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CE6402D
Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour
MODULE II

Dr. Prateek Negi

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Calicut, India Dr. Prateek Negi

Syllabus: Total hours: 39

Module 2: (10 hours):

• Effective stress principle,

• Steady state flow in soil,

• Effect of flow on effective stress,

• Determination of coefficient of permeability,

• Consolidation ,one, two, three and radial direction,

• Variation of effective stress during consolidation,

• Consolidation tests and determination of consolidation parameters;

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Land Subsidence

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Interaction Forces
• The compressibility, deformation, and strength properties of a soil mass depend on the effort required to distort
or displace particles or groups of particles relative to each other.

• In most engineering materials, resistance to deformation is provided by internal chemical and physicochemical
forces of interaction that bond the atoms, molecules, and particles together.

• Although such forces also play a role in the behavior of soils, the compression and strength properties depend
primarily on the effects of gravity through self weight and on the stresses applied to the soil mass.

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Stress Definitions
3 a = 1 slip
Principal
The principle of effective stress is 1 > 2 > 3 max planes planes
the keystone of modern soil 2 Stresses
mechanics. Development of this
1 1
principle was begun by Terzaghi
r = 3 r
about 1920 and extended for
several years (Skempton, 1960a). Triaxial
Historical accounts of the 2 Test
3
development are described in a Stresses
y
Goodman (1999) and de Boer We usually
(2000). A lucid statement of the assume v is a
principle was given by Terzaghi principal stress

(1936) at the First International x 

Conference on Soil Mechanics and v r
Foundation Engineering. HMAX > hmin

HMAX r
ri
hmin In Situ z Borehole
Stresses Stresses

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Stress and Pressure

• Stress is a force over an area a – axial stress
• Pressure is that part of the boundary forces
supported by the fluid phase only
pore pressure
• Fluid can be water, oil, gas…
A
po

r – radial stress

Fa
a 
A

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Granular Mechanics

• In granular media, macroscopic

stresses are transmitted through
grain contact forces (f n , fs )

fs = shear force

fn = normal force

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Definition of Stress

• Stress is the force over an area:

 = F/A
• However, at a small scale, grain- to-
grain forces act
h

h
f1 f4
• At grain contacts, local stresses can f2
po
be huge
f3
• Stresses are averages of forces on a
plane surface: ∑ S f n /A S

• Pressure: in fluid only v

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Effective Stress & Pressure

• Total vertical stress ( v) is the sum of the stress transmitted

through the solid grain contacts ( ′v) and the pore pressure (p)

 v ′v  p
Total stress = sum of effective stress plus pore pressure

• This is known as the “effective stress law” or the “Terzaghi Law”

or the “effective stress principle”

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Simple illustration of Stress Transfer Mechanism

• The load applied at the surface - soil grains -
through their points of contact.
• Result in compression of soil mas s
• Partly due to elastic compression of the grains at their
points of contact and partly due to relative sliding
between particles

• Not the actual stress prevailing at the grain to grain

contacts which is generally very high
• Any plane will not pass through all the points of
contact
• Exhibits wavy form
• Responsible for deformation of soil mass -
intergranular or effective stress

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Simple illustration of Stress Transfer Mechanism

• The expulsion of water from the pores decreases the pore water pressure and
correspondingly increases the inter-granular pressure

• At any stage the total pressure Q /A is divided between water and the points of contact of
grains

• A new equation may therefore be written as

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TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS

• The total vertical stress (σv) acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of
everything lying above i.e. soil, water, and surface loading

• Total vertical stresses are calculated from the unit weight of the soil

• Any change in total vertical stress (σv) may also result in a change in the horizontal total
stress (σ h) at the sam e point

• The relationships between vertical and horizontal stress are complex (Δσv≠Δσh)

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Determination of Total Stress

• For homogeneous soil layer, It is the stress acting at a point in a soil mass with a
horizontal top surface. The total stress is computed as the total weight of a column
of unit area above the point.

• For multilayers of soil, generated by the mass in the soil body, calculated by sum
up the unit weight of all the material (soil solids + water) multiplied by soil thickness
or depth.

• The unit weight of soil is in natural condition and the water influence is ignored.

    t .z

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TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS in homogeneous soil

Ground Level

σv

Depth, z
SOIL
ELEMENT

 v  z σv

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TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS with a surface surcharge load

Very ‘wide’ surcharge, q (kN/m2)

Ground Level

 v  z  q

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TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS in multi-layered soil

Ground Level

z1 Soil1

z2 Soil2

z3 Soil3

 v   1 z1   2 z 2   3 z 3

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TOTAL VERTICAL STRESS below a river or lake

Water Level

zw Ground Level

 v  z   w z w

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PORE WATER PRESSURE

• If the pores of a soil mass are filled with water and if a pressure induced into the pore water
tries to separate the grains, this pressure is termed as pore water pressure or neutral stress
• The water in the pores of a soil is called pore water and the pressure within this pore water is called
pore water pressure (u)

• The magnitude of pore water pressure depends on:

a) the depth below the water table

b) the conditions of seepage flow

• Pressures can be hydrostatic, less than hydrostatic (rare) or greater (common) called under-
pressured or over-presssured

• Pressures at a point are the same in all directions because they are within the fluid

• Also, differences in pressures lead to flow

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Determination of Pore pressure

• The effect of this press u re is to increa se the volume or decrease the frictional
resistance of the soil ma s s .

• The pore or neutral stress (uw) is the stress within the water voids. Since this stress
is hydrostatic, it acts equally in all directions. Under no flow conditions (static),

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PORE WATER PRESSURE under hydrostatic conditions

(no water flow)

Ground Level

Water Table

u   wZ

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Determination of Effective Stress

• The inter-granular force acting between points of contact of the solid constituents per
unit area is termed the effective stress (σ’)

• The pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the contact points through a soil mass is
termed as inter-granular or effective pressure.

• It is known as effective pressure since this pressure is responsible for the decrease in the void
ratio or increase in the frictional resistance of a soil mass

• Effective stress cannot be measured but c an be calculated from the general

relationship for saturated soils:

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Determination of Effective Stress

• Defined as soil stress which influenced by water pressure in soil body.

• Published first time by Terzaghi at 1923 base on the experimental result
• Applied to saturated soil and has a relationship with two type of stress i.e.:
– Total Normal Stress (  )

– Pore Water Pressure ( u )

• Effective stress formula '   u

   t .z u   w .z

' ( t   w ) .z   ' .z

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VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESSES

Water Table Ground Level

'  u
 '   z  w z

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REMEMBER
• Total stress is the s u m of effective stress and the pore pressure: symbol is σ

• Effective stress is the force transmitted through the solid: symbol is σ′

• Pore pressure is the force transmitted through the fluid phase: symbol is u

• σ = σ′ + u (σhmin = σ′hmin + u; σ HMAX = σ′ HMAX + u; σθ = σ ′θ + u ,

etc…)

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Simple Illustration of Stresses when no flow takes place through

the saturated soil mass

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Problem
Calculate the total stress, pore water
pressure, and effective stress at points A,
B, and C. How high should the water
table rise so that the effective stress at C is
190 kN/m2? Assume γsat to be the same
for both layers (i.e., 19.25 kN/m2).

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Problem

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Problem

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Problems for practice

1. Co mp ute and plot the total stress, effective stress and pore pressure at a depth of 15 m below
the bottom of a lake 6 m deep. The bottom of the lake consists of soft clay with a thickness
of 15 m. The average water content of the clay is 40% and the specific gravity of soils ma y
be assumed as 2.65.

2. A clay stratum 8.0 m thick is located at a depth of 6 m from the ground surface. The natural
moisture content of the clay is 56% and G =2.75 . The soil stratum between the ground
surface and the clay consists of fine sand . The water table is located at a depth of 2 m
below the ground surface. The submerged unit weight of fine sand is 10.5kN/m3 and its
moist unit weight above the water table is18.68kN/m3. Calculate the effective stress at the
centre of the clay layer.

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Problems for practice

3. Determine the neutral and effective stress at a depth of 16 m below the ground level for the
following conditions: Water table is 3 m below ground level ; G = 2.68; e= 0.72; average
water content of the soil above water table is 8%.

4. A saturated sand layer over a clay stratum is 5 m in depth. The water is 1.5 m below
ground level. If the bulk density of saturated sand is 17.66 kN/ m3, calculate the effective
and neutral pressure on the top of the clay layer.

5. A uniform soil deposit has a void ratio 0.6 and specific gravity of 2.65. The natural ground
water is at 2.5 m below natural ground level. D ue to capillary moisture, the average degree
of saturation above ground water table is 50%. Determine the neutral pressure, total pressure
and effective pressure at a depth of 6 m. Draw a neat sketch.

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from top to bottom
• Water surface in container B is kept at h units below the surface in A.
• This difference in head permits water to flow from container A to B
• Since container B i s with the flexible tube - considered a s piezometer freely
communicating with the bottom of container A , the piezometric head or the
pore water pressure head at the bottom of container A is (z1 + z 2 - h ).

• Pore water pressure at bottom of the container A ,

• As compared to no flow condition

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from top to bottom

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from top to bottom
• There is a decrease in pore water pressure to the extent of h γ w when water flows through the soil
sample from top to bottom.
• Decrease in pore water pressure is not due to velocity of the flowing water
• The value of the velocity head V 2 /2 g is a negligible quantity even if we take the highest velocity
of flow that is encountered in natural soil deposits
• Total stress remains the same,

• Effective stress at the bottom of the container,

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from top to bottom
• There is an increase in the effective pressure by h γ w at the bottom of the container A
• Effective pressure at the top surface of the sample is zero
• At any depth,

• There is an increase in the effective pressure as the water flows from the surface to a depth z

• This increase in effective pressure due to the flow of water through the pores of the soil is
known as seepage pressure

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Simple Illustration of Stresses when flow takes place through the

soil from top to bottom
• h is the total loss of head as the water flows from the top surface of the sample to a depth z
• Corresponding loss of head at depth z is (z/z1)h
• Since (h/z1) = i , the hydraulic gradient,
• the loss of head at depth z can be expressed as iz
• seepage pressure at any depth may be expressed as iz×γ w
• Effective pressure at depth z is,

• In normal soil deposits, when flow takes place in the direction of gravity there will be an increase
in the effective pressure

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from bottom to top
• Water surface in container B is kept above that of A by h units
• This arrangement permits water to flow upwards through the
sample in container A
• The total piezometric or the pore water head at the bottom of the
sample is

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from bottom to top

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from bottom to top
• Effective pressure at the bottom of the sample,

• Effective pressure at any depth z is,

• There is a decrease in the effective pressure due to upward flow of water.

• At any depth z , zγb is the pressure of the submerged soil acting downward and izɤb is the
seepage pressure acting upward
• The effective pressure reduces to zero when these two pressures balance

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Simple Illustration of Stresses When flow takes place through the

soil from bottom to top
• Effective pressure reduces to zero when the hydraulic gradient attains a maximum value which
is equal to the ratio of the submerged unit weight of soil and the unit weight of water
• This gradient is known as the critical hydraulic gradient i c
• In suc h cases, cohesionless soils lose all of their shear strength and bearing capacity and a
visible agitation of soil grains is observed
• This phenomenon is known as boiling or a quick sand condition

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Critical Hydraulic Gradient and Void Ratio

• Critical gradient of natural granular soil deposits can be calculated if the void ratios of the
deposits are known.
• For all practical purposes the specific gravity of granular materials c an be assum ed as equal
to 2.65

• A quick condition does not occur in clay deposits since the cohesive forces between the
grains prevent the soil from boiling

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Critical Hydraulic Gradient and Void Ratio

• Occur most often in fine sands or silts and cannot occur in coarse soils. The larger the particle size, the greater is the
porosity
• To maintain a critical gradient of unity, the velocity at which water must be supplied at the point of inflow varies
as the permeability
• Therefore a quick condition cannot occur in a coarse soil unless a large quantity of water can be supplied
• Common in excavations below the ground water table
• Can be prevented by lowering the ground water elevation by pumping before excavation.
• The void ratio of granular deposits generally lies within the range of 0.6 to 0.7 and as such a critical gradient of unity can
justifiably be assumed for all practical purposes.

• Quick Conditions in Excavations: Quick conditions are common in excavations below the ground water table, especially in
fine sands or silts. These conditions occur due to the high porosity of these soils, allowing them to become unstable and
prone to rapid collapse.
• Prevention by Groundwater Lowering: Quick conditions can be prevented by lowering the ground water elevation through
pumping before excavation. Lowering the water table reduces the risk of soil liquefaction and collapse, making the
excavation process safer and more stable.
• Effect of Soil Permeability: Quick conditions cannot occur in coarse soils because of their lower porosity. However, if
excavation in coarse soil is necessary, preventing quick conditions would require a large quantity of water to be supplied,
maintaining a critical gradient of unity and ensuring stability during the excavation process.

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Effective Pressure Due to Capillary Water Rise in Soil

Water level, water table and phreatic surface - locus of the levels to which water rises in observation
wells in free communication with the voids of the soil also defined as - surface at which the neutral
stress u w in the soil is equal to zero
• If the water contained in the soil - no force other than gravity, - to be perfectly dry
• In reality, it is completely saturated up to a certain height
• The water that occupies the voids of the soil located above water table has soil moisture
• If the lower mass of dry soil comes into contact with water, the water rises in the voids to a
certain height above the free water surface.
• The upward flow into the voids of the soil – due to the surface tension of the water
• Height to which water rises above water table against force of gravity is called capillary rise
• Greatest for very fine grained soil materials
• The water that rises above WT attains the maximum height h c only in smaller voids.

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Effective Pressure Due To Capillary Water Rise In Soil

• Large voids may effectively stop capillary rise

• Only a portion of the capillary zone above the free water surface remains fully saturated and
the remainder is partially saturated
• Surface tension is located at the boundary between air and water.
• Within the boundary zone, water is in a state of tension
• It is entirely unaffected by either the contraction or stretching of the film
• The water held in the pores of soil above the free water surface is retained in a state of
reduced pressure
• This reduced pressure is called capillary pressure or soil moisture suction pressure

Dr. Prateek Negi, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India 43

Illustration of Surface Tension

• A greased sewing needle can be made to float on water because water has no affinity to grease
water surface curves down under the needle until the upward component of the surface
tension is large enough to support the weight of the needle

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Rise of water in capillary tubes

• The phenomenon of capillary rise - immersing the lower end of a very small diameter glass tube into
water (capillary tube)
• As soon as the lower end of the tube comes into contact with water, water pulls the water up into
the tube to a height h c above the water level (height of capillary rise)

• The upper surface of water assumes the shape

of a c up, called the 'meniscus' that joins the
walls of the tube at an angle known as the
contact angle
• If there is a strong affinity between solid and
the liquid, the surface of the liquid will climb
up on the wall of the solid until a definite
contact angle is established
• The contact angle between a clean moist
glass surface and water is zero, that is, the
water surface touches the glass surface
tangentially

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Surface tension
• Surface tension, T s - force per unit length acting in the direction of the tangent
• Components of this force along the wall and perpendicular to the wall are
• Along the wall = T s cos per unit length of wall
• Normal to the wall = T s sin per unit length of wall
• The force normal to the wall tries to pull the walls of the tube together and the one along the
wall produces a compressive force in the tube below the line of contact

• The meniscus - suspension bridge in three dimensions supported on the walls of the tube
• The column of water of height h c below the meniscus is suspended from this bridge by
means of the molecular attraction of the water molecules

• If the meniscus h as stopped moving upward in the tube, then there must be equilibrium
between the weight of the column of water suspended from the meniscus and the force
with which the meniscus is clinging to the wall of the tube.

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Surface tension

• The surface tension T s for water at 20 °C can be taken as equal to 75 × 10 -8 kN per c m

• By assuming α=0 for moist glass and by substituting for T s .
• Therefore, for the case of water, the capillary height h c can be written as

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Stress distribution in water below the meniscus

• The pressure is atmospheric at points A and B

• Since point C is at the same level as A, according to
the laws of hydraulics, the pressure at C is also
atmospheric.
• Since the point D which is just below the meniscus
is higher than point C by the head h c , the pressure
at D mu st be less than atmospheric by the amount
hcɤw.
• Therefore, the pressure at any point in water between
C and D is less than atmospheric.

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Stress distribution in water below the meniscus

• That means, the water above point C is in tension if

we refer to atmospheric pressure as zero pressure.

• The tension in water at any height h above C is given

by h γ w .

• By contrast, the pressure in the water below the free

surface A is above atmospheric and therefore is in
compression.

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Stress distribution in water below the meniscus

• Substituting for d,

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Stress distribution in water below the meniscus

• At the level of the menisc us, the

magnitude of the capillary pressure u c that
compresses the wall of the tube is also
equal to the capillary tension in the water
just below the meniscus.

• The magnitude of the capillary pressure u c

remains constant with depth whereas the
capillary tension, u w , in water varies from a
maximum of h c ɤ w at the meniscus level to
zero at the free water surface level

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Capillary rise of water in soil

• In contrast to capillary tubes the continuous

voids in soils have a variable width.

• They communicate with each other in all

directions and forms intricate network of voids.

• When water rises into the network from below,

the lower part of the network becomes completely
saturated

• In the upper part, however, the water occupies

only the narrowest voids and the wider areas
remain filled with air.

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Capillary rise of water in soil

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Capillary rise of water in soil

• The height of the capillary rise is greatest for very fine grained soils materials, but the rate of rise
in suc h materials is slow because of their low permeability.
• The graph clearly shows that the rise is a maximu m for materials falling in the category of silts
and fine sands
• As the effective grain size decreases, the size of the voids also decreases, and the height of
capillary rise increases
• A rough estimation of the height of capillary rise can be determined from the equation,

e is the void ratio, D 1 0 is Hazen's effective diameter in centimeters, and C is an empirical

constant which can have a value between 0.1 and 0.5 sq. c m

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Capillary Siphoning
• Capillary forces are able to raise water against the force of gravity not only into capillary tubes or
the voids in columns of dry soil, but also into narrow open channels or V-shaped grooves.
• If the highest point of the groove is located below the level to which the surface tension can lift
the water, the capillary forces will pull the water into the descending part of the groove and will
slowly empty the vessel.
• This process is known as capillary siphoning.
• The same process may also occur in the voids
of soil. For example, water m ay flow over the
crest of an impermeable core in a dam in spite
of the fact that the elevation of the free water
surface is below the crest of the core

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Capillary Pressure in soils

• Since this pressure is below atmospheric pressure, it draws the grains of soils closer to each
other at all points where the menisus touch the soil grains.
• The effective or intergranular pressure at any point in a soil m ass is,

• When the water is in compression u w is positive, and when it is in tension u w is negative.

• Since u w is negative in the capillary zone, the intergranular pressure is increased by u w

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Stress Condition in Soil due to Surface Tension Forces

• Assuming that the soil above the ground water table remains dry prior
to the rise of capillary water.
• The stress condition in the dry soil ma ss changes due to the rise of
capillary water
• When a dry soil ma s s above the GWT comes in contact with water,
water rises by capillary action. Let the height of rise be h c and
assume that the soil within this zone becomes saturated due to
capillary water.
• Assume that the meniscus formed at height h c coincide with the
ground surface. The plane of the meniscus is called the capillary
fringe.

Dr. Prateek Negi, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India 57

Stress Condition in Soil due to Surface Tension Forces

• Prior to capillary rise,
• After the capillary rise,

• Since the pore water pressure at the GWT level is zero, the difference between the two
pressures represents the increase in pressure due to capillary rise (capillary pressure)

• Capillary pressure for soil is directly proportional to the porosity of the soil
• Relating capillary tension and capillary pressure in effective
stress distribution calculation

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Stress Condition in Soil due to Surface Tension Forces

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Soil Permeability

DARCY'S LAW

where k is termed the hydraulic conductivity (or coefficient

of permeability)with units of velocity
Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ease with which water flows through permeable materials. It is
inversely proportional to the viscosity of water which decreases with increasing temperature.
Therefore, permeability measurements at laboratory temperatures should be corrected.

f is field, T is test

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Permeability vs hydraulic conductivity

Permeability:
1.Definition:
• Permeability refers to the ability of a material to allow the flow of fluids (such as liquids and gases) through
its pore spaces or fractures.
2.Nature:
• Permeability is a property of the material itself and is independent of the fluid properties.
3.Units:
• Permeability is typically measured in units of Darcy (D) or millidarcy (mD) in the metric system.
4.Factors Influencing:
• Permeability is influenced by the size, shape, and interconnectedness of pore spaces within the material.
5.Direction Dependency:
• Permeability can be anisotropic, meaning it may vary with direction. The flow of fluid through the material
is influenced by the orientation of the pores.
6.Influence on Flow:
• Permeability affects the rate at which fluids can flow through a porous medium. Materials with high
permeability allow for faster fluid flow.

Dr. Prateek Negi, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India 61

Permeability vs hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic Conductivity:
1.Definition:
• Hydraulic conductivity specifically refers to the ability of a porous material to transmit water. It is a measure
of how easily water can flow through a saturated soil or rock.
2.Nature:
• Hydraulic conductivity is influenced not only by the properties of the material but also by the properties of
the fluid flowing through it, particularly its viscosity.
3.Units:
• Hydraulic conductivity is typically measured in units of velocity, such as centimeters per second (cm/s) or
meters per day (m/day).
4.Factors Influencing:
• Hydraulic conductivity is influenced by the permeability of the material as well as the viscosity and density
of the fluid.
5.Direction Dependency:
• Similar to permeability, hydraulic conductivity can also be anisotropic, meaning it can vary with direction.
6.Influence on Flow:
• Hydraulic conductivity specifically describes the flow of water through a porous medium. It is a crucial
parameter in hydrogeology, determining the movement of groundwater in the subsurface.

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Coefficient of Permeability

Coefficient of Transmissibility

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Coefficient of Transmissibility
The coefficient of transmissibility (T ) is a measure of the ease with which water can flow through a unit width of a porous
medium under a unit hydraulic gradient. In simpler terms, it quantifies the ability of a porous material to transmit water
horizontally. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

T=k×b
Where:
• T is the coefficient of transmissibility (in units of length squared per time, e.g., m2/s),
• k is the coefficient of permeability (discussed below) of the porous medium,
• b is the thickness of the porous medium through which water is flowing (in units of length, e.g., meters).

Differences:
Definition: The coefficient of transmissibility relates to the ability of a specific thickness of porous medium to transmit water
horizontally, taking into account both the permeability of the medium and its thickness. On the other hand, the coefficient of
permeability specifically quantifies the ability of the porous medium to transmit fluids through its pore spaces.

In summary, while the coefficient of transmissibility incorporates the concept of permeability, it also considers the thickness of
the porous medium, providing a measure of the medium’s ability to transmit water in a specific direction. Permeability, on the
other hand, solely focuses on the porous medium’s intrinsic ability to transmit fluids through its pore spaces, regardless of the
direction of flow.

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Determination of Permeability in Lab

CONSTANT HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

The constant head permeameter test is more

suited for coarse grained soils such as gravelly
sand and coarse and medium sand.

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Determination of Permeability in Lab

FALLING HEAD PERMEABILITY TEST

The set up is suitable for soils having permeabilities ranging from 10-3 to 10-6 cm per sec.
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DIRECT DETERMINATION OF k OF SOILS IN PLACE

• Observation wells are drilled at various distances from the test or pumping well along two straight lines, one
oriented approximately in the direction of ground water flow and the other at right angles to it.
• A minimum of two observation wells and their distances from the test well are needed. These wells are to be
provided on one side of the test well in the direction of the ground water flow.

• The drawdown resulting due to pumping is called the cone of depression. The maximum drawdown is in the test
well. It decreases with the increase in the distance from the test well. The depression dies out gradually and forms
theoretically, a circle around the test well called the circle of influence. The radius of this circle, is called the
radius of influence of the depression cone.

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Determination of permeability in field

• Unconfined Aquifer

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Determination of permeability in field

• Confined Aquifer:

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Determination of permeability in field: Confined Aquifer

Case 1. The water level in the

test well might remain above the
roof level of the aquifer at
steady flow condition.

Case 2. The water level in the

test well might fall below the
roof level of the aquifer at
steady flow condition.

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Determination of permeability in field: Confined Aquifer

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Determination of permeability in field: Confined Aquifer

Under the condition when h0 is less than H0, the flow pattern
close to the well is similar to that of an unconfined aquifer
whereas at distances farther from the well the flow is artesian.
Muskat (1946) developed an equation to determine the
hydraulic conductivity. The equation

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Determination of permeability in field

• Confined Aquifer:

Dr. Prateek Negi, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India 73

Permeability – Indirect Method

• Allen Hazen Formula:

• Kozeny-Carman Equation:

• Loudon’s formula:

a and b are constants, their values being 1.365 and 5.15 respectively at 10°C, and n is the porosity

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Hydraulic conductivity in stratified layers of soils

Hydraulic conductivity of a disturbed sample may be different from that of the undisturbed sample even though
the void ratio is the same. This may be due to a change in the structure or due to the stratification of the
undisturbed soil or a combination of both of these factors.

Dr. Prateek Negi, Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Calicut, India 75

Hydraulic Conductivity as a function

of Void Ratio for Granular Soils

The hydraulic conductivity k can be expressed as

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Influence of gradation on permeability

on granular soils

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Hydraulic Conductivity as a function

of Void Ratio for Granular Soils

Relationship between void ratio and

permeability for coarse grained soils

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Hydraulic Conductivity as a function of Void Ratio for Fine Grained Soils

• Laboratory experiments have shown that hydraulic conductivity of
very fine grained soils are not strictly a function of void ratio since
there is a rapid decrease in the value of k for clays below the plastic
limit.
• This is mostly due to the much higher viscosity of water in the
normal channels which results from the fact that a considerable
portion of water is exposed to large molecular attractions by the
closely adjacent solid matter. It also depends upon the fabric of clays
especially those of marine origin which are often flocculated. The
Fig shows that the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction, at in
situ void ratio e0, is correlated with clay fraction (CF) finer than 0.002
mm and with the activity A (= Ip/CF).

• Consolidation of soft clays may involve a significant decrease in void

ratio and therefore of permeability. The relationships between e and
k (log-scale) for a number of soft clays are shown (Terzaghi, Peck,
and Mesri 1996).

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Interaction Forces

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Thank
You
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