D.C.

Circuits

Circuit Components

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Current in a series circuit

Current in a series circuit is the ___________ throughout.

Potential difference in a series circuit

In a series circuit, the ______ of the potential difference across each component is equal to the potential
difference across the ____________ circuit ( = emf of the source).

i.e. Vε = V1 + V2 = ε

Resistance

V
R=
I

Total resistance in series:

Example 1

a) What is the total resistance in the circuit shown above?

b) What are the readings shown on ammeters A1 and A2?

c) What is the p.d. across each resistor?

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Current in a parallel circuit

I = I1 + I2

Potential difference in a parallel circuit

Potential difference across components in parallel is equal

Vε = V1= V2 = ε

Total resistance in parallel

Example 2

a) Find the currents I1, I2, I3

b) What is the voltage or potential difference across the 10 Ω and 20 Ω

resistors?

c) Calculate the effective resistance of the 10Ω and 20Ω resistors.

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Find the effective resistance of each of the following:

a) (b)

(c)

Example 3

Find I1, I2 and R

Potential Difference in terms of energy

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Example 4
Determine the reading on V1, V2 and A.

Example 5

The circuit shows a light bulb connected to 3 resistors and a 12 V source. Initially, all the switches are
opened.

Fig 7

(a) S1 is opened and S2 and S3 are closed.

(i) Calculate the total resistance between points P and Q.

(ii) The ammeter registers a reading of 0.3 A. Calculate the resistance of the light bulb.

(iii) The lamp is switched on for 2 minutes. Calculate the amount of energy consumed by the
lamp.

(b) S1, S2 and S3 are now closed. Describe and explain how the brightness of the lamp has changed
as compared to (a).

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) The 8Ω resistor is a cylindrical wire of length L and radius R made from a certain type of material. It
is replaced by another resistor of the same type but with 3 times the length and twice the radius.
Calculate its resistance.

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Variable potential divider (voltage divider or potentiometer)

• It is a circuit with resistors arranged in series.

• With it, we can divide a main voltage into two or more voltages.

Uses: e.g. street lamps, burglar alarms, thermostats

Type I (2 fixed resistors)

Question 1

Calculate Vout.

Type II (Replace one of the fixed resistors with a variable resistor)

Question 2

The circuit shows a 9 V battery connected in series with a variable resistor R 1 and a 50  resistor R2. The
resistance of the variable resistor R1 can vary from 0 to 100 . What are the maximum and minimum output
voltages?

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Type III (Replacing the two resistors with a potentiometer)

• The position of sliding contact C determines the ratio of the resistance since R  l for a fixed cross-
sectional area.

• To obtain a larger output voltage, the slider contact C is moved towards _________.

Question 3

A 6 V battery of negligible internal resistance is connected to a potentiometer with a maximum resistance of

100 Ω. Calculate the output voltage Vout when the slider contact is at

(a) A,

(b) the midpoint between A and B.

(c) B.

Type IV (Replacing one of the resistors with a input transducer)

Transducers – Electrical or electronic devices that convert energy from one form to another.

 They respond to physical quantities like light and temperature.

 Input transducers – convert non electrical energy to electrical energy

e.g. microphones, thermistors, light dependent resistors, photocells, thermocouples, pressure sensors and
stress sensors

 Output transducers – convert electrical energy to other forms of energy

e.g. loudspeakers, lamps, LEDs, voltmeters and ammeters

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NTC (negative temperature coefficient) Thermistor:

 Hot (more mobile electrons) – resistance decreases

 Cool (fewer mobile electrons) – resistance increases

e.g. air conditioner connected to Vout

When temperature increases > preset temperature RTH drops  VTH drops  Vout increases  Vout
switches on cooling unit in the air conditioner which lowers temperature.

LDR (light dependent resistor):

 Brightness increases (more mobile electrons) – resistance decreases;

 When brightness decreases (fewer mobile electrons) – resistance increases

e.g burglar alarm

Burglar shines a light on safe which has a LDR RLDR decreases VLDR decreases  Vout increases –
alarm activated

Question 4

A negative temperature coefficient thermistor is used in the following circuit to make a temperature
sensor.

Explain how the circuit works.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Question 5

Fig 5.1 shows a circuit whose output potential difference, VAIR varies with the surrounding air temperature.
Fig 5.2 shows how the resistance of the air temperature sensor varies with temperature.

Fig 5.1 Fig 5.2

(a) Name the input transducer that can be used as an air temperature sensor.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

(b) Show that at a temperature of 20˚C, the potential difference across the air temperature sensor, VAIR
is 4.0 V.

(c) Calculate the current in the circuit when the air temperature is 20˚C. Express your answer in units of
mA.

(d) How much power is dissipated in the 1000 Ω resistor when the air temperature is 20˚C?

(P = I2R)

Question 6

A student wants to provide lighting for a model house which she has made. She needs 3.0 V for her lamps
but only has a 9.0 V battery, so she uses a linear resistor AB in the circuit below. The linear resistor is made
from a high resistance uniform conductor.

Fig 7

(a) What is the name of the device AB when used in this manner?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(b) State the voltmeter reading when the sliding contact is at:

(i) A ……………………………...…. (ii) B ………………………………………

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 (c) Indicate on Fig 7 with the letter X to show where the sliding contact should be positioned such that
the voltmeter reading is 3.0 V..

(d) The student replaces the voltmeter with a 3.0 V lamp but the lamp does not light. Explain why the
lamp does not light.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..………………………………………………….

Difference between a rheostat and potential divider

A rheostat uses only two terminals of a variable resistor while a potential divider uses all three terminals

Rheostat

Potential divider

This means that when in use, the current in the lamp connected to a rheostat will never drop to 0 A while the
current in the lamp connected using a potentiometer circuit can be reduced to 0 A. (Why?)

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 C19 Practical Electricity

Learning objectives

(a) Heating effect of electricity

By Conservation Of Energy

• Electrical energy à Thermal energy (kettles, ovens and heaters)

• Electrical energy àThermal energy of filament à light (filament glows)

(b) Calculating amount of electrical energy used

Recall: V= I=

Combine the equations W=

Substitute V = IR

Substitute I = V/R

Power = Rate at which work is done (amount of electrical energy used per second)

Unit: J/s or Watt (W)

P= P= P=

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Joule and kilowatt-hour

Calculate the amount of work done (in Joules) by a 1000 W appliance in 1.0 hour

W = P ´ t = 1000 W ´ 1 hour ´ 60 min ´ 60 s = 3600000 J

A simpler unit, the kilowatt-hour is used to replace Joules

W = P ´ t = 1.0 kW ´ 1.0 hour = 1.0 kWh

Therefore 1.0 kWh is equivalent to 3600000 J

Question 1

A 1.5 kW electrical heater is used to heat a large container of water for 2.0 hours. Calculate the amount of
electrical energy used by the heater in (a) J, (b) kWh.

(c) Cost of electricity = Energy (kWh) x unit cost

Question 2

If Singapore Power charges 26 cents for each kWh of electrical energy used, calculate the total cost of using
a 3.0 kW electrical kettle for 20 minutes and a 100 W filament bulb for 5.0 hours.

Question 3

(a) A 240 V mains power supply delivers a current of 9.0 A through an air-conditioner. Find the power
supplied in watts.

(b) An air-conditioner is used for 1.5 hours each day. Using the answer in (a), given that the electricity tariff
is $0.26 per kWh, calculate the cost of using the air-conditioner in a month (30 days).

Question 4

An electric iron with a heating element of resistance 60 Ω is connected to the 240 V mains. Calculate

(a) the electrical power produced in the heating element, and

(b) the amount of electrical energy consumed when operating the iron for 20 minutes.

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Question 5

A filament lamp, rated as 60 W, 240 V, is connected to a 240 V power supply. Find

(a) the current flowing through the lamp,

(b) the resistance of the filament, and

(c) the energy produced by the lamp when it is switched on for 8 hours.

(d) Dangers of electricity

(1) Damaged insulation
a. Insulating materials become __________ with time and use.
b. Bending and twisting of electrical cables may cause the electrical insulation to crack and break,
thus __________ the conducting wires inside.
c. An __________ live wire can cause severe electric shock (high current and voltage) to the user
when touched, leading to serious injuries or even death.
(2) Overheating of cables
v ______________ of cables occurs when an unusually _________ current flows through the
conducting wires.
v A ___________wire has a higher resistance compared to a thick wire. Therefore, it will produce
more __________________ that will damage the insulation and may cause a fire.

(3) Damp conditions

d. For example, if a hair dryer connected to the main power falls into a bathtub while a person is
bathing, the person may get electrocuted as water is an electrical conductor.
e. The water provides a __________________________ for a large current to flow.

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Household wiring

Electrical supply to households (240 V ac 50 Hz)

(e) Safety features

(1) Consumer unit circuit breakers

These are safety devices that can ________________ the electrical supply when there is ____________
current in the circuit.

v Two circuit breakers that can be found near the front door of a house:
(a) The Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
(b) The Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB – no longer in use) or the Residual Current Detector (RCD)

v The MCB prevents excessive current flow through the circuit by tripping or breaking it.
v The RCD detects small current leakages from the live wire to the earth wire. When this happens, the
current in the live wire will be greater than the neutral wire, causing the RCD to ‘trip’.

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(2) Fuses
v A fuse is a safety device included in an electrical circuit to prevent excessive current flow.
v It consists of a short thin piece of wire, which becomes hot and melts when the current flowing
through it is greater than its rated value.
v Fuses should have a current rating just slightly higher than the current an electrical appliance will
use. For example a 5 A fuse is used for a lighting circuit that uses 4 A.
v A fuse should be connected to the live wire so that the appliance will not remain live after the
fuse has melted due to a current surge.
v Before you change a fuse, always switch off the mains power supply.

Symbol for a fuse

Question 6
A hot water heater is rated 2880 W, 240 V. Calculate the operating current and suggest a suitable rating for
a fuse to protect the heater from overheating.

(f) Earthing

v The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire and is usually connected to the
metal casing of the appliance.
v Earthing prevents users from getting an electric shock if the live wire is not properly connected and
touches the metal casing of the appliance.

(g) Double insulation

v This is a safety feature in an electrical appliance that can replace the earth wire.
v Devices that have double insulation normally use a 2-pin plug as only live and neutral wires are
required.
v The inner layer (functional insulation) is made of a material that is both an electrical and thermal
insulator.
v The outer layer (protective insulation) normally forms part of the case of the appliance.

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h. Live, Neutral and Earth wires

Under normal operating conditions, the voltage of each of the wires is as follows:

Live wire – ____________________

Neutral wire – _________________

Earth wire – __________________

i. 3 pin plug

• A fused plug is used to connect appliances to the mains supply via the power socket.

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 • Inside the plug, there is a cartridge fuse that blows and breaks the circuit when excessive current
flows in the appliance.
• Potential of live wire is always high (240 V).
• Potential of neutral wire is always zero (grounded).
• Current through live and neutral wire is always the same when appliance is working normally.
• The Earth wire connects the metal casing of the appliance to the ground. It protects the user from
an electric shock when there is a short circuit.
• You will need to remember the colours and names of the 3 wires.

j. Position of switches, fuses and circuit breakers – always wired into the live conductor.

L L

N
N

A fault in the appliance leads to a short circuit causing the current to increase. This melts the fuse and opens
the circuit and the appliance stops working. (in the case of a circuit breaker, it trips and opens the circuit)

What will happen, however, if the fuse or circuit breaker is connected to the neutral wire?

If the fuse is in the neutral wire, the current stops if there is a fault in the appliance. But the appliance is still
connected to the live wire so if you are to touch the appliance now, current will flow through your body
instead. You will get an electric shock which could be fatal. The fuse must be in the live wire so that it
isolates the appliance from the high voltage mains in the event of a fault.

Position of the switch in a circuit

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Question 7

An electrical safety expert is inspecting a laundry. The main workroom has a very hot and damp atmosphere.
The expert recommends that normal domestic light switches, as shown in the Fig are replaced.

(a) Explain why this recommendation is made.

(b) Suggest how the lights should be switched on and off.

Question 8

An electric fire operating from the 240 V mains is connected to a 3-pin socket by a 3-pin plug containing a
fuse. The fire (which has a metal case and a reflector) has two heating elements; one rated 1.0 kW and the
other 1.5 kW, and also a 25 W lamp. The lamp is connected so that it lights when the appliance is plugged
in. There are two switches, A and B on the fire. Neither element heats up unless switch A is on. When switch
B is off, only the 1.0 kW element heats up; when switch B is on, both elements heat up.

(a) Draw a labelled diagram showing the connections in the fused plug, and to the heating elements and
lamp. Mark clearly the positions of the two switches A and B.

(b) Calculate the current when only the lamp is on,

(c) Determine the maximum power of the appliance;

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(d) Calculate the energy (in kWh) consumed when the 1.0 kW element and lamp are in used for 8.0 hours.

(e) Describe how a ‘short circuit’ may arise in the electric circuit and how, if a ‘short circuit’ occurs, the fuse
in the plug prevents the continued flow of current.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

Question 9

The diagram below shows the live, neutral and earth wires of a household electricity supply. Also shown is
an electric kettle.

(a) Complete the diagram to show how the kettle should be connected to the supply. Include a
switch and a fuse in your drawing.

(b) Explain why the Earth pin of a three-pin plug is longer than the other two pins.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

(c) If the live or neutral wire touches the casing, the kettle stops working. Explain if this statement is
correct.

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

(d) Non-renewable and renewable energy sources

(h) Renewable resource – able to be replaced at a sustainable rate (wind, solar heating, biomass,
geothermal, wave power, photovoltaic)
(i) Non renewable – cannot be replaced at a sustainable rate (nuclear, fossil fuel)

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Solar energy in Singapore

This solar irradiance map shows the amount of solar power across the island which is affected by amount of
sunlight, cloud movement and shade (PV = photovoltaic)

Hydroelectric Power Plant

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Energy source Efficiency Cost per kWh Environmental impact

Greenhouse gas emissions and global warming

Relatively low
Natural gas stations ~ 45% Chemical pollution during mining and burning (acid rain)
Fuel is relatively cheap
Fossil fuel Higher in co-gen stations Extraction/mining can damage the environment and be
Established technologies – power hazardous to health
stations, transport and storage systems Leakage from oil tankers or oil pipelines can cause
considerable harm to the environment

Dangerous and long-lasting radioactive waste products

Overall efficiency not very high
due to costs involved
Nuclear energy Cost of cleaning up is massive No greenhouse gases emitted during normal operation

High cost of PV cells and maintenance

Does not produce greenhouse gases
Solar energy Dependent on amount of PV cells have a lifespan of 20 years
Large areas needed for solar power stations
sunlight, cloud cover, shade Requires back up energy supply

Dependent on amount of wind Does not produce greenhouse gases

Wind energy Requires back up energy supply
Requires large land area which may affect ecosystems

Environment will be affected and the natural habitat of plants

and animals may be destroyed

Hydroelectric Cost of transportation due to remote If dam bursts it can cause considerable damage
Relatively high efficiency
generation locations of HEP stations
Does not produce greenhouse gases

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