INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 187

of mathematicians about the middle of the nineteenth cen-

tury. But between Leibniz and Weierstrass a copious lit-
erature, both mathematical and philosophical, had grown
up round these mysterious infinitely small quantities which
mathematics had discovered and philosophy proceeded to
explain. Some philosophers, Bishop Berkeley, for instance,
correctly denied the validity of the whole idea, though for
reasons other than those indicated here. But the curious
fact remained that, despite all criticisms of the foundations
of the subject, there could be no doubt but that the mathe-
matical procedure was substantially right. In fact, the sub-
ject was right, though the explanations were wrong. It is this
possibility of being right, albeit with entirely wrong explana-
tions as to what is being done, that so often makes external
criticism—that is so far as it is meant to stop the pursuit
of a method—singularly barren and futile in the progress of
science. The instinct of trained observers, and their sense of
curiosity, due to the fact that they are obviously getting at
something, are far safer guides. Anyhow the general effect
of the success of the Differential Calculus was to generate a
large amount of bad philosophy, centring round the idea of
the infinitely small. The relics of this verbiage may still be
found in the explanations of many elementary mathemati-
cal text-books on the Differential Calculus. It is a safe rule
to apply that, when a mathematical or philosophical author
writes with a misty profundity, he is talking nonsense.
 THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 188

Newton would have phrased the question by saying that,

as h approaches zero, in the limit 2x + h becomes 2x. It
is our task so to explain this statement as to show that it
does not in reality covertly assume the existence of Leibniz’s
infinitely small quantities. In reading over the Newtonian
method of statement, it is tempting to seek simplicity by
saying that 2x + h is 2x, when h is zero. But this will not
do; for it thereby abolishes the interval from x to x + h, over
which the average increase was calculated. The problem is,
how to keep an interval of length h over which to calculate
the average increase, and at the same time to treat h as if it
were zero. Newton did this by the conception of a limit, and
we now proceed to give Weierstrass’s explanation of its real
meaning.
In the first place notice that, in discussing 2x + h, we
have been considering x as fixed in value and h as varying.
In other words x has been treated as a “constant” variable, or
parameter, as explained in Chapter IX.; and we have really
been considering 2x + h as a function of the argument h.
Hence we can generalize the question on hand, and ask what
we mean by saying that the function f (h) tends to the limit l,
say, as its argument h tends to the value zero. But again
we shall see that the special value zero for the argument
does not belong to the essence of the subject; and again we
generalize still further, and ask, what we mean by saying
that the function f (h) tends to the limit l as h tends to the
value a.
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 189

Now, according to the Weierstrassian explanation the

whole idea of h tending to the value a, though it gives a
sort of metaphorical picture of what we are driving at, is
really off the point entirely. Indeed it is fairly obvious that,
as long as we retain anything like “h tending to a,” as a fun-
damental idea, we are really in the clutches of the infinitely
small; for we imply the notion of h being infinitely near to a.
This is just what we want to get rid of.
Accordingly, we shall yet again restate our phrase to be
explained, and ask what we mean by saying that the limit of
the function f (h) at a is l.
The limit of f (h) at a is a property of the neighbourhood
of a, where “neighbourhood” is used in the sense defined
in Chapter XI. during the discussion of the continuity of
functions. The value of the function f (h) at a is f (a); but the
limit is distinct in idea from the value, and may be different
from it, and may exist when the value has not been defined.
We shall also use the term “standard of approximation” in
the sense in which it is defined in Chapter XI. In fact, in
the definition of “continuity” given towards the end of that
chapter we have practically defined a limit. The definition
of a limit is:—
A function f (x) has the limit l at a value a of its argu-
ment x, when in the neighbourhood of a its values approxi-
mate to l within every standard of approximation.
Compare this definition with that already given for con-
tinuity, namely:—
 THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 190

A function f (x) is continuous at a value a of its argument,

when in the neighbourhood of a its values approximate to its
value at a within every standard of approximation.
It is at once evident that a function is continuous at a
when (i) it possesses a limit at a, and (ii) that limit is equal
to its value at a. Thus the illustrations of continuity which
have been given at the end of Chapter XI. are illustrations
of the idea of a limit, namely, they were all directed to prov-
ing that f (a) was the limit of f (x) at a for the functions
considered and the value of a considered. It is really more
instructive to consider the limit at a point where a func-
tion is not continuous. For example, consider the function of
which the graph is given in fig. 20 of Chapter XI. This func-
tion f (x) is defined to have the value 1 for all values of the
argument except the integers 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., and for these
integral values it has the value 0. Now let us think of its limit
when x = 3. We notice that in the definition of the limit the
value of the function at a (in this case, a = 3) is excluded.
But, excluding f (3), the values of f (x), when x lies within
any interval which (i) contains 3 not as an end-point, and
(ii) does not extend so far as 2 and 4, are all equal to 1; and
hence these values approximate to 1 within every standard
of approximation. Hence 1 is the limit of f (x) at the value 3
of the argument x, but by definition f (3) = 0.
This is an instance of a function which possesses both
a value and a limit at the value 3 of the argument, but the
value is not equal to the limit. At the end of Chapter XI. the
function x2 was considered at the value 2 of the argument.
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 191

Its value at 2 is 22 , i.e. 4, and it was proved that its limit

is also 4. Thus here we have a function with a value and a
limit which are equal.
Finally we come to the case which is essentially impor-
tant for our purposes, namely, to a function which possesses
a limit, but no defined value at a certain value of its ar-
gument. We need not go far to look for such a function,
2x
will serve our purpose. Now in any mathematical book,
x
2x
we might find the equation, = 2, written without hesita-
x
tion or comment. But there is a difficulty in this; for when
2x 0 0
x is zero, = ; and has no defined meaning. Thus the
x 0 0
2x
value of the function at x = 0 has no defined meaning.
x
2x
But for every other value of x, the value of the function
x
2x
is 2. Thus the limit of at x = 0 is 2, and it has no value
x
x2
at x = 0. Similarly the limit of at x = a is a whatever
x
2
x
a may be, so that the limit of at x = 0 is 0. But the
x
x2 0
value of at x = 0 takes the form , which has no defined
x 0
x2
meaning. Thus the function has a limit but no value at 0.
x
We now come back to the problem from which we started
this discussion on the nature of a limit. How are we going to
 THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 192

define the rate of increase of the function x2 at any value x

of its argument. Our answer is that this rate of increase is
(x + h)2 − x2
the limit of the function at the value zero for
h
its argument h. (Note that x is here a “constant.”) Let us
see how this answer works in the light of our definition of a
limit. We have
(x + h)2 − x2 2hx + h2 h(2x + h)
= = .
h h h
h(2x + h)
Now in finding the limit of at the value 0 of
h
the argument h, the value (if any) of the function at h = 0 is
excluded. But for all values of h, except h = 0, we can divide
h(2x + h)
through by h. Thus the limit of at h = 0 is the
h
same as that of 2x + h at h = 0. Now, whatever standard
of approximation k we choose to take, by considering the
interval from − 12 k to + 21 k we see that, for values of h which
fall within it, 2x + h differs from 2x by less than 21 k, that is
by less than k. This is true for any standard k. Hence in
the neighbourhood of the value 0 for h, 2x + h approximates
to 2x within every standard of approximation, and therefore
2x is the limit of 2x + h at h = 0. Hence by what has been
(x + h)2 − x2
said above 2x is the limit of at the value 0
h
for h. It follows, therefore, that 2x is what we have called
the rate of increase of x2 at the value x of the argument.
Thus this method conducts us to the same rate of increase
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 193

for x2 as did the Leibnizian way of making h grow “infinitely

small.”
The more abstract terms “differential coefficient,” or “de-
rived function,” are generally used for what we have hith-
erto called the “rate of increase” of a function. The gen-
eral definition is as follows: the differential coefficient of
the function f (x) is the limit, if it exist, of the function
f (x + h) − f (x)
of the argument h at the value 0 of its ar-
h
gument.
How have we, by this definition and the subsidiary defi-
nition of a limit, really managed to avoid the notion of “in-
finitely small numbers” which so worried our mathematical
forefathers? For them the difficulty arose because on the one
hand they had to use an interval x to x + h over which to
calculate the average increase, and, on the other hand, they
finally wanted to put h = 0. The result was they seemed to
be landed into the notion of an existent interval of zero size.
Now how do we avoid this difficulty? In this way—we use
the notion that corresponding to any standard of approxi-
mation, some interval with such and such properties can be
found. The difference is that we have grasped the impor-
tance of the notion of “the variable,” and they had not done
so. Thus, at the end of our exposition of the essential no-
tions of mathematical analysis, we are led back to the ideas
with which in Chapter II. we commenced our enquiry—that
in mathematics the fundamentally important ideas are those
of “some things” and “any things.”
 CHAPTER XVI
GEOMETRY
Geometry, like the rest of mathematics, is abstract.
In it the properties of the shapes and relative positions of
things are studied. But we do not need to consider who is
observing the things, or whether he becomes acquainted with
them by sight or touch or hearing. In short, we ignore all
particular sensations. Furthermore, particular things such
as the Houses of Parliament, or the terrestrial globe are ig-
nored. Every proposition refers to any things with such and
such geometrical properties. Of course it helps our imagina-
tion to look at particular examples of spheres and cones and
triangles and squares. But the propositions do not merely
apply to the actual figures printed in the book, but to any
such figures.
Thus geometry, like algebra, is dominated by the ideas of
“any” and “some” things. Also, in the same way it studies
the interrelations of sets of things. For example, consider
any two triangles ABC and DEF .
What relations must exist between some of the parts of
these triangles, in order that the triangles may be in all re-
spects equal? This is one of the first investigations under-
taken in all elementary geometries. It is a study of a certain
set of possible correlations between the two triangles. The
answer is that the triangles are in all respects equal, if:—
Either, (a) Two sides of the one and the included angle are
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 195

A D

B C E F

Fig. 33.

respectively equal to two sides of the other and the included

angle:
Or, (b) Two angles of the one and the side joining them
are respectively equal to two angles of the other and the side
joining them:
Or, (c) Three sides of the one are respectively equal to
three sides of the other.
This answer at once suggests a further enquiry. What
is the nature of the correlation between the triangles, when
the three angles of the one are respectively equal to the three
angles of the other? This further investigation leads us on
to the whole theory of similarity (cf. Chapter XIII.), which
is another type of correlation.
Again, to take another example, consider the internal
structure of the triangle ABC. Its sides and angles are inter-
related—the greater angle is opposite to the greater side,
and the base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal. If
we proceed to trigonometry this correlation receives a more
 GEOMETRY 196

exact determination in the familiar shape

sin A sin B sin C
= = ,
a b c
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A, with two similar formulæ.
Also there is the still simpler correlation between the an-
gles of the triangle, namely, that their sum is equal to two
right angles; and between the three sides, namely, that the
sum of the lengths of any two is greater than the length of
the third.
Thus the true method to study geometry is to think of
interesting simple figures, such as the triangle, the paral-
lelogram, and the circle, and to investigate the correlations
between their various parts. The geometer has in his mind
not a detached proposition, but a figure with its various parts
mutually inter-dependent. Just as in algebra, he generalizes
the triangle into the polygon, and the side into the conic
section. Or, pursuing a converse route, he classifies triangles
according as they are equilateral, isosceles, or scalene, and
polygons according to their number of sides, and conic sec-
tions according as they are hyperbolas, ellipses, or parabolas.
The preceding examples illustrate how the fundamental
ideas of geometry are exactly the same as those of algebra;
except that algebra deals with numbers and geometry with
lines, angles, areas, and other geometrical entities. This fun-
damental identity is one of the reasons why so many geomet-
rical truths can be put into an algebraic dress. Thus if A, B,
and C are the numbers of degrees respectively in the angles
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 197

of the triangle ABC, the correlation between the angles is

represented by the equation
A + B + C = 180◦ ;
and if a, b, c are the number of feet respectively in the three
sides, the correlation between the sides is represented by a <
b + c, b < c + a, c < a + b. Also the trigonometrical formulæ
quoted above are other examples of the same fact. Thus the
notion of the variable and the correlation of variables is just
as essential in geometry as it is in algebra.
But the parallelism between geometry and algebra can
be pushed still further, owing to the fact that lengths, areas,
volumes, and angles are all measurable; so that, for exam-
ple, the size of any length can be determined by the number
(not necessarily integral) of times which it contains some ar-
bitrarily known unit, and similarly for areas, volumes, and
angles. The trigonometrical formulæ, given above, are exam-
ples of this fact. But it receives its crowning application in
analytical geometry. This great subject is often misnamed as
Analytical Conic Sections, thereby fixing attention on merely
one of its subdivisions. It is as though the great science of
Anthropology were named the Study of Noses, owing to the
fact that noses are a prominent part of the human body.
Though the mathematical procedures in geometry and
algebra are in essence identical and intertwined in their de-
velopment, there is necessarily a fundamental distinction be-
tween the properties of space and the properties of number—
in fact all the essential difference between space and number.
 GEOMETRY 198

The “spaciness” of space and the “numerosity” of number

are essentially different things, and must be directly appre-
hended. None of the applications of algebra to geometry or
of geometry to algebra go any step on the road to obliterate
this vital distinction.
One very marked difference between space and number
is that the former seems to be so much less abstract and
fundamental than the latter. The number of the archangels
can be counted just because they are things. When we once
know that their names are Raphael, Gabriel, and Michael,
and that these distinct names represent distinct beings, we
know without further question that there are three of them.
All the subtleties in the world about the nature of angelic
existences cannot alter this fact, granting the premisses.
But we are still quite in the dark as to their relation to
space. Do they exist in space at all? Perhaps it is equally
nonsense to say that they are here, or there, or anywhere, or
everywhere. Their existence may simply have no relation to
localities in space. Accordingly, while numbers must apply
to all things, space need not do so.
The perception of the locality of things would appear to
accompany, or be involved in many, or all, of our sensations.
It is independent of any particular sensation in the sense
that it accompanies many sensations. But it is a special pe-
culiarity of the things which we apprehend by our sensations.
The direct apprehension of what we mean by the positions of
things in respect to each other is a thing sui generis, just as
are the apprehensions of sounds, colours, tastes, and smells.
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 199

At first sight therefore it would appear that mathematics, in

so far as it includes geometry in its scope, is not abstract in
the sense in which abstractness is ascribed to it in Chapter I.
This, however, is a mistake; the truth being that the
“spaciness” of space does not enter into our geometrical rea-
soning at all. It enters into the geometrical intuitions of
mathematicians in ways personal and peculiar to each in-
dividual. But what enter into the reasoning are merely
certain properties of things in space, or of things forming
space, which properties are completely abstract in the sense
in which abstract was defined in Chapter I.; these proper-
ties do not involve any peculiar space-apprehension or space-
intuition or space-sensation. They are on exactly the same
basis as the mathematical properties of number. Thus the
space-intuition which is so essential an aid to the study of
geometry is logically irrelevant: it does not enter into the
premisses when they are properly stated, nor into any step
of the reasoning. It has the practical importance of an ex-
ample, which is essential for the stimulation of our thoughts.
Examples are equally necessary to stimulate our thoughts on
number. When we think of “two” and “three” we see strokes
in a row, or balls in a heap, or some other physical aggrega-
tion of particular things. The peculiarity of geometry is the
fixity and overwhelming importance of the one particular ex-
ample which occurs to our minds. The abstract logical form
of the propositions when fully stated is, “If any collections of
things have such and such abstract properties, they also have
such and such other abstract properties.” But what appears
 GEOMETRY 200

before the mind’s eye is a collection of points, lines, surfaces,

and volumes in the space: this example inevitably appears,
and is the sole example which lends to the proposition its
interest. However, for all its overwhelming importance, it is
but an example.
Geometry, viewed as a mathematical science, is a division
of the more general science of order. It may be called the
science of dimensional order; the qualification “dimensional”
has been introduced because the limitations, which reduce it
to only a part of the general science of order, are such as to
produce the regular relations of straight lines to planes, and
of planes to the whole of space.
It is easy to understand the practical importance of space
in the formation of the scientific conception of an external
physical world. On the one hand our space-perceptions are
intertwined in our various sensations and connect them to-
gether. We normally judge that we touch an object in the
same place as we see it; and even in abnormal cases we touch
it in the same space as we see it, and this is the real funda-
mental fact which ties together our various sensations. Ac-
cordingly, the space perceptions are in a sense the common
part of our sensations. Again it happens that the abstract
properties of space form a large part of whatever is of spa-
tial interest. It is not too much to say that to every property
of space there corresponds an abstract mathematical state-
ment. To take the most unfavourable instance, a curve may
have a special beauty of shape: but to this shape there will
correspond some abstract mathematical properties which go
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 201

with this shape and no others.

Thus to sum up: (1) the properties of space which are
investigated in geometry, like those of number, are proper-
ties belonging to things as things, and without special ref-
erence to any particular mode of apprehension: (2) Space-
perception accompanies our sensations, perhaps all of them,
certainly many; but it does not seem to be a necessary qual-
ity of things that they should all exist in one space or in any
space.
 CHAPTER XVII
QUANTITY
In the previous chapter we pointed out that lengths are
measurable in terms of some unit length, areas in term of a
unit area, and volumes in terms of a unit volume.
When we have a set of things such as lengths which are
measurable in terms of any one of them, we say that they
are quantities of the same kind. Thus lengths are quantities
of the same kind, so are areas, and so are volumes. But an
area is not a quantity of the same kind as a length, nor is
it of the same kind as a volume. Let us think a little more
on what is meant by being measurable, taking lengths as an
example.
Lengths are measured by the foot-rule. By transporting
the foot-rule from place to place we judge of the equality
of lengths. Again, three adjacent lengths, each of one foot,
form one whole length of three feet. Thus to measure lengths
we have to determine the equality of lengths and the ad-
dition of lengths. When some test has been applied, such
as the transporting of a foot-rule, we say that the lengths
are equal; and when some process has been applied, so as
to secure lengths being contiguous and not overlapping, we
say that the lengths have been added to form one whole
length. But we cannot arbitrarily take any test as the test
of equality and any process as the process of addition. The
results of operations of addition and of judgments of equality
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 203

must be in accordance with certain preconceived conditions.

For example, the addition of two greater lengths must yield
a length greater than that yielded by the addition of two
smaller lengths. These preconceived conditions when accu-
rately formulated may be called axioms of quantity. The
only question as to their truth or falsehood which can arise
is whether, when the axioms are satisfied, we necessarily get
what ordinary people call quantities. If we do not, then the
name “axioms of quantity” is ill-judged—that is all.
These axioms of quantity are entirely abstract, just as are
the mathematical properties of space. They are the same
for all quantities, and they presuppose no special mode of
perception. The ideas associated with the notion of quantity
are the means by which a continuum like a line, an area, or a
volume can be split up into definite parts. Then these parts
are counted; so that numbers can be used to determine the
exact properties of a continuous whole.
Our perception of the flow of time and of the succession of
events is a chief example of the application of these ideas of
quantity. We measure time (as has been said in considering
periodicity) by the repetition of similar events—the burning
of successive inches of a uniform candle, the rotation of the
earth relatively to the fixed stars, the rotation of the hands of
a clock are all examples of such repetitions. Events of these
types take the place of the foot-rule in relation to lengths.
It is not necessary to assume that events of any one of these
types are exactly equal in duration at each recurrence. What
is necessary is that a rule should be known which will enable
 QUANTITY 204

us to express the relative durations of, say, two examples of

some type. For example, we may if we like suppose that the
rate of the earth’s rotation is decreasing, so that each day
is longer than the preceding by some minute fraction of a
second. Such a rule enables us to compare the length of any
day with that of any other day. But what is essential is that
one series of repetitions, such as successive days, should be
taken as the standard series; and, if the various events of
that series are not taken as of equal duration, that a rule
should be stated which regulates the duration to be assigned
to each day in terms of the duration of any other day.
What then are the requisites which such a rule ought to
have? In the first place it should lead to the assignment of
nearly equal durations to events which common sense judges
to possess equal durations. A rule which made days of vi-
olently different lengths, and which made the speeds of ap-
parently similar operations vary utterly out of proportion to
the apparent minuteness of their differences, would never do.
Hence the first requisite is general agreement with common
sense. But this is not sufficient absolutely to determine the
rule, for common sense is a rough observer and very easily
satisfied. The next requisite is that minute adjustments of
the rule should be so made as to allow of the simplest possible
statements of the laws of nature. For example, astronomers
tell us that the earth’s rotation is slowing down, so that each
day gains in length by some inconceivably minute fraction of
a second. Their only reason for their assertion (as stated
more fully in the discussion of periodicity) is that without it
 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS 205

they would have to abandon the Newtonian laws of motion.

In order to keep the laws of motion simple, they alter the
measure of time. This is a perfectly legitimate procedure so
long as it is thoroughly understood.
What has been said above about the abstract nature of
the mathematical properties of space applies with appropri-
ate verbal changes to the mathematical properties of time.
A sense of the flux of time accompanies all our sensations
and perceptions, and practically all that interests us in re-
gard to time can be paralleled by the abstract mathemati-
cal properties which we ascribe to it. Conversely what has
been said about the two requisites for the rule by which
we determine the length of the day, also applies to the rule
for determining the length of a yard measure—namely, the
yard measure appears to retain the same length as it moves
about. Accordingly, any rule must bring out that, apart
from minute changes, it does remain of invariable length;
Again, the second requisite is this, a definite rule for minute
changes shall be stated which allows of the simplest expres-
sion of the laws of nature. For example, in accordance with
the second requisite the yard measures are supposed to ex-
pand and contract with changes of temperature according to
the substances which they are made of.
Apart from the facts that our sensations are accompa-
nied with perceptions of locality and of duration, and that
lines, areas, volumes, and durations, are each in their way
quantities, the theory of numbers would be of very subordi-
nate use in the exploration of the laws of the Universe, As
 QUANTITY 206

it is, physical science reposes on the main ideas of number,

quantity, space, and time. The mathematical sciences as-
sociated with them do not form the whole of mathematics,
but they are the substratum of mathematical physics as at
present existing.
 NOTES
A (p. 45).—In reading these equations it must be noted
that a bracket is used in mathematical symbolism to mean
that the operations within it are to be performed first. Thus
(1 + 3) + 2 directs us first to add 3 to 1, and then to add 2
to the result; and 1 + (3 + 2) directs us first to add 2 to 3,
and then to add the result to 1. Again a numerical example
of equation (5) is

2 × (3 + 4) = (2 × 3) + (2 × 4).

We perform first the operations in brackets and obtain

2×7=6+8

which is obviously true.

SP
B (p. 110).—This fundamental ratio is called the
PN
eccentricity of the curve. The shape of the curve, as distinct
from its scale or size, depends upon the value of its eccen-
tricity. Thus it is wrong to think of ellipses in general or of
hyperbolas in general as having in either case one definite
shape. Ellipses with different eccentricities have different
shapes, and their sizes depend upon the lengths of their ma-
jor axes. An ellipse with small eccentricity is very nearly a
circle, and an ellipse of eccentricity only slightly less than
unity is a long flat oval. All parabolas have the same eccen-
tricity and are therefore of the same shape, though they can
be drawn to different scales.
 NOTES 208

C (p. 168).—If a series with all its terms positive is con-

vergent, the modified series found by making some terms
positive and some negative according to any definite rule is
also convergent. Each one of the set of series thus found, in-
cluding the original series, is called “absolutely convergent.”
But it is possible for a series with terms partly positive and
partly negative to be convergent, although the corresponding
series with all its terms positive is divergent. For example,
the series
1 − 21 + 31 − 14 + etc.
is convergent though we have just proved that

1 + 12 + 31 + 14 + etc.

is divergent. Such convergent series, which are not abso-

lutely convergent, are much more difficult to deal with than
absolutely convergent series.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTE ON THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS
The difficulty that beginners find in the study of this sci-
ence is due to the large amount of technical detail which has
been allowed to accumulate in the elementary text-books,
obscuring the important ideas.
The first subjects of study, apart from a knowledge of
arithmetic which is presupposed, must be elementary geom-
etry and elementary algebra. The courses in both subjects
should be short, giving only the necessary ideas; the algebra
should be studied graphically, so that in practice the ideas of
elementary coordinate geometry are also being assimilated.
The next pair of subjects should be elementary trigonometry
and the coordinate geometry of the straight line and circle.
The latter subject is a short one; for it really merges into
the algebra. The student is then prepared to enter upon
conic sections, a very short course of geometrical conic sec-
tions and a longer one of analytical conics. But in all these
courses great care should be taken not to overload the mind
with more detail than is necessary for the exemplification of
the fundamental ideas.
The differential calculus and afterwards the integral cal-
culus now remain to be attacked on the same system. A good
teacher will already have illustrated them by the considera-
tion of special cases in the course on algebra and coordinate
geometry. Some short book on three-dimensional geometry
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 210

must be also read.

This elementary course of mathematics is sufficient for
some types of professional career. It is also the necessary
preliminary for any one wishing to study the subject for its
intrinsic interest. He is now prepared to commence on a
more extended course. He must not, however, hope to be
able to master it as a whole. The science has grown to such
vast proportions that probably no living mathematician can
claim to have achieved this.
Passing to the serious treatises on the subject to be read
after this preliminary course, the following may be men-
tioned: Cremona’s Pure Geometry (English Translation,
Clarendon Press, Oxford), Hobson’s Treatise on Trigonom-
etry, Chrystal’s Treatise on Algebra (2 volumes), Salmon’s
Conic Sections, Lamb’s Differential Calculus, and some
book on Differential Equations. The student will probably
not desire to direct equal attention to all these subjects, but
will study one or more of them, according as his interest
dictates. He will then be prepared to select more advanced
works for himself, and to plunge into the higher parts of
the subject. If his interest lies in analysis, he should now
master an elementary treatise on the theory of Functions of
the Complex Variable; if he prefers to specialize in Geome-
try, he must now proceed to the standard treatises on the
Analytical Geometry of three dimensions. But at this stage
of his career in learning he will not require the advice of this
note.
I have deliberately refrained from mentioning any elemen-
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

tary works. They are very numerous, and of various merits,

but none of such outstanding superiority as to require special
mention by name to the exclusion of all the others.
 INDEX
Abel, 127 Beaconsfield, Lord, 28
Abscissa, 74 Berkeley, Bishop, 187
Absolute Convergence, 208 Bhaskara, 43
Abstract Nature of Geometry,
199 et seqq.
Abstractness (defined ), 2, 5 Cantor, Georg, 60
Adams, 181 Circle, 96, 105, 146 et seqq.
Addition-Theorem, 174 Circular Cylinder, 116
Ahmes, 54 Clerk Maxwell, 22, 23
Alexander the Great, 103, 104 Columbus, 98
Algebra, Fundamental Laws Compact Series, 57
of, 45 Complex Quantities, 88
Ampère, 22 Conic Sections, 103 et seqq.
Analytical Conic Sections, Constants, 52, 94
197 Continuous Functions,
Apollonius of Perga, 106, 108 122 et seqq.
Approximation, 161 et seqq.
Continuous Functions
Arabic Notation, 43 et seqq.
(defined ), 132
Archimedes, 24 et seqq.
Convergence, Absolute, 208
Argument of a Function, 118
Convergent, 166 et seqq.
Aristotle, 19, 29, 103
Coordinate Geometry,
Astronomy, 111, 141, 142
90 et seqq.
Axes, 101
Axioms of Quantity, Coordinates, 74
203 et seqq. Copernicus, 31, 111
Cosine, 148 et seqq.
Bacon, 127 Coulomb, 22
Ball, W. W. R., 43 Cross Ratio, 113
 INDEX 213

Darwin, 112, 181 Form, Algebraic, 49 et seqq.,

Derived Function, 193 63, 94
Descartes, 74, 90, 94, 98, 180 Fourier’s Theorem, 156
Differential Calculus, Fractions, 54 et seqq.
179 et seqq. Franklin, 21, 98
Differential Coefficient, 193 Function, 118 et seqq.
Directrix, 110
Galileo, 19, 29 et seqq., 98
Discontinuous Functions,
Galvani, 21
122 et seqq.
Generality in Mathematics,
Distance, 19
63
Divergent, 166 et seqq.
Geometrical Series,
Dynamical Explanation, 5, 6, 169 et seqq.
33 et seqq. Geometry, 24, 194 et seqq.
Dynamics, 19, 29 et seqq. Gilbert, Dr., 20
Graphs, 120 et seqq.
Eccentricity, 207 Gravitation, 18, 112
Electric Current, 21
Electricity, 20 et seqq. Halley, 113
Electromagnetism, 20 et seqq. Harmonic Analysis, 157
Ellipse, 31, 97, 104 et seqq. Harriot, Thomas, 49
Euclid, 92 Herz, 23
Exponential Series, Hiero, 25
173 et seqq. Hipparchus, 141
Hyperbola, 105 et seqq.
Faraday, 23 Imaginary Numbers,
Fermat, 180 67 et seqq.
Fluxions, 180 Imaginary Quantities, 88
Focus, 97, 110 Incommensurable Ratios,
Force, 19 54 et seqq.
 INDEX 214

Infinitely Small Quantities, Neighbourhood, 130 et seqq.

186 et seqq. Newton, 3, 8, 19, 22, 25, 26,
Integral Calculus, 183 30, 32, 112, 180 et seqq.
Interval, 129 et seqq. Non-Uniform Convergence,
171 et seqq.
Normal Error, Curve of, 176
Kepler, 31, 111, 112
Kepler’s Laws, 112 Öersted, 22
Order, 159 et seqq.
Laputa, 3 Order, Type of, 57 et seqq.,
Laws of Motion, 136 et seqq., 160
205 Ordered Couples, 72 et seqq.
Leibniz, 8, 180 et seqq. Ordinate, 74
Leonardo da Vinci, 29 Origin, 74, 102
Leverrier, 181
Light, 23 Pappus, 110
Limit of a Function, Parabola, 105 et seqq.
188 et seqq. Parallelogram Law,
Limit of a Series, 163 et seqq. 37 et seqq., 78, 102
Limits, 58 Parameters, 52, 94
Pencils, 113
Locus, 97 et seqq., 114
Period, 139, 154 et seqq.
Periodicity, 134 et seqq., 154,
Macaulay, 127 178
Malthus, 112 Pitt, William, 159
Marcellus, 25 Pizarro, 98
Mass, 19 Plutarch, 25
Mechanics, 33 Positive and Negative
Menaechmus, 103 Numbers, 63 et seqq.
Motion, First Law of, 30 Projective Geometry, 113
 INDEX 215

Ptolemy, 111, 141 Sum to Infinity, 164 et seqq.

Pythagoras, 6 Surveys, 143 et seqq.
Swift, 3
Quantity, 202 et seqq.
Tangents, 183
Rate of Increase of Functions,
Taylor’s Theorem, 127, 128
181 et seqq.
Time, 135 et seqq., 203 et seqq.
Ratio, 54 et seqq.
Transportation, Vector of,
Real Numbers, 56 et seqq.
39 et seqq.
Rectangle, 41
Triangle, 143 et seqq., 194
Relations between Variables,
Triangulation, 144
9 et seqq.
Trigonometry, 141 et seqq.
Resonance, 138, 139
Rosebery, Lord, 159 Uniform Convergence,
Scale of a Map, 145 171 et seqq.
Seidel, 173 Unknown, The, 9, 14
Series, 56 et seqq., 159 et seqq. Value of a Function, 118
Shelley (quotation from), 179
Variable Function, 119
Similarity, 144 et seqq., 195
Variable, The, 9, 14, 34, 63,
Sine, 148 et seqq.
193, 197
Specific Gravity, 28
Vectors, 37 et seqq., 65, 75
Squaring the Circle, 153
Vertex, 108
Standard of Approximation,
Volta, 21
129 et seqq.,
164 et seqq., 189 et seqq. Wallace, 181
Steps, 61 et seqq., 74 Weierstrass, 127, 187, 188
Stifel, 66
Stokes, Sir George, 173 Zero, 47 et seqq., 82
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Introduction to Mathematics, by
Alfred North Whitehead

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS ***

***** This file should be named 41568-tex.tex or 41568-tex.zip *****

This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
http://www.gutenberg.org/4/1/5/6/41568/

Produced by Andrew D. Hwang. (This ebook was produced using

OCR text generously provided by the University of
California, Santa Barbara, through the Internet Archive.)

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.

*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
 LICENSE II

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"

or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
 LICENSE III

works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg

are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived

from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
 LICENSE IV

through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm

License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that
 LICENSE V

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is
owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments
must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any

money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable

 LICENSE VI

effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread

public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right

of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a

defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ’AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
 LICENSE VII

WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of

electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org
 LICENSE VIII

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive

Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit

501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.

Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809
North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email
contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the
Foundation’s web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

For additional contact information:

Dr. Gregory B. Newby
Chief Executive and Director
[email protected]

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg

Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide

spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
 LICENSE IX

where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To

SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we

have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic

works.

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm

concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.