped air and the mercury thread.

5. State the reason why a student climbing a hill tends to bend forward. (1 mark)
Moment of a force is defined as the product of force and the perpendicular
distance between the force and the point of support (pivot, fulcrum).
Equilibrium (balance) occurs when:
𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (i)
From the diagram below, at equilibrium:

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑑1 𝑑2
pivot

𝐹1 𝐹2

𝐹1 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 𝑑2 (ii)

Center of gravity (cog) is the point on a body where the entire weight of the
body acts. The lower the center of gravity, the more stable an object is. This
means that it is more difficult to topple a stable object compared to an unstable
one. One way of lowering the center of gravity of an object is by making the
base relatively heavy. Buses for example are constructed with luggage cabins
on the lower sections, with limited load (carry-on luggage) being allowed in.
Consider a block of wood with the geometrical center as cog resting on its
smaller surface. When a small amount of force is applied, the vertical line
through the cog falls outside the base of the block and it topples over.

cog Force

Easily
Topples!

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

When the block rests on the wider side, some small force will not topple the
block since the vertical line through the cog still passes through its base.

cog cog
Force
Will not easily topple. Goes back to
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 original position.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

There are three types of equilibrium

(i) Stable equilibrium
This occurs when a body displaced from the equilibrium position falls
back to its initial position. Net torque (turning effect) of the body is
opposite the direction of the applied force. Example ;

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

cog
Force
Will not easily topple. Goes
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 back to original position.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Relatively short objects with heavy bases and large cross -sectional
areas are associated with stable equilibrium.
(ii) Unstable equilibrium
This occurs when a body displaced from the position topples over
when a small force is applied. Net torque (turning effect) of the body
is in the same direction as the applied force. Example;

cog Force

Easily
Topples!

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

Relatively tall objects with small bases and high center of gravity are
associated with unstable equilibrium.
(iii) Neutral equilibrium
This occurs when the equilibrium of a body is independent of the
displacement from its initial position. Example a ball.
NOTE 1: A student carrying a heavy box using the right hand is
observed to lean towards the left -hand side. This is because the box
shifts the position of the center of gravity of the system towards the right hand
and consequently to balance moments and hence maintain balance, the
student leans in the opposite direction. If the center of gravity shifts, a
force must be exerted in a direction opposite to that of the shift to
maintain equilibrium.
NOTE 2: Conditions necessary for a body to be in equilibrium:
- Clockwise moments must be equal to anticlockwise moments
- The resultant force on the body should be zero. This means that if all the
forces acting on a body were resolved into vertical (up and down) and
horizontal (left and right) components, then the up-forces should be equal
to the down-forces, and the left-forces equal to the right-forces.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

NOTE 3: A student climbing a hill tends to bend forward so as to shift the

position of the centre of gravity to the front part to maintain equilibrium while
one going down the hill tends to lean backward so as to shift the center of
gravity to the backside in order to maintain balance.

To the question:
A student climbing a hill tends to bend forward so as to shift the position of the
centre of gravity to the front part to maintain equilibrium.

6. a) State two conditions necessary for a body to be in equilibrium. (2 marks)

- Clockwise moments must be equal to anticlockwise moments
- The resultant force on the body should be zero.

b) Figure 13 shows a non-uniform log of wood AB of length 4m. The log is held
horizontally by applying forces of 80N at end A and 120N at end B.

Determine:
(i) the value of R. (1 mark)
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅 = 80 + 120 = 200 𝑁
(ii) the position of the centre of gravity of the log from end B. (3 marks)
Since the log is balanced, the center of gravity coincides with the position of the
pivot. If 𝑑 be the distance between the pivot and B then the distance between
pivot and A equals 4 − 𝑑.

4−𝑑 𝑑

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

180𝑑 = 80(4 − 𝑑)
180𝑑 = 20 − 80𝑑
180𝑑 − 80𝑑 = 20
20
𝑑=
100
𝑑 = .2 𝑚

c) You are provided with the metre rule, a knife edge and a mass 𝑚1.
(i) Describe how the position of the centre of gravity of the metre rule can be
determined using the knife edge. (2 marks)
An object balances when pivoted at its center of gravity. To determine the cog
of the meter rule, the meter rule is placed on the knife edge. The location of
the meter rule is then varied until it balances. The point of the knife edge
corresponds with the cog of the rule.

(ii) Using the position of centre of gravity determined in 19(c)(i) and the mass 𝑚1,
describe how the mass M of the metre rule can be determined. (4 marks)
Note the position, say O, of the pivot on the meter rule. This is the point where
the weight Mg of the meter rule acts.
O

Hang the mass m1 to the left of O, say at point X. Move the pivot between points
O and X until the meter rule balances (say at point Y). Determine the distance
between X and Y (say a) and that between Y and O (say b).
X Y O

a b
𝑚1 𝑔 𝑀𝑔

Then use the equation

𝑚1 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑀𝑔𝑏
𝑚1 𝑎
𝑀=
𝑏
7. Figure 7 shows a uniform rod AB 2m long and of mass 1 kg. It is pivoted 0.5m from
end A and balanced horizontally by a string attached 0.1m from end B.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Determine the tension in the string. (𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑔 = 10𝑁𝑘𝑔−1) (2 marks)

The weight W of the uniform bar acts downwards at its geometrical center O,
that is 1 m from end A. distance of this point O from the pivot equals 1 − 0.5 =
0.5 𝑚. The tension T acts upwards at a distance 2 − (0.1 + 0.5) = 1.4 𝑚 from
the pivot

T
1.4 m

0.5 m
𝑊 = 10 𝑁
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖 − 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
10 × 0.5 = 1.4 × 𝑇
𝑇 = 3.57N

8. Figure 12 shows hydraulic lift system. The radius of the small piston is 5.64cm while
that of the larger piston is 14.24cm. The small piston is operated using a lever. A force
of 100N is applied to the lever.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Determine the: (a) pressure exerted by the smaller piston. (5 marks)

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝐹)
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)

2m

The force F on the lever arm produces anticlockwise moments about the hinge
while the effort (= 100 N) produces clockwise moments about the same hinge.
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
100 × 2 = 𝐹 × 0.4
200
𝐹= = 500 𝑁
0.4
Area of the small piston 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = .14 × 0.05642 = 0.01 𝑚2
𝐹 500
𝑝= = = 50,000 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.01

b) load that can be lifted. (3 marks)

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Pressure generated at the smaller piston is distributed evenly to the

larger piston.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿),
𝑝=
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐴)
𝐿 = 𝑝𝐴
𝑝 = 50,000 𝑃𝑎
Area of the larger piston 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = .14 × 0.14242
𝐿 = 50,000 × .14 × 0.14242
𝐿 = 18 . 6 𝑁

(c) mechanical advantage of the system. (3 marks

Pulleys and levers
Pulleys are mechanisms composed of a wheel (or multiple wheels)
with a rope threaded over the wheels. One end of the rope supports
the load while the other supports the effort. Pulleys are used to lift
heavy objects for example at a construction site.
The simplest pulley system is the Atwood's machine, a single pulley
system with two objects attached on either side of the pulley. The
objects can be of equal or unequal masses. Consider a frictionless
Atwood’s pulley system consisting of two objects A an d B of masses
m 1 and m 2 respectively. Suppose B is moving downwards thereby
pulling A upwards. Both masses have the same acceleration, say a,
but in different directions. Say T be the tension in the rope.

T a
T
a
A
B
𝑚1 𝑔
𝑚2 𝑔

Since mass A is accelerating upwards, the tension is greater than

weight hence by Newton’s second law of motion:
𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑎 (i)
Mass B is accelerating downwards hence its weight is greater than
tension. Thus;
𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎 (ii)

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Both tension T and acceleration a can be obtained using equations (i)

and (ii) if other values are given.
A block and tackle pulley system consists of two or more pulleys with
a rope or cable threaded between them. It is assembled in paired -
pulley blocks with one pulley in one of the pairs fixed while the other
one moves with the load.
Terms associated with pulleys
- Effort: The force applied to overcome the load
- Load: The force being overcome
- Mechanical advantage (MA): This is defined as the ratio of the load
(L) to the effort (E), that is:
𝐿
𝑀𝐴 = (i)
𝐸
- Velocity ratio (VR): This is the ratio of distance travelled by the
effort (d E ) to distance travelled by load ( d L );
𝑑𝐸
𝑉𝑅 = (ii)
𝑑𝐿
Velocity ratio is also equal to the number of ropes supporting the
load (number of times the same rope runs through the moving
block). Additionally, if the pulley system is used in such a way that
the effort pulls downwards while the load moves upwards, ve locity
ratio is equal to the total number of pulleys in the system.
- Work input (W in ): This is the work done by the effort. It is the
product of effort and effort distance, i.e.
𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑑𝐸 (iii)
- Work output (W out ): This is the work done on the load. It is the
product of load and load distance, i.e.,
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐿𝑑𝐿 (iv)
- Efficiency: In reality, work input is always greater than work output
because some of the work input is used to overcome friction and
converted to heat, or is converted to sound. The ratio of work
output to work input, often expressed as a percentage, is referred
to as efficiency, i.e.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% (v)
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
By equations (iii) and (iv) equation (v) may be expressed as;
𝐿𝑑𝐿
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% (vi)
𝐸𝑑𝐸
𝐿 𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 𝐿 × 100% (vii)
𝐸 𝐸

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝐿 𝑑𝐿 1
But = 𝑀𝐴 and = hence;
𝐸 𝑑𝐸 𝑉𝑅
𝑀𝐴
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% (viii)
𝑉𝑅
For an ideal pulley system where no energy is lost, the efficiency
is 100%. In this case,
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑉𝑅 = (ix)
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
The maximum load that a pulley system that is 100% efficient can
lift is therefore given as;
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑅 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (x)
Example, pulleys given below are 100% efficient. Then;

𝑉𝑅 = 2 𝑉𝑅 = 2 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 = 4 𝑉𝑅 = 5
𝐿 = 2 × 50 𝐿 = 2 × 100 𝐿 = × 100 𝐿 = 4 × 100 𝐿 = 5 × 100
𝐿 = 100 𝑁 𝐿 = 200 𝑁 𝐿 = 00 𝑁 𝐿 = 400 𝑁 𝐿 = 500 𝑁

A lever is basically a plank of wood pivoted somewhere in the middle

with the effort arm (where the effort is applied) longer than the load
arm (where the load is placed).

Effort arm
load arm
Effort arm

The mechanical advantage (MA) of the lever is

(
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝐴 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the effort distance to the load
distance or ratio of effort arm length to load arm length ;
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑉𝑅 = =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Efficiency is given by:
𝑀𝐴
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑉𝑅

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

To the question:
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 18 . 6
𝑀𝐴 = = = 6. 07
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 500

9. a) Figure 10 shows a wooden block of volume 90cm3 floating with a third of its body
submerged in water of density 1gcm-3 . (𝑔 = 10𝑁𝑘𝑔−1)

Determine:
(i) the weight of the block
Objects float if they are less dense than, or of equal density with, the fluids
(liquids and gases) they occupy. For example, while steel is denser than water,
a steel ship can be made to float by introducing air-filled chambers which
reduce the density of the ship relative to that of water. Floating bodies usually
have part (or all) of their bodies in the liquid and as a result experience an
upward force called upthrust (or buoyant force). Consider for instance an
object of mass m, cross-sectional area A and height h fully submerged in a liquid
of density ρ.
X

h
Y

The upward pressure the liquid exerts on the object at X is less than pressure
the liquid exerts on the object at Y which is equal to 𝜌𝑔ℎ. Also, the pressure
the object exerts downwards on the liquid at X is less than that it exerts on the
liquid at Y which is equal to 𝑚𝑔/𝐴. For the body not to sink below point Y, the

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

upward force and hence pressure must be equal to the downward force (hence
pressure) at that point. Thus,
𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔/𝐴 (i)
𝜌𝑔(ℎ𝐴) = 𝑚𝑔 (ii)
But ℎ𝐴 = 𝑉 (iii)
Where V is the volume of liquid displaced which is equal to the volume of the
submerged part of the object. Hence;
𝜌𝑉𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 (iv)
Now, 𝜌𝑉 = 𝑀 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑) (v)
So;
𝑀𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔 (vi)
Equation (vi) shows that when an object floats in a liquid (or fluid in general),
the weight of the liquid displaced is equal to the weight of the submerged
section of the object. This is known as the law of floatation.

**

* **

Law of floatation: 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ∗ = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ∗∗

The terms on the left-hand sides of equations (v) and (vi) represent upthrust
(U) which is the upward force the liquid exerts on the floating object, while the
right-hand side represents the weight of the part of the object submerged, that
is;
𝑼 = 𝝆𝒈𝑽 = 𝑴𝒈 = 𝑚𝑔 (vii)
It follows from equation (vii) that;
(i) If upthrust is greater than the weight of an object, the object floats with
part of it partially submerged
(ii) If upthrust is equal to the weight of the object, the object floats while
fully submerged but close to the surface.
(iii) If upthrust is less than the weight of the object, the object sinks.
(iv) The upthrust experienced by a floating object is proportional to the
density of the liquid it is immersed in. It is for this reason that it is easier

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

to float in the ocean (salty) than in a lake (fresh) as salty water is denser
than fresh water.
(v) The upthrust experienced by a floating object is also proportional to the
volume of the section of the object submerged. This means that the
larger the body submerged, the greater the upthrust

To the question:
weight of the body = weight of the liquid displaced.
Given that
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
then
mass of liquid displaced; 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
volume (V) of the liquid displaced=volume of submerged section;
1
𝑉 = × 90 = 0 𝑐𝑚3
Mass of liquid displaced;
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 == 1 × 0 = 0 𝑔 = 0.0 𝑘𝑔
weight of the body = weight of the liquid displaced = 0.0 × 10 = 0. 𝑁

(ii) the weight of a metal block that can be placed onto the block so that its top surface
is on the same level as the water surface. (3marks)
If fully submerged, volume of liquid displaced = volume of the block= 90 𝑐𝑚3
Mass of the liquid displaced 𝑚 = 𝑉𝜌 = 90 × 1 = 90 𝑔 = 0.09 𝑘𝑔
Weight object=weight of liquid displaced 𝑊 = 0.09 × 10 = 0.9 𝑁
extra weight = 0.9 − 0. = 0.6 𝑁

b) Figure 11 shows a solid metal suspended in oil using a thread.

(i) Other than upthrust, list two other forces acting on the sphere. (2 marks).
-Tension

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

-Weight

(ii) The oil is carefully and gradually drawn from the beaker. State the effect on each
of the two forces in 15(b)(i). (2 marks)
The body is under 3 forces; tension and upthrust upwards and weight
downwards. As the oil is drawn from the beaker, the section of the body
submerged reduces hence upthrust reduces.
- Tension gradually increases.
- Weight remains constant since it is a function of mass and acceleration due
to gravity, both of which remain unchanged.

10. a) A bus moving initially at a velocity of 20 𝑚𝑠−1 decelerates uniformly at 2 𝑚𝑠−2.

(i) Determine the time taken for the bus to come to a stop. (3 marks)
When an object moves along a straight line, it is said to undergo linear
motion. If it moves along a circular path or a bend, it is said to undergo
circular or rotational motion. If the object moves to -and-fro about a
mean position, it is said to undergo vibratory or oscillatory motion.
Linear motion
There are various terms associated with linear motion:
Displacement (s): This refers to the distance covered by an object in
a given direction. Displacement is a vector quantity hence has both
direction and magnitude (distance has magnitude only). For example,
suppose an object starts at point A, moves to point B, a distance of
10 m left of point A, then to point C, a distance of 20 cm right of B.

B 10 cm A C

20 cm
To obtain the total displacement, the direction has to be put into
consideration; If the displacement to the left is considered as
negative, the opposite direction (right) is taken as positive. The total
displacement (s) becomes;
𝑠 = (−10) + 20 = 10 𝑐𝑚
The total displacement is 10 cm to the right of A (since answer is
positive).
To evaluate the distance. the direction is disregarded hence total
distance d is given as:
𝑑 = 10 + 20 = 0 𝑐𝑚

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Velocity (v): This refers to the rate of change of displacement with

time. It is a vector quantity with the same direction as the
displacement. A body is said to move at a constant velocity if it covers
equal distances within equal intervals of time. A graph of
displacement against time in this case is a straight line inclined to the
horizontal.

Displacement
(s)

Time (t)
Suppose the displacement of a body changes uniformly by ∆𝑠 in time
∆𝑡. The velocity v of the body becomes:
∆𝑠
𝑣= (i)
∆𝑡
If a body is stationary (not moving), the graph of displacement against
time is a straight horizontal line.

Displacement
(s)

Time (t)
Acceleration (a): Suppose displacement of a body is not uniform over
equal intervals of time.

Displacement
(s)

Time (t)
In this case, the body is said to be accelerating. Acceleration is
therefore the rate of change of velocity with time. If the change in
velocity is equal in equal intervals of time, the acceleration is said to
be uniform and a graph of velocity against time is a straight line
inclined to the horizontal.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Velocity
(v)

Time (t)
If a body initially moving with a velocity u (initial velocity) accelerates
uniformly to a velocity v (final velocity) in time t, the acceleration a
of the body is given by;
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎= (ii)
𝑡
If the body is not accelerating (i.e., body moving at a constant
velocity, velocity not changing with time) the velocity -time graph is a
horizontal line.

Velocity
(v)

Time (t)

If the velocity of the body reduces with time, for example when a
vehicle slows down to a stop, it is said to be decelerating or with a
negative acceleration given that the initial velocity is greater than the
final velocity. A graph of velocity against time in this case is a straight
lined inclined to the vertical.

Velocity
(v)

Time (t)
Equations of linear motion
The relationship between velocity, displacement and acceleration of
a body undergoing linear motion are represented by three main
equations referred to as equations of linear motion. Consider a car
initially moving with a veloc ity u. Suppose too that in time t, the
velocity of the car increases uniformly from u to v during which time
it undergoes a displacement s.

𝑢 𝑣

𝑠 38
 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

It follows that the acceleration a is equal to;

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (iii)
Equation (iii) is the first equation of linear motion.
Now, the average velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣 of the car is equal to;
𝑢+𝑣
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = (iv)
2
The displacement s of the car in time t is the product of average
velocity and time, i.e.,
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )𝑡 (v)
2
Now, equation (iii) may be expressed as;
𝑣−𝑢
𝑡= (vi)
𝑎
Using equation (vi) in equation (v) leads to;
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢 (𝑣−𝑢)(𝑣+𝑢)
𝑠=( )( )= (vii)
2 𝑎 2𝑎
𝑣 2 −𝑢2
𝑠= (viii)
2𝑎
𝑣 2 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
2
(ix)
Equation (ix) represents the second equation of linear motion.
Using equation (iii) in equation (v) leads to;
𝑢+𝑢+𝑎𝑡 2𝑢+𝑎𝑡
𝑠=( )𝑡 = ( )𝑡 (x)
2 2
1
𝑠 = (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡 (xi)
2
1
⟹ 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (xii)
2
Equation (xii) represents the third equation of linear motion.
In a nutshell, the three equations of linear motion are;
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
NOTE 1: The area under a velocity-time graph is equal to the total
displacement of a body moving with constant acceleration, and equal
to the total distance if the acceleration changes with time.
NOTE 2: For objects under free fall (influence of gravity only) for
example when a stone is thrown up or dropped from a higher
elevation, the acceleration due to gravity ( g) is used. The value of g is

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

negative when the body is moving upwards (decelerating) and

positive when the body is moving downwards (accelerating).
NOTE 3: Suppose a body is launched straight up with a velocity u. Say
the body reaches a maximum height s in time t. At maximum height
therefore, the final velocity v equals zero. It follows that by the first
equation of linear motion:
0 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡 (xii)
⟹ 𝑢 = 𝑔𝑡 (xiii)
𝑢
⟹𝑡= (xiv)
𝑔
Equation (xiv) represents time taken by the body to reach maximum
height.
Since the velocity at maximum height is zero, then by the second
equation of linear motion;
0 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠 (xv)
2
𝑢 = 2𝑔𝑠 (xvi)
𝑢2
𝑠= (xvii)
2𝑔
Equation (xvii) represents the maximum height reached by the body.
If the body goes up then back to its launching point, the total
displacement is zero and therefore by the third equation of linear
motion it follows that;
1
0 = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 (xviii)
2
1 2
𝑢𝑡 = 𝑔𝑡 (xix)
2
2𝑢 = 𝑔𝑡 (xx)
2𝑢
𝑡= (xxi)
𝑔
Equation (xxi) represents time of flight. The equation shows that the
time of flight is twice the time taken to reach the maximum height.
Equations of motion represents the kinematics of motion, showcasing
relationships between displacement, velocit y, and acceleration.
Objects at rest do not spontaneously move, neither do they
spontaneously accelerate or decelerate if in motion. An external force
must interact with the body for change of state of motion to occur.
Newtons laws of motion looks at the d ynamics of an object with
respect to the forces acting on it and the subsequent consequences.
The laws therefore describe the kinetics of an object.
Newton’s laws of motion
There are three Newton’s laws of motion

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

(i) Newton’s first law: Also referred to as th e law of inertia (inertia

is the tendency of a body to resist change). It states that; a body
remains at rest or in motion with constant velocity along a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force. For
example, say a stone tied to a string is swi rled around in a
circular path with a linear velocity v (tangential to the circular
path). The tension in the string keeps the stone in the circular
path and if the string snaps, the stone flies straight away with
a constant velocity.

(ii) Newton’s second Law: This states that the rate of change of
momentum is directly proportional to the force applied and
takes place in the direction of the force. Consider a toy car,
mass m, initially moving with a velocity u. Suppose too that a
force F is applied on the toy car for a time∆𝑡 during which time
its velocity increases uniformly from u to v.

Considering that momentum is the product of mass and

∆𝑃
velocity, the rate of change of momentum with time, , of the
∆𝑡
toy car is given as;
∆𝑃 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
= (i)
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
By Newton’s second law;
∆𝑃
𝐹∞ (ii)
∆𝑡
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
𝐹∞ (iii)
∆𝑡
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
𝐹=𝑘 (iv)
∆𝑡
where k is a constant of proportionality

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

(𝑣−𝑢) ∆𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚 = 𝑘𝑚 (v)
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑣
Now, = 𝑎(𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) hence
∆𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎 (vi)
k is assigned a value of one (unity) when force is in Newtons
(N), mass in kg and acceleration in m/s 2 hence:
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (viii)
Equation (viii) is the mathematical representation of Newton’s
second law of motion.
(iii) Newton’s third law. This states that action and reaction are
equal and opposite. A body exerts force on the surface it is
resting on. Likewise, the surface exerts an equal but opposite
force called reaction R on the body. If the surface is horizontal,
the reaction is equal to the weight of the object. If on the other
hand the surface is inclined, say at an angle θ to the horizontal,
the reaction is equal to the component of weight that is
perpendicular to the surface. For a ma ss m resting on a plane
inclined at an angle θ therefore, the reaction R is given by;
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 (ix)

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔

θ 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
θ

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Applications of action and reaction: rowing a boat - when water
is pushed backwards, the boat moves forward; balloon flies - air
gushes out from the rear and balloon moves in the opposite
direction.
NOTE 1: The component of weight of the body along the plane inclined
at an angle θ (𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃) is responsible for motion down the plane.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

sin =
If the body accelerates down the plane with an acceleration a, then
by Newton’s second law of motion (and assuming no frictional force
exists), it follows that:
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 (x)
Considering that sin 𝜃 = 0 (minimum) when 𝜃 = 0 and sin 𝜃 = 1 (maximum)
when 𝜃 = 900 it follows that the steeper the inclination, the higher the
acceleration of the body.
NOTE 2: Equation (v) can be expresses as;
𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 (xi)
If ∆𝑡 is very small (e.g., when a bat strikes a tennis ball) then;
𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 (xii)
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 (xiii)
By equation (xiii) impulse of a force is equal to the change in
momentum of an object when a force is applied for a very short
period.
If the net force in equation (xi) is zero ( 𝐹 = 0) then;
0 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 (xiv)
𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑢 (xv)
It follows from equation (xv) that if no external force acts on a body,
the final momentum is equal to the initial momentum (momentum is
not changing with time) hence momentum is conserved
NOTE 3: Effective weight (force exerted on the floor) when travelling
in a lift
- Lift stationary or moving with constant velocity, v: The force an
object, say mass m, exerts on the floor of the lift is equal to its
weight W, i.e.,
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 (xvi)
- Lift moving downwards with acceleration a; In this case, both the
weight of the object (mg) and the external force on the object on
account of an accelerating lift ( ma) are in the same direction. The

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

effective force W’ the object exerts on the floor of the lift

therefore equals;
𝑊 ′ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎). (xvii)
Equation (xvii) shows that an object weighs less than it really is if
weighed while in a lift travelling downwards, and if 𝑔 > 𝑎. If the
acceleration of the lift equals the acceleration due to gravity i.e.,
𝑔 = 𝑎, then;
𝑊′ = 0 (xviii)
This means that the object does not exert any force on the floor of
the lift and therefore appears weightless. If 𝑔 < 𝑎, the speed of the
lift is changing at a higher rate than that of the object hence 𝑊 ′ is
negative;
𝑊′ < 0 (xix)
The object in this case appears to move upwards relative to the
lift.
- Suppose that the lift is moving upwards with constant acceleration
a. The force on the object by virtual of gravity ( mg) and that due
to the external force (ma) are in opposite directions. The effective
force W’’ the object exerts downwards is therefore given by:
𝑊 ′′ = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎). (xx)
The object in this case appears to weigh more than it actually is.
- In a nutshell:

𝑢=𝑣
𝑎=0 a a

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑊′′ = 𝑚(𝑔 − 𝑎) 𝑊′′ = 𝑚(𝑔 + 𝑎)

NOTE 4: Friction
Friction is opposition to motion between two surfaces that are sliding
or attempting to slide over each other. It acts in the direction
opposite that of motion.
v

Friction (Fr) Applied force (F)

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

If frictional force equals the applied force, the body moves at a

constant velocity (has zero acceleration). If applied force is greater
than the frictional force, the body accelerates and if less than
frictional force the body decelerates.
Advantages of friction– allows us to walk (cannot walk on slippery
floor), write, drive (if road smooth, the vehicle skids).
Disadvantages of friction -causes wear and tear in moveable parts
Ways of reducing friction – oiling, using rollers and ball bearings.

To the question
𝑢 = 20 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎 = − 2 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 20 − 2𝑡
20 = 2𝑡
𝑡 = 10 𝑠

(ii) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the motion of the bus up to the time it stopped.
(2 marks)

(iii) Use the graph to determine the distance moved by the bus before stopping. (1
mark)
1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ = × 10 × 20 = 100 𝑚
2

b) A car of mass 1000kg travelling at a constant velocity of 40𝑚𝑠−1 collides with a

stationary metal block of mass 800kg. This impact takes 3 seconds before the two
move together. Determine the impulsive force. (4 marks)
First determine the final velocity, say v

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

(1000 × 40) + (800 × 0) = (1000 + 800)𝑣
40000
𝑣= = 22.22 𝑚/𝑠
1800
then determine acceleration
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
22. 22 = 40 + 𝑎
𝑎 = −5. 9 𝑚 ⁄ 𝑠 2
Then determine force:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝐹 = 1800 × −5. 9 = − 10674 𝑁

11. State two factors that affect the angular velocity of a body moving in a circular
path. (2 marks)
Circular motion refers to motion along a curved path e.g., a roundabout.
Suppose an object moving along a circular path of radius r covers a distance s
represented by the arclength AB (a section of the circumference of a circular
path of a circle is referred to as arclength), sweeping an angle 𝜃 about the
center O.
B

r s
θ
O A
r

The angle 𝜃 swept by the particle (or the angle subtended at O by the arclength
s) is called angular displacement. The SI unit of angular displacement is the
radian, abbreviated as rad.
Now, circumference c of the circular path is given by;
𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟 (i)
Equation (i) may be expressed as:
𝑐
= 2𝜋 (ii)
𝑟
If an object goes round the entire circumference, the curved distance (s)
covered equals the circumference, i.e., 𝑠 = 𝑐, while the angular displacement
𝜃 = 2𝜋. Bearing this in mind, equation (ii) may be generalised as;

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑠
=𝜃 (iii)
𝑟
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃 (iv)
It is important to note that;
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 600 (v)
3600
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = (vi)
2𝜋
The rate of change of angular displacement with time is the angular velocity, ω,
with units rad/s. Thus
𝜃
𝜔= (vii)
𝑡
Angular velocity is a vector quantity with direction given by the right-hand rule:
imagine gripping the axis of rotation with the right hand with fingers curled in
the direction of rotation; the thumb points in the direction of angular velocity.
Angular velocity is always perpendicular to the plane of motion.
The time taken by the object to complete 1 revolution is called period, T, with
SI units seconds. Given that the angular displacement of an object after 1
revolution is equal to 2𝜋 , it follows that;
2𝜋
𝜔= (viii)
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑇= (ix)
𝜔
Frequency, f, with SI units Hertz, Hz, is the number of complete revolutions in
unit time. It is also the reciprocal of period, i.e.
1
𝑓= (x)
𝑇
Using this in eq. (x) gives;
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (xi)
Linear velocity v (m/s) is the velocity the object would move at if for some
reason it abruptly stopped moving in the circular path e.g., brakes failure of a
car rounding a bend or moving in a roundabout, in which case the car would
move in a straight line in accordance with Newton’s first law of motion. The
linear velocity is usually tangential to the circular path.
v
B
r
s v
θ
O A
r

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

If for example an object moves along the arclength AB of length s with linear
velocity v, from definition of velocity, it follows that:
𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝐵
𝑣= (xi)
𝑡
Since by equation (iv) 𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃, equation (xi) may be expressed as;
𝑟𝜃 𝜃
𝑣= = 𝑟( ) (xii)
𝑡 𝑡
From the definition of angular velocity, 𝜃⁄𝑡 equal angular velocity 𝜔. Equation
(xii) may therefore be written as:
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 (xiii)
For a body to sustain circular motion, an external force must act on
it. This force is called centripetal force, F c , and is directed towards the
center of the circular path.

𝐹𝑐

𝑟 𝑊

For a body, mass m, moving with velocity v along a circular path radius
r, the magnitude of the centripetal force F c is given by:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = (xiv)
𝑟
Where;
𝑣2
= 𝑎 (𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (xv)
𝑟
If the object is a car negotiating a roundabout, the centripetal force
is provided by the frictional f orce between the tyres and the road,
and if the object is a stone tied to a string and swirled in a circle, the
centripetal force is provided by the tension in the string.
Suppose a stone, mass m, is tied to a string and swirled into a
horizontal circle. Say the tension in the string is F. The weight of the
stone, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔, acts vertically downward while the tension in the
string is directed towards the center of the circular path

𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹

𝑊 = 𝑚g 𝑊 = 𝑚g

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

At all points of the horizontal circular path, the weight and the tension
are at right angles. This means that the weight of the object has no
effect on the tension on the string.
Suppose the stone is now swirled in a vertical circle.
D

𝐹 𝑊 = 𝑚g
𝐹 𝐹
A C

B
𝑊 = 𝑚g 𝑊 = 𝑚g 𝑊 = 𝑚g

At points A and C, the weight of the stone has no impact on the

tension. At point B, the weight of the stone acts vertically downwards
while the centripetal force acts vertically upwards. The tension in the
string is therefore maximum at B. At point D, bot h the weight and
centripetal force act in the same direction. The tension in the string
point.
is therefore minimum at this point.
Tension F

B
C
A
D

9. Figure 5 shows a ball spinning as it moves

NOTE: At points A and C (where the weight and tension are
perpendicular to each other) the tension in the string is equal to the
centripetal force, i.e.
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑐 = (xvi)
𝑟

To the question
𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 ⟹ 𝜔 =
𝑟
Factors affecting angular velocity;
- linear velocity v
- radium of the circular path

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

12. Figure 4 shows two capillary tubes X and Y of different diameters dipped in
mercury.

Complete the diagram to show the meniscus in Y

Surface tension, cohesive and adhesive forces
Imagine an oil drop is a balloon filled with a small cluster of balls, each ball
representing an oil molecule.

Oil drop

Oil molecule

When five such drops are placed in a waterbath, the oil spreads out in a thin
layer on the surface of water.

Oil
molecule
Circular oil patch
Water

The oil spreads on the surface of water because the adhesive force (force of
attraction between non-identical molecules) between the water and oil
molecules is greater than the cohesive force (force of attraction between
identical molecules) between the oil molecules. The adhesive force reduces

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

the water surface tension. The oil floats on water because it is less dense than
water. Assuming that;
(i) Zero loss of oil molecules during the transfer process occurs hence
volume (say V) of the oil remains constant
(ii) The oil forms a perfect circular patch (say radius r) and
(iii) the oil patch is one molecule thick (say d),
then, the volume of the five drops of oil is equal to the volume of the circular
oil patch (essentially a cylinder that is one molecule thick), that is;
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑 (i)
𝑉
𝑑= (ii)
𝜋𝑟 2
The thichkness (diameter) of the molecule represents the size of the molecule
Now, the area of the circular patch 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 . Equation (i) may therefore be
expressed as:
𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑
𝑉
⇒𝐴= (iii)
𝑑
NOTE 1: Surface tension is the tendancy of the surface of a liquid to behave like
a stretched skin. Factors affecting surface tension of a liquid for example water
include:
(i) Temperature; when the temperature rises, the speed of the molecules
increases leading to a reduction in cohesive force hence a reduction in
surface tension.
(ii) Impurities for example oil where the higher adhesive force between
water an oil molecules reduce cohesive force between the water
molecules.
(iii) Concentration; For solutions, the surface tension depends on the
concentration of the solution. Surface tension increases if the solute is
very soluble, for example salt. Salty water (hard water) has a higher
surface tension compared to fresh water. If the solute is not very soluble
e.g. soap or phenol, surface tension reduces.
NOTE 2: Whether a liquid collects as a spherical drop or spreads on the surface
where it is placed depends on the relationship between cohesive and adhesive
forces. If the adhesive force is greater than the cohesive force, the liquid
spreads e.g. oil on water, or water on glass (water is said to wet glass). If the
cohesive force is greater, then the liquid collects as a spherical ball e.g. mercury
on glass (mercury does not wet glas) or water on arrowroot leaf.
NOTE 3: Water rises up an open glass capillary tube dipped in water because
the adhesive force between water and glass molecules is greater than the

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

cohesive force between the water molecules (the tube is open so as to

maintain equal pressure inside and outside the capillary tube).

It is also for this reason that the meniscus curves upwards.

Hot water rise in a capillary tube is lower than cold water. This is because heat
reduces the density of water and consequently its surface tension. The lower
the surface tension, the lower the capillary rise. A narrower capillary tube on
the other hand produces a higher rise of water level compared to a wider tube.
This is due to increased adhesive force resulting from increased relative surface
area inside the tube hence more water contact.

NOTE 4: The cohesive force between mercury molecules is greater than the
adhesive force between mercury and glass molecules. For this reason, mercury
level in an open capillary tube dipped in merccury drops. It is also for this
reason that the meniscus of mercury in glass curves downwards.

Increasing the temperature of mercury increases the kinetic energy of the

molecules thereby reducing the surface tension. The depression of hot
mercury down a capillary tube is therefore less than that of cold mercury. If
capillary tubes of different diameters are used, the depression of mercury in
the wider tube will be lower than in the narrower tube.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

It is important to note that the behaviou of mercury in a capillary tube is

opposite that of water. Colder water rises higher up the capillary tube while
colder mercury has a more reduced rise (more depression). A narrower bore
leads to a higher rise of water while a narrower bore leads to a lower rise (more
depression) of mercury.
NOTE 5: Water with a lower cohesive force for example hot, fresh or soapy is
better at cleaning as it wets clothes better.
NOTE 6: Mosquitoes lavae hang on the surface tension of stagnant water. One
way of controlling the breeding of mosquitoes is reducing the surface tension
of water for example by allowing it to flow freely. The resulting turbulence
reduces the surface tension thus disrupting the breeding habitat.

To the question now;

The level of mercury in the wider tube is higher than in the narrower tube.

13. In an experiment, a drop of black ink is introduced at the bottom of a container

filled with water. It is observed that the water gradually turns black. State the effect
on the observation when the experiment is carried out using water at a lower
temperature. (1 mark)
Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration on account of
concentration gradient. If for instance a drop of g reen ink is added to
water, the ink gradually spreads out. The water eventually attains a
uniform green colour as the diffusing particles take up spaces
between its molecules.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Diffusion is more pronounced in liquids and gases (fluids) for the

reason that their molecules are energetic enough to undergo
translational random motion (Brownian motion). There are various
factors that affect the rate of diffusion in fluids:
(i) Concentration gradient; the higher the concentration
difference between the solvent (fluid at low concentration) and
the solute (fluid at higher concentration), the higher the rate of
diffusion. A more concentrated green ink would change the
colour of the entire water faster than a less concentrated one.
(ii) Temperature; When the temperature of the solvent or the
solute increases, the rate of diffusion also increases. An
increase in temperature increases the random movement of
both the solute and solvents hence the increased rate of
diffusion.
(iii) Mass of the solute particles; Heavy partic les move more slowly
leading to low rate of diffusion.
(iv) Density of the solvent; A denser solvent slows down the rate of
diffusion.
Examples of diffusion in daily life;
- Smell of perfume
- When a soda is opened, CO 2 diffuses out
- Using teabags – tea diffuses in hot water
- Sugar can dissolve in tea without stirring
- Milk mixes with water without stirring.

To the question
If temperature is reduced, the rate of diffusion reduces hence the water turns
black more slowly.

14. Figure 5 shows two identical springs arranged side by side and supporting a weight
of 50 N.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

When the same weight is supported by one of the springs above, it produces an
extension of 1 cm. Determine the effective spring constant of the arrangement in
Figure 5. (3 marks)
Some materials increase in size when stretched, decrease in size when
compressed, and snap back to their original shape when the
deforming force is withdrawn. Such materials are said to be elastic. If
the force exceeds some threshold value however, the mater ials do
not regain their original shape after the deforming force is withdrawn.
The point at which this occurs is referred to as the elastic limit (elastic
limit is defined as the point beyond which an elastic material does not
regain its shape after the deforming force is withdrawn). Examples of
elastic materials are rubber, steel, and coils (springs). Other materials
are permanently deformed as soon as a deforming force is applied. If
such a material is expanded for instance, it retains the expanded size
even after the expanding force is withdrawn. Such materials are called
plastics. A good example of plastic is a polythene bag ( juala). It is
important to note that all elastic materials turn into plastic when
deformed beyond their elastic limits.
NOTE 1: Applications of elastic materials
- Trampoline – jump on it, it stretches, then regains its shape.
- Elastic band – used for fastening for example bundles of paper.
- Springs – used in spring balances used for weighing.
- Clothes – that pair of skinny jeans that fits like a second skin is
made using an elastic material
NOTE 2: Applications of plastics
- Used for packaging
- Casing of appliances such as phones, toys, cars etc.
NOTE 3: Hooke’s law
Hooke’s law states that extension of an elastic object is directly
proportional to the force applied to it so long as the elastic limit is

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

not exceeded. Say for example a force F is applied to a spring such

that it extends by an amount e (equal to final length, say L, less the
original length, say L 0 , i.e., 𝐿 − 𝐿0 ).

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

It follows that by Hooke’s law,

𝐹 = 𝑘(𝐿 − 𝐿0 ) = 𝑘𝑒 (i)
𝐹
=𝑘 (ii)
𝑒
k is a constant of proportionality called spring constant; it is a measure of the
stiffness of a spring (coil). A spring that stretches easily has a smaller spring
constant compared to a stiffer one and as such reaches the elastic limit sooner.
Consider two identical springs, length L and spring constants k1 and k2
respectively. Suppose that when the two spring are arranged in parallel and a
force F applied to both springs, each spring stretches by an amount e.

L L

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

The force F is divided equally between the springs and as such each spring
supports a force 𝐹⁄2. It therefore follows that by Hooke’s law;
𝐹
Spring 1: = 𝑘1 𝑒 (iii)
2
𝐹
Spring 2: = 𝑘2 𝑒 (iv)
2
𝐹 𝐹
Total force: 𝐹 = + = 𝑘1 𝑒 + 𝑘1 𝑒 (v)
2 2
𝐹 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑒 (vi)
The value 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 represents the effective spring constant of the arrangement.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

Considering that the two springs are identical, then;

𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘 (vii)
⟹ 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 = 2𝑘 (viii)
Equation (viii) shows that if two springs in parallel are connected in such a way
that they share a common load, the effective spring constant doubles.
Suppose that the two springs are now connected in series and after the load is
attached, each spring stretches by an amount e1 and e2 respectively. Since both
loads are supporting the same load F, then by Hooke’s law, the springs extends
by:
Spring 1: 𝑒1 = 𝐹⁄𝑘
1
Spring 2: 𝑒2 = 𝐹⁄𝑘
2

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
L

𝐹 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

If e be the total extension, then;

𝑒 = 𝑒1 + 𝑒2
𝐹 𝐹 1 1
𝑒= + = 𝐹( + ) (ix)
𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘1 𝑘2
Given 𝑘1 = 𝑘1 = 𝑘, then;
𝑒 2
= (x)
𝐹 𝑘
1
⟹ 𝐹 = ( 𝑘) 𝑒 (xi)
2
1
𝑘 is the effective spring constant. For two identical springs connected in series
2
therefore, the spring constant reduces by half.
There are various factors that affect the spring constant:
(i) Length: Spring constant is inversely proportional to length. An
increase in length leads to a decrease in the spring constant and vice
versa.

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

(ii) Thickness of the wire making the spring. A thicker wire makes a
stiffer spring with a larger spring constant.
(iii) Cross sectional area (diameter) of the spring: A wider sp ring is
less stiff compared to a narrower spring. The greater the cross -
sectional area of a spring therefore, the smaller the spring constant.
(iv) Number of active coils (turns) that are free to expand. A spring
with relatively more turns is springier hence has a smaller spring
constant.
NOTE 1: Experiment to prove Hooke’s law and determine the spring
constant;
- Suspend a spring and measure its length (original length)
- Suspend first mass, measure the new length
- Determine the extension (𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
- - Keep adding more masses and noting the new extension (𝑒) every time.

- Plot a graph of weight (𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔) against extension (e) – it should be a

straight line where the spring obeys Hooke’s - and determine the gradient
(𝑘) law.
- The gradient of the graph represents the string constant.
NOTE 2: Hooke's law can also be defined in terms of stress and strain
as: the stress applied to a material within the elastic limit is
proportional to the strain, i.e.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∞ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (iii)
Stress refers to the force acting on a unit cross -sectional area of an
object.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (iv)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
If the stress causes the length of the object to change, the strain is
defined as the ratio of the change in length to the original length;
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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (v)
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ
Now, consider a wire of length L and cross-sectional area A. Suppose
a force F acts on the wire such that its length changes by ∆𝐿.

𝐿 ∆𝐿
𝐹
A

It follows that;
𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (vi)
𝐴
∆𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (vii)
𝐿
From Hooke’s law;
𝐹 ∆𝐿
∞ (viii)
𝐴 𝐿
𝐹 ∆𝐿
=𝛾 (ix)
𝐴 𝐿
Where γ is the constant of proportionality called modulus of elasticity
or young’s modulus. Because ∆𝐿 = 𝑒 (𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛), equation (ix) may
be written as;
𝐹 𝑒
=𝛾 (x)
𝐴 𝐿
𝐿𝐹
𝛾= (xi)
𝐴𝑒
It is important to note that if the ratio of length of the wire to its
𝐿
cross-sectional area is unity, i.e., = 1, Young’s modulus (modulus of
𝐴
elasticity) and spring constant are equal.

To the question
for a parallel arrangement the spring constant is double the spring
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘1 = 2𝑘1
𝐹 = 𝑘1 𝑒
50 = 𝑘1 × 0.01
𝑘1 = 5000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑘 = 2𝑘1 = 2 × 5000 = 10000𝑁/𝑚

15. On the axes provided, sketch a graph of density against temperature for water
between 0℃ and 10℃
Water behaves abnormally when heated from 0 0C to 4 0C in that it contracts as
opposed to expand. Above this threshold temperature, the water starts
expanding as expected. From the definition of density, a reduction in volume,

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

mass constant, leads to an increase in density. The density of water therefore

increases between 0 and 4 0C after which the density starts to reduce.

16. Figure 6 shows a graph of temperature against time for a pure molten substance
undergoing cooling.

Explain what happens to the substance in region BC (2 marks)

In physics, calorimetry involves the measurement of the amount of heat
transferred between objects. Heat (net heat) flows from hot body to cold body
it is in thermal contact with until the two bodies acquire the same temperature.
The bodies are then said to be in thermal equilibrium. If the two systems are
isolated (no heat lost to the surrounding), then at thermal equilibrium, the heat
lost by the hot body equals the heat gained by the cold body. There are various
terms associated with calorimetry:
- Heat/thermal capacity (C): This refers to the amount of heat required to
produce a unit rise in temperature in a substance. This means that if an
amount of heat equal to Q is added to a substance such that its temperature
rises by Δθ, then;
𝑄
𝐶= (i)
𝛥𝜃

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 Dr. Margaret and Ms. Jane, 8 October 2022

𝑄 = 𝐶𝛥𝜃 (ii)
- Specific heat capacity (c): This refers to the heat required to change the
temperature of a unit mass (1 kg) of a substance by 1 unit (10C or 1 K). If for
example the temperature of an object of mass 𝑚 changes by ∆𝜃 when heat
equal to 𝑄 is added, the specific heat capacity 𝑐 is given by:
𝑄
𝑐= (iii)
𝑚∆𝜃
Equation (iii) is often expressed as;
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 (iv)
Water has a high specific heat capacity and as a result can absorb a
relatively large amount of heat before reaching the boiling point. It is for
this reason that water is used as a coolant.
- Latent heat; This refers to the amount of heat required to change the state
of matter. Latent heat is also referred to as hidden heat because it does not
lead to an increase in temperature. The amount of heat required to change
the state of a unit mass of a solid to a liquid (or liquid to solid) without a
change in temperature is referred to as the latent heat of fusion. For
example, if ice at -100C is heated, its temperature increases until it attains
a temperature of 00C. The temperature then remains constant even with
the addition of more heat. During this time however, the ice melts and turns
to water at 00C. If heating stopped when the temperature of ice was at 00C,
the ice would not have melted. This means that heat is required to melt the
ice, and that heat is the latent heat of fusion. The heat is used to weaken
the cohesive force between the ice molecules as opposed to raising the
temperature. The temperature at which substances melt (melting point) is
different for different substances. It is important to note that;
o Presence of impurities lower the melting point.
o Increase in pressure lowers the melting point
o The higher the cohesive force the higher the melting point. For example,
ice aside, the melting point of wax is lower than that of metal.
Continued application of heat to water at 00C causes its temperature to rise
up to 1000C at normal atmospheric pressure. The increase in temperature
remains constant as the water changes to vapour. The heat required to
change the state of a unit mass of a liquid to gas (or gas to liquid) without a
change in temperature is called latent heat of vaporization. Note that
various factors affect the boiling point. These include;
o Pressure on the liquid. Water for instance has a higher boiling
point at sea level where the atmospheric pressure is high
compared to the top of a mountain where the pressure is low.
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o Impurities in the liquid raise the boiling point

o The lower the cohesive force, the lower the boiling point.
Thus, if Q be the heat required to change the state of a substance of mass m
without there being a change in temperature, the latent heat L is given by;
𝑄
𝐿= (v)
𝑚
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 (vi)
Vaporization is associated with a cooling effect. If for example methylated
spirit is poured on the palm of the hand, the palm feels cold.
Methylated spirit has a low latent heat of vaporization and therefore
vaporizes easily. Heat drawn from the palm is used to vaporize the
methylated spirit hence the palm feels cold. In nature, sweating
causes cooling effect when the sweat evaporates as it draws heat of
vaporization from the body. This means that if the sweat does not
evaporate (for example in very humid and non-windy areas), the
cooling effect is minimal. It is for this reason that sportswear is made
of materials that allow sweat to pass through and consequently
evaporate (as opposed to an absorbent material which keeps the skin
dry instead of allowing the sweat to evaporate).

NOTE 1: Phase transition from solid to vapour can be represented by a

temperature-heat graph.

A: Solid
B: Phase transition; solid
to liquid
Temperature

C: Liquid
D: Phase transition; liquid
to gas

A B C D E

Heat
NOTE 2: Experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a solid by the
method of mixtures.
- The solid is weighed and its mass ms noted
- To heat the solid, the solid is suspended with a thread and submerged in a
beaker containing boiling water.
- Meanwhile, an empty dry calorimeter is weighed and the mass, say mce
noted.
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- The calorimeter is then half-filled with cold water, weighed and mass mcw
and temperature Twi noted.
- Mass of water in the calorimeter is then obtained as: 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤 − 𝑚𝑐𝑒
- When the solid and the boiling water attain a steady temperature, the
steady temperature, say Tsi is measured.
- The solid is then removed from the boiling water, gently dipped in the
calorimeter, and the contents well stirred. The final highest temperature
reached, say Tf , is noted
- Assuming that no heat is lost to the surrounding, the heat lost by the solid
should be equal to the heat gained by the water and calorimeter, i.e.,
𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝑠𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖 ) + 𝑚𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑐 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖 )
Where 𝑐𝑠 , 𝑐𝑤 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑐 represent the specific heat capacities of the solid,
water and calorimeter respectively. Thus,
[𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑚𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑐 ](𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤𝑖 )
𝑐𝑠 =
𝑚𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 )
NOTE 3: Experiment to determine latent heat of vaporization
Method 1
An electric heater converts electrical energy to heat. If the heater is connected
across a voltage V such that a current, I, flows through the heater for a time t,
the heat energy E produced is equal to;
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
Experimental set-up for the experiment is as shown.

Condensed
steam outlet

- The power supply is switched on and the voltage V and current I recorded.
- As the water heats up, an empty beaker for collecting condensed steam is
weighed and the mass m1 recorded.
- The beaker is then placed in a container lined with crashed ice.
- As soon as the water being heated starts to boil, the clock is started and the
beaker in crashed ice placed under the condensed steam outlet.
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Power supply

Cold wate in to aid in condensation

Covered
Beaker forbeaker for steam
collecting
collecting condensed steam
Condensed
steam
Lagged with
Container
container
crushed ice

- Once an appreciable amount of condensed steam (steam that has turned

into water) is collected, the time is noted, say t, and the beaker together
with the condensed steam weighed and the mass, say m2 recorded.
- The mass m of the condensed steam is obtained as;
- 𝑚 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
- Assuming no heat is lost, the heat supplied by the heater (Vit) from when
the water started boiling was used to generate the steam of mass m. If L be
the specific latent heat of vaporization, then;
𝑉𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚𝐿
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐿=
𝑚
Method 2:
A beaker is filled with water, placed on a weighing balance and heated with an
immersion heater.

The voltage (v) across, and current (I) through, the heater is noted. Immediately
the water starts boiling, the reading on the balance m1 is noted and the stop
watch started. The final reading on the balance m2 is then noted after a time t
seconds.

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As soon as the water starts boiling, temperature becomes constant and the
heat supplied by the heater (electrical energy, E) is used to turn water into
steam. If no heat is lost, then;
𝐸 = 𝑚𝐿
Now,
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
m is the mass of the steam generated given by
𝑚 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
Hence
𝑉𝐼𝑡 = (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝐿
𝑉𝐼𝑡
𝐿= (*)
(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )
Note: The wattage or power (P) of the heater is given by;
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
Equation (*) may therefore be expressed as;
𝑃𝑡
𝐿=
(𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )

To the question now;

Region BC: The substance undergoes change of state from molten state to solid
as no change in temperature occurs.

17 a) Define the term “specific latent heat of fusion” (1 mark)

Quantity of heat required to change a unit mass of the material from solid state
to liquid without change in temperature.

b) Ice of mass 5g at a temperature of −10℃ is immersed into 10.5g of hot water at

100℃ in a container of negligible heat capacity. All the ice melts and the final

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temperature of the mixture is 40℃. Assuming there are no heat losses to the
surrounding and taking specific latent heat of fusion for ice as Lf. (Cwater = 4200 Jkg-1 K-
1
and Cice = 2100 Jkg-1 K-1). Determine the:
(i) heat lost by the water. (3 marks)
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝜃
𝑄 = 0.0105 × 4200(100 − 40)
𝑄 = 2646 𝐽

(ii) heat gained by ice from −10℃ to 0℃

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑖𝑐𝑒 ∆𝜃
𝑄 = 0.005 × 2100 × 10
𝑄 = 105 𝐽

iii) heat required to melt the ice in terms of Lf (1 mark)

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑓 = 0.005𝐿𝑓

(iv) heat gained by the melted ice. (2 marks)

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ∆𝜃
𝑄 = 0.005 × 4200 × 40
𝑄 = 840 𝐽

(v) specific latent heat of fusion. (3 marks)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑐𝑒(−10℃ 𝑡𝑜 0℃) + 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑐𝑒
+ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑐𝑒 (0 − 40℃ )
2646 = 105 + 0. 005𝐿𝑓 + 840
𝐿𝑓 = 40, 200 𝐽

18. Figure 8 shows two pieces of ice A and B trapped using wire gauze in a larger beaker
containing water.

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Heat is supplied at the center of the base of the beaker as shown. State the reason
why B melted earlier than A. (1 mark)
Heated water at the bottom becomes less dense which rises to the
top. Hence ice B melts earlier than A.

19. In a Physics experiment, a student filled a burette with water up to a level of 15ml.
The student ran out 3 drops of water each of volume 2cm 3 from the burette into a
beaker. Determine the final reading of the burette. (3 marks
Initial burette reading = 15ml
1 ml = 1 cm3 hence 15 ml = 15 cm3
Volume of drops = 3 × 2 =6 cm3
New burette reading = 15- 6 = 9 cm3

END

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