ARTICLE

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02290-w OPEN

The sub-dimensions of metacognition and their

influence on modeling competency
Riyan Hidayat1,2 ✉, Hermandra3 & Sharon Tie Ding Ying4

Mathematical modeling is indeed a versatile skill that goes beyond solving real-world pro-
blems. Numerous studies show that many students struggle with the intricacies of mathe-
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matical modeling and find it a challenging and complex task. One important factor related to
mathematical modeling is metacognition which can significantly impact expert and student
success in a modeling task. However, a notable gap of research has been identified speci-
fically in relation to the influence of metacognition in mathematical modeling. The study’s
main goal was to assess whether the different sub-dimensions of metacognition can predict
the sub-constructs of a student’s modeling competence: horizontal and vertical mathema-
tization. The study used a correlational research design and involved 538 participants who
were university students studying mathematics education in Riau Province, Indonesia. We
employed structural equation modeling (SEM) using AMOS version 18.0 to evaluate the
proposed model. The measurement model used to assess metacognition and modeling ability
showed a satisfactory fit to the data. The study found that the direct influence of awareness
on horizontal mathematization was insignificant. However, the use of cognitive strategies,
planning, and self-checking had a significant positive effect on horizontal mathematization.
Concerning vertical mathematization, the direct effect of cognitive strategy, planning, and
awareness was insignificant, but self-checking was positively related to this type of mathe-
matization. The results suggest that metacognition, i.e., awareness and control over a per-
son’s thinking processes, plays an important role in modeling proficiency. The research
implies valuable insights into metacognitive processes in mathematical modeling, which
could inform teaching approaches and strategies for improving mathematical modeling.
Further studies can build on these findings to deepen our understanding of how cognitive
strategies, planning, self-assessment, and awareness influence mathematical modeling in
both horizontal and vertical contexts.

1 Department of Science and Technical Education, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. 2 Institut

Penyelidikan Matematik, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia. 3 FKIP, Universitas Riau, Pekanbaru 28293, Indonesia. 4 Faculty Science and
Mathematics, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Perak, Malaysia. ✉email: [email protected]

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C
Introduction
hanging curriculum content and instructional styles in solving (Schoenfeld, 1983, 2007). Productive metacognitive
teaching and learning processes for regular mathematics behaviors can help students better understand the given problem,
classes is critical to promote more meaningful engagement search for and distinguish relevant and irrelevant information,
with mathematics (Schoenfeld, 2016). A shift to searching for and focus on the overall structure of the problem (Kramarski
solutions, exploring patterns, and formulating conjectures rather et al., 2002). These behaviors can lead to improved understanding
than simply memorizing procedures and formulas or completing and problem-solving abilities. Although the benefits of meta-
exercises can lead to deeper understanding and more versatile cognition to learning are widely recognized, there is limited
problem-solving skills. Incorporating mathematical modeling research on the specific types of metacognitive strategies that are
into classroom activities by engaging students in authentic most effective in helping students (Wilson and Clarke, 2004).
problem-solving within complex systems and interdisciplinary Future research should focus on identifying these strategies and
contexts can help develop the competencies to tackle increasingly understanding how they can best be used in educational settings
complex problems. Mathematical modeling can strengthen to improve students’ mathematical modeling and problem-
problem-solving skills and connect mathematics to real-world solving abilities. This research could include exploring the most
situations, making it relevant to students’ current and future lives effective methods for teaching metacognitive skills, examining
(Hidayat and Wardat, 2023). The importance of mathematical how metacognition can be tailored to individual student needs,
modeling is further underscored by its inclusion as a primary and examining the impact of metacognitive interventions on
component in the mathematics assessment of the Program for student modeling performance. Thus, this study aimed to inves-
International Student Assessment (PISA) (Niss, 2015). Students tigate how the sub-dimensions of metacognition can predict
can tackle non-routine real-life challenges by engaging in mod- modeling performance. The study questions are as follows: (a) Do
eling activities and working collaboratively on realistic and the sub-constructs of metacognition (awareness, cognitive strat-
authentic mathematical tasks. However, traditional instructional egy, planning, and self-checking) predict horizontal mathemati-
methods for assessing student modeling proficiency are inade- zation? (b) Do the sub-constructs of metacognition (awareness,
quate. This information underscores the need for improved cognitive strategy, planning, and self-checking) predict vertical
methods of evaluation that capture the full range of students’ mathematization?
modeling abilities and the development of their problem-solving
skills. Educators should consider incorporating alternative
assessment methods such as project-based assessments, perfor- Theoretical perspective
mance tasks, or reflective journals to better assess student mod- Models and modeling perspective (MMP). The term ‘model’ is a
eling skills. In addition, professional development opportunities collection of elements, connections between elements, and actions
for teachers to learn effective strategies for integrating mathe- that describe or explain how the elements interact (English, 2007;
matical modeling into their instruction can contribute to more Lesh and Doerr, 2003). Modeling exercises allow students to
successful implementation and assessment of these skills. reveal their multiple forms of reasoning, create conceptual fra-
Mathematical modeling is a multifaceted skill beyond solving meworks, and develop effective ways to represent the structural
real-world problems (Mohd Saad et al., 2023; Niss et al., 2007). As features of the topic (Carreira and Baioa, 2018). Models and
Minarni and Napitupulu (2020) point out, students can apply Modeling Perspective (MMP), also known as contextual model-
modeling abilities to describe context problems mathematically, ing (Kaiser and Sriraman, 2006), is considered a method to
organize tools, discover relationships, transfer between real-world understand real-life situations and develop formal mathematical
and mathematical problems, and visualize problems in various knowledge based on students’ understanding (Csapó and Funke,
ways. In modeling real-world problems, students activate other 2017; Lesh and Doerr, 2003). Students must move from a real-
competencies, such as representing mathematical objects, world situation to a mathematical world using their previously
arguing, and justifying (National Council of Teachers of learned mathematical concepts as a modeling tool that goes
Mathematics, 1989). Engaging in mathematical modeling in the beyond calculational prescriptions (Sevinc, 2022) and learning
classroom helps students clarify and interpret phenomena, solve theories (Abassian et al., 2019). Moreover, MMP considers the
problems, and develop social competencies necessary for effective mathematical model as a conceptual tool of a mathematical sys-
teamwork and collaborative knowledge building. Mathematical tem that emerges from a specific real-world situation (Lesh and
modeling instruction aims to improve students’ mathematical Lehrer, 2003). In brief, MMP is a new concept that incorporates
knowledge, promote critical and creative thinking, and foster real-world context into the teaching and learning of mathematical
positive attitudes toward mathematics (Blum, 2002). Cognitive problem-solving because MMP prepares students to be mentally
modeling combined with task orientation is more effective in active in modeling. An important feature of MMP is the recog-
increasing the likelihood of success. In high school curricula, nition that problem-solving typically involves numerous model-
students can connect mathematical modeling to different courses, ing cycles in which descriptions, explanations, and predictions are
reinforcing the importance of this skill in different contexts continuously refined. In contrast, solutions are modified or dis-
(Hernández et al., 2016). Integrating mathematical modeling into carded depending on their interpretation of the world.
different subject areas can help students develop a comprehensive Students will use their internal conceptual systems to organize,
understanding of the relevance and applicability of mathematics understand, and make connections between events, experiences,
in real-world situations, ultimately leading to better problem- or issues (Erbas et al., 2014) to adapt to MMP. Student learning
solving abilities and an appreciation for the power of mathema- through the use of MMP will also facilitate communication
tical thinking. between peers and teachers through project-based learning or
Numerous studies have shown that mathematical modeling is problem-based learning (Ärlebäck, 2017) as they practice solving
challenging for many students (Anhalt et al., 2018; Corum and authentic problem situations by engaging in mathematical
Garofalo, 2019; Czocher, 2017; Kannadass et al., 2023). Meta- thinking that involves interpreting situations, describing and
cognitive competencies improve students’ modeling abilities explaining, computing through procedures, and deductive
(Galbraith, 2017; Vorhölter, 2019; Wendt et al., 2020). Meta- reasoning (English et al., 2008). MMP summarizes a cycle of
cognition, the ability to reflect on and regulate one’s thinking, can activities that, in the first step, requires students to understand the
significantly impact expert and student success in problem- real-world situation, followed by structuring the situation model,

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mathematizing to develop a mathematical model, and collaborat- problem into mathematical language using appropriate notations
ing mathematical models to develop results that are considered or visual representations (Kaiser and Stender, 2013). This study
and validated within the real-world situation, and finally defines horizontal mathematization as simplifying assumptions,
presenting a solution to a real-world situation. clarifying the objective, formulating the problem, assigning
variables, establishing parameters and constants, formulating
mathematical expressions, and selecting a model (Yilmaz and
Mathematical modeling and mathematization. Modeling is also Dede, 2016).
known as organizing representative descriptions in which sym- Vertical mathematization occurs after the problem has been
bolic representations and formal model structures develop translated into a mathematical representation through horizontal
(Hidayat et al., 2018; Niss, 2015). According to the South African mathematization. In this phase, students work within the domain
Department of Basic Education (2011), mathematical modeling is of mathematics to solve the problem by using mathematical
an important curriculum focus, and real-world situations should techniques, calculations, proofs, or manipulations. Vertical
be included in all areas, such as economics, health, social services, mathematization is about delving deeper into mathematical
and others. Mathematical modeling is a process of mathemati- concepts, exploring connections, and gaining new insights. The
zation or mathematization in which students can discover rele- focus here is on applying mathematical knowledge and reasoning
vant issues or assumptions in a given real-world scenario by to find a solution to the problem. Vertical mathematization refers
mathematizing, interpreting, and evaluating solutions to resulting to exploring the realm of formal symbols (Selter and Walter,
mathematical problems related to the given circumstance (Leong 2019). Vertical mathematization also refers to the mathematical
and Tan, 2020). The mathematization method can be applied as a processing and improvement of real-world problems transformed
series of activities directed toward the activity system object, with into mathematics (Treffers and Goffree, 1985). Learners apply
the goal of the modeling project serving as the activity object itself their mathematical knowledge or intuitive procedures to solve the
(Araújo and Lima, 2020). Students with mathematical skills can problem within the framework of the mathematical model (Maaß,
acquire mathematical knowledge through logical reasoning using 2006). This model may involve calculations, manipulations, or
problem-solving. Formal mathematical information is obtained proof to derive a mathematical solution. Once a mathematical
during the mathematization process by referring to informal solution is found, students must interpret the results in the context
knowledge, including components of actual problem situations of the original problem (Garfunkel and Montgomery, 2016). To
(Freudenthal, 2002). Mathematical modeling can be divided into do this interpretation, they must understand the relationship
many tasks: simplifying, mathematizing, computing, interpreting, between the mathematical solution and the real-world situation
and validating. When students are proficient in the modeling and place the solution in terms of the problem’s context. The final
process, they can independently and insightfully perform all step is to review the solution for accuracy and critically evaluate
components of a mathematical modeling process (Hankeln et al., the assumptions made, the model used, and the overall process
2019), with the focus of the competencies being on identifying (Kaiser and Stender, 2013). Students must determine if their
specific fundamental capabilities. solution is reasonable and sensible and if improvements or
A mathematical model is created using mathematization changes can be made to the model or assumptions. This paper
(Yilmaz and Dede, 2016). The concept of mathematization defines vertical mathematization as interpreting, validating, and
involves using mathematical methods to organize and examine relating the result to a real-world context.
various aspects of reality. The idea of the mathematization of
actual reality is formulated in two forms of mathematization
(Treffers, 1978; Treffers and Goffree, 1985), namely horizontal Metacognition. Metacognition encompasses two aspects: the
and vertical mathematization. Horizontal and vertical mathema- capacity to recognize and understand one’s cognitive processes
tization are complementary processes in mathematical modeling (referred to as metacognitive knowledge) and the ability to
and problem-solving (Freudenthal, 1991). The process of manage and adapt these processes (known as metacognitive
horizontal mathematization begins with understanding the control) (Fleur et al., 2021). This study must consider metacog-
problem and extends to problem-solving (Galbraith, 2017). nition because modeling issues are typically worked on in small
Horizontal mathematization involves translating real-world groups (Biccard and Wessels, 2011). Metacognition includes
problems into mathematical representations, while vertical students’ understanding of their cognitive processes and their
mathematics involves working within mathematics to solve the capability to regulate and manipulate them (Kwarikunda et al.,
problem. Both processes are important for students to develop a 2022). Metacognition is the knowledge or cognitive activity that
comprehensive understanding of mathematics and its applica- targets or controls any component of a cognitive effort (Flavell,
tions in real-world situations. Horizontal mathematization refers 1979); for example, students use metacognition to solve issues
to translating a real-world problem into a mathematical problem while studying. Students must manage their cognitive processes
or representation. Students identify relevant mathematical during learning so that their learning achievement be measured
structures, concepts, and relationships related to the given afterward (Bedel, 2012). Metacognition is often divided into two
problem in this phase. They may simplify the problem by parts: metacognitive knowledge and techniques, which are often
making assumptions, recognizing patterns, or constructing a complemented by an affective-motivational aspect (Efklides,
model. Horizontal mathematization aims to create a mathema- 2008; Veenman et al., 2006). Planning cognitive activities, mon-
tical representation that captures the essence of the real-world itoring progress toward goals, selecting methods to solve diffi-
situation and can be analyzed using mathematical tools. culties, and reflecting on past performance to improve future
Simplification is about understanding the core problem and outcomes are all examples of metacognitive techniques (Kim and
using mathematics to construct a model based on reality (Kaiser Lim, 2019). Furthermore, O’Neil and Abedi (1996) operationalize
and Schwarz, 2006). Students must be able to clarify the essential students’ metacognitive inventory as a construct that includes
elements of the situation, formulate the problem, and create a planning, self-checking, cognitive strategy, and awareness.
simplified version that can be analyzed mathematically. A further Metacognition is understanding how individuals gain informa-
step is to identify relevant mathematical concepts, variables, and tion and manage the process (Schraw and Dennison, 1994).
relationships that capture the essence of the real situation Metacognitive abilities have a significant impact on student
(mathematization). Students must be able to translate the learning and performance. They enable students to identify areas

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of difficulty and select appropriate learning strategies to under- (Herawaty et al., 2018). This finding highlights the link between
stand new concepts. Metacognition has been found to improve metacognition and modeling abilities such as awareness, self-
students’ problem-solving abilities (García et al., 2016). However, checking, planning, and cognitive strategy. By using planning
metacognitive skills differ among students with varying levels of techniques, students can improve their problem-solving abilities,
modeling competence, with some putting little effort into for example, through verbalization (Zhang et al., 2019). Although
organizing or expressing knowledge differences (García et al., the transfer of metacognitive knowledge to mathematical
2016). Students with high levels of modeling competence tend to modeling is modest, using planning and revision procedures still
pay more attention to time management, which may contribute contributes positively to student success. The sub-dimension of
to their success in problem-solving tasks. Interestingly, metacog- monitoring can predict a student’s engagement in a discussion
nitive training is particularly beneficial for lower-performing (Akman and Alagöz, 2018). Using cognitive strategies during the
students because it allows them to improve while working on the formulation phase of the modeling process provides a sense of
same tasks as their peers (Karaali, 2015). This finding suggests guidance (Krüger et al., 2020). Awareness of metacognition and
that metacognitive instruction can help level the playing field for using metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, and
students with different abilities and allow all learners to develop revising are essential to improve students’ problem-solving and
their problem-solving skills more effectively. In summary, mathematical modeling abilities. Educators should aim to
metacognition is critical in mathematics and affects students’ incorporate metacognitive strategies into their teaching methods
abilities differently. Educators should integrate metacognitive to support the development of these skills in students.
training into their instructional practices to support all learners Metacognition has been recognized as critical for solving
and help them develop self-awareness, reflection, and regulation complicated tasks, such as modeling tasks (Wilson and Clarke,
skills to benefit their mathematical problem-solving efforts. 2004). Individuals can cultivate a more methodical and
comprehensive approach to horizontal mathematization by
integrating the sub-constructs of metacognition (awareness,
Relationship between metacognition and modeling compe- planning, self-checking, and cognitive strategies). For example,
tency. Metacognition can help with goal-oriented modeling and horizontal mathematization is enhanced by providing students
overcoming various challenges (Stillman, 2004), depending on with useful tools and tactics for planning, analyzing, and solving
students’ knowledge and experience. The success of metacognitive modeling tasks through awareness, planning, self-checking, and
activity can be attributed to students’ responses to specific cognitive strategies. Students can recognize mathematical patterns
problem-solving scenarios that can activate metacognition and structures within a modeling task when they know the
(Vorhölter, 2021). Metacognition is an essential method asso- relevance and use of mathematics in everyday situations. Creating
ciated with mathematical proficiency and problem-solving skills. a plan allows students to break difficult tasks into manageable
Teachers can help students develop appropriate individual tech- parts. Students can be disciplined and avoid errors or omissions
niques for dealing with modeling challenges and various meta- by setting goals, outlining necessary mathematical operations,
cognitive activities, such as mathematizing across different and choosing a sequence of tasks. Cognitive techniques enable
circumstances and environments (Blum, 2011). Mathematizing is effective information processing, allow students to connect
a horizontally sequential process of translating parts of the real different mathematical ideas, and promote creative thinking
world into the language of symbols and abstracting in a vertical when solving modeling tasks. Finally, self-checking promotes
direction (Freudenthal, 2002). The mathematization process is error detection and correction, leading to a better understanding
horizontal mathematization because it requires the learner to of mathematical ideas. At the same time, the sub-constructs of
transform real life into mathematical symbols. Horizontal metacognition (awareness, planning, self-checking, and cognitive
mathematization leads to results based on different problem- strategies) would help enhance vertical mathematization skills.
solving strategies and the concrete problem case (Gravemeijer, For example, students can identify the relevant mathematical
2008). The process of horizontal mathematization focuses pri- relationships and structures needed to build a mathematical
marily on organizing, schematizing, and constructing a model of model by improving their awareness. To fulfill this aim, they must
reality so that it can be treated mathematically (Piñero Charlo, recognize the mathematical concepts and principles that apply to
2020). Horizontal mathematization is highlighted as a learning the current real-world problem. Again, the objectives are set in
difficulty in an instructional strategy where teachers do not the planning phase, variables and parameters are selected, and the
recognize horizontal mathematization as a learning problem mathematical operations and transformations are described. The
(Yvain-Prébiski and Chesnais, 2019), and students also have problem is analyzed using cognitive techniques, and the
difficulty discovering connections and transferring real-world mathematical solution is found through reasoning, pattern
problems to known mathematical models. Changing models, recognition, and visualization. Finally, self-validation assures that
merging and defining a connection in a formula, and improving the mathematical model is accurate and reliable. Students can
and integrating models are challenges of vertical mathematization locate any errors or inconsistencies and correct them by
(Suaebah et al., 2020). Real-world modeling activities that pro- examining and checking the model frequently.
mote the horizontal mathematization process can help students
experience mathematics as a value by strengthening their Hypotheses. The hypotheses of the research are as follows:
understanding and tangible connection between mathematics and
the effort expended, i.e., by improving their metacognition skills i. Significant relationships will occur between awareness and
(Suh et al., 2017). horizontal mathematization.
Awareness of metacognition is critical in developing and ii. Significant relationships will occur between cognitive
improving students’ problem-solving skills. Studies have shown a strategy and horizontal mathematization.
significant positive correlation between metacognition awareness iii. Significant relationships will occur between planning and
and problem-solving abilities (Sevgi and Karakaya, 2020). horizontal mathematization.
Effective mathematical problem-solving is also associated with iv. Significant relationships will occur between self-checking
planning and revision techniques (García et al., 2019). Students and horizontal mathematization.
can improve their problem-solving skills through self-reflection v. Significant relationships will occur between awareness and
on planning, monitoring, and evaluating their thinking processes vertical mathematization.

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Fig. 1 The examples of horizontal mathematization test.

vi. Significant relationships will occur between cognitive indicating good discriminant validity. At the same time, the
strategy and vertical mathematization. square roots of all AVE values were larger than the associations
vii. Significant relationships will occur between planning and suggested among them or to the left of them, which underlined
vertical mathematization. the discriminant validity of the mathematical modeling test. All
viii. Significant relationships will occur between self-checking these values were consistent with the recommendations of
and vertical mathematization. researchers (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010; Nunnally
and Bernstein, 1994), which were satisfactory.
The metacognitive inventory (O’Neil and Abed, 1996) was
Methodology adopted for measuring metacognition, which comprised four sub-
Participants and design. This study used a correlational research scales: awareness (5 items), cognitive strategy (5 items), planning
design (Creswell, 2012; Shanmugam and Hidayat, 2022), which (5 items), and self-checking (5 items). The example of the item
explores the level of interrelation between metacognition and for each sub-contract provided (awareness; I am always aware of
mathematical modeling using structural equation modeling my thoughts in modeling task), (cognitive strategy; I am trying to
(SEM). The current study sample consisted of college students find the main idea in the modeling task), (planning; I am trying to
studying mathematics education in Riau Province, Indonesia, understand the purpose of the modeling task before attempting to
with similar modeling experiences. These students were pro- solve it) and (self-checking; If I notice any mistakes while working
spective mathematics teachers who were prepared to teach on the modeling task, I always correct them). Reliability scores for
mathematics at the secondary level. First-year (133 or 24.7%), metacognition followed the sub-constructs of awareness
second-year (223 or 41.4%), and third-year (182 or 33.8%) stu- (α = 0.825), cognitive strategy (α = 0.853), planning (α = 0.842),
dents participated in the study, with a total of 538 samples. The and self-checking (α = 0.828). These overall reliability values were
fourth-year study samples were not included due to practical acceptable (α > 0.70) (Tavakol and Dennick, 2011). The internal
exercises. All participants were selected using cluster random consistency of the metacognitive inventory was high, with
sampling from universities with similar characteristics such as composite reliability values (CR) ranging from 0.775 to 0.925
location and modeling experience. We used this type of sampling (>0.6). The value of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
because this research focused on groups rather than individuals, ranged from 0.500 to 0.526 (>0.5), indicating good discriminant
which resulted in students coming from selected universities to validity. The square roots of all AVE values were higher than the
take the test. Although the current research found that the per- associations suggested among them or to the left of them,
centage of gender resulted in more female (483 or 89.8%) than underlining the discriminant validity of the metacognition scale.
male (55 or 10.2%) samples, we did not use gender as a mod- These values were consistent with what researchers proposed
erator or covariate for analyzing the data. The Department of (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010; Nunnally and
Investment and Integrated One Stop Services, Indonesia, Bernstein, 1994), which were satisfactory.
approved the study. Subsequently, all selected samples received
written informed consent. We explained the study’s objectives
and the voluntary nature of participation before the test was Strategy of data analyses. In the first analysis, we used descriptive
administered. All students from the selected universities took statistics for all sub-constructs with missing data, outliers (box-
60 min to complete the metacognitive inventory instrument and plots), means, standard deviations, skewness, and kurtosis. At the
the mathematical modeling test. same time, the relationships between latent variables were cal-
culated using Pearson correlations to determine multicollinearity.
Measures. To measure mathematical modeling competence, we According to Kline (2005), the relationship between the latent
developed and used the Modeling Test (Haines and Crouch, variables should be less than 0.900 for the observed variables to be
2001), which we divided into two sub-constructs: horizontal and free from multicollinearity. For the cut-off value of univariate
vertical mathematization. The items were assessed by multiple- normality, we used skewness (±2.0) (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013)
choice questions with a three-level scoring (0=wrong answer, and kurtosis (±8.0) (Kline, 2005) in this paper. Then, SEM
1=partially correct answer, and 2=true answer). The modeling (AMOS version 18.0) was used to evaluate the hypothesized
test had 22 questions and a final score of 44. Moreover, the test is model. First, we calculated a measurement model (Confirmatory
also suitable for this study because the study included a large Factor Analyzes—CFA) for each variable to test whether or not
sample (Lingefjärd and Holmquist, 2005). Figure 1 shows one of the dimensional structures of the instruments could be confirmed
the examples of measuring horizontal mathematization. for the sample in the present study. For the construct of meta-
Reliability scores for modeling competence followed the sub- cognition, we assessed awareness models, cognitive strategy,
construct: horizontal mathematization (18 items, α = 0.861) and planning, and self-checking sequentially. The following mea-
vertical mathematization (4 items, α = 0.740). These overall surement model assessed two-dimensional modeling competence
reliability values were acceptable (α > 0.70) (Tavakol and (horizontal and vertical mathematization). Next, we set up the
Dennick, 2011). The internal consistency of the mathematical hypothetical model to test the effect of the sub-dimensions of
modeling test was good, with composite reliability values (CR) metacognition on mathematical modeling (horizontal and vertical
ranging from 0.775 to 0.925 (> 0.6). The value of the Average mathematization). Model fit was assessed using the standardized
Variance Extracted (AVE) ranged from 0.500 to 0.501 ( > 0.5), root mean residual (SRMR) (<0.080), chi-square values (P > 0.05),

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Table 1 Descriptive outputs.

Constructs Sub-constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6
Metacogntion 1. Awareness 1 0.677 0.583 0.593 0.616 0.476
2. Cognitive strategy 1 0.633 0.567 0.645 0.522
3. Planning 1 0.634 0.634 0.500
4. Self-checking 1 0.617 0.530
Modeling competency 5. Horizontal mathematization 1 0.342
6. Vertical mathematization 1
Skewness −0.133 −0.658 −0.124 −0.154 0.095 0.195
Kurtosis 0.842 2.343 0.087 0.106 0.032 −0.670
Mean 3.940 3.737 3.951 3.910 0.914 0.848
Standard deviation 0.552 0.668 0.584 0.637 0.331 0.523

comparative fit index (CFI) (>0.950), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) Table 2 Examination of the measurement model.
(>0.950), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)
(<0.080) (Bandalos and Finney, 2018; Dash and Paul, 2021), and
Goodness- Measurement Results
the goodness-of-fit index (>0.900) (Dash and Paul, 2021). SRMR
of-fit standard
was determined by taking the average of the residuals from the Metacognition Modeling
comparison of the observed and implied matrices (Bandalos and competency
Finney, 2018). The chi-square test assessed the discrepancy χ2 P > 0.05 325.454 261.077
between the observed sample data and the covariance matrices χ2/df <5.00 1.984 1.305
within the model. CFI and TLI compare the goodness of fit of a RMSEA <0.080 0.043 0.024
model to that of a null or independent model. Finally, to assess SRMR <0.080 0.036 0.041
the discriminant validity, reliability, and convergent validity of CFI >0.950 0.965 0.975
the measures, we used the composite reliability (CR) (>0.60), GFI >0.900 0.955 0.958
Cronbach’s alpha values (0.60–0.70), and average variance TLI >0.950 0.959 0.971
extracted (AVE) (>0.50).

CFI = 0.965, GFI = 0.955, TLI = 0.959 (Table 2). Moreover, the
Results
measurement model of mathematical modeling competency also
Descriptive results. Table 1 shows the descriptive results and revealed that two sub-constructs indicated an adequate fit of the
correlation matrix for the sub-construct of metacognition model to the data; χ2 = 261.077, χ2/df = 1.305, RMSEA = 0.024,
(awareness, cognitive strategy, planning, and self-checking) and SRMR = 0.041, CFI = 0.975, GFI = 0.958, TLI = 0.971. Despite
the sub-construct of modeling competency (horizontal and ver- the significance of the chi-square result, χ²/df, RMSEA, SRMR,
tical mathematization). CFI, GFI, and TLI recommended that the a priori model had an
As indicated in Table 1, the highest relationship was between adequate factor structure.
awareness and cognitive strategy (r = 0.677), while horizontal and Factor loading and coefficient of SEM regression are shown in
vertical mathematization (r = 0.342) were the lowest correlated. Table 3. All factor loadings from sub-constructs of horizontal
Again, the students’ awareness, cognitive strategy, planning, and mathematization (around 0.617–0.837), vertical mathematization
self-checking were moderate (M = 3.940, M = 3.737, M = 3.951, (from 0.660 to 0.703), awareness (around 0.662–0.738), cognitive
M = 3.910, respectively). The skewness score ranged between strategy (from 0.770 to 0.758), planning (around 0.660–0.757)
−0.658 and −0.124 ( ± 2.0), while the kurtosis values ranged and self-checking (from 0.662 to 0.760), were significant. Each
between 0.087 and 2.343 ( ± 8.0). The outputs indicated that no item within every sub-construct exhibited statistically significant
values exceeded the cut-off score for all of the four sub-constructs factor loadings (P < 0.001), affirming the correlation among items
(Kline, 2005; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), which was normally for each sub-construct. The standardized estimate for factor
distributed. At the same time, the students’ horizontal and loading indicated that all items had factor loadings greater than
vertical mathematization were also moderate (M = 0.914, 0.50, which surpassed the desired criteria (Hair et al., 2010).
M = 0.848, respectively). The skewness score ranged between
0.095 and 0.195 ( ± 2.0), while the kurtosis scores ranged between
−0.670 and 0.032 ( ± 8.0). The results showed that no scores Testing the hypothesized models. Similar to the examining
exceeded the cut-off score for the two sub-constructs (Kline, measurement model, some cut-off scores were also applied for
2005; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), which was normally each measurement to evaluate the hypothesized model; χ2/df <
distributed. 5.00, RMSEA < 0.080, SRMR < 0.080, CFI > 0.950, GFI > 0.900,
TLI > 0.950. The results of SEM indicated a highly satisfactory fit
to data, χ2 = 1163.570, χ2/df = 1.460, RMSEA = 0.029,
Measurement models. The measurement model was employed to SRMR = 0.043, CFI = 0.950, GFI = 0.908, TLI = 0.950 (see Fig. 2).
confirm that observed variables reflected unobserved variables The hypothesized model shown in Fig. 2 was the final structural
before evaluating the hypothetical structural model. We model that indicated the relationship between the sub-construct of
employed CFA to measure the fitness of the latent variables of metacognition and mathematical modeling competency. The
metacognition (20 indicators) and mathematical modeling com- parameter estimates for whole structural paths in the hypothesized
petency (22 indicators). The outputs of maximum likelihood model were statistically significant.
estimation revealed that the measurement model of metacogni- Next, Table 4 shows detailed statistics on the final model (e.g.,
tion for the four sub-constructs indicated an acceptable match; standardized estimate, unstandardized estimate, standard errors,
χ2 = 325.454, χ2/df = 1.984, RMSEA = 0.043, SRMR = 0.036, CR, and P value).

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Table 3 Factor loadings of variables. significant [β = 0.27, P < 0.05, t = 2.138]. Students who used self-
checking accomplished well in vertical mathematization. In
conclusion, cognitive strategy (26%), planning (23%), and self-
Construct Sub-construct Item Factor P
checking (23%) accounted for a variance for horizontal mathema-
loading
tization; at the same time, self-checking (27%) accounted for a
Modeling Horizontal Q1 0.700 *** variance for vertical mathematization.
competency mathematization Q2 0.837 ***
Q3 0.632 ***
Q4 0.751 ***
Q5 0.712 *** Discussion
Q6 0.700 *** Integrating mathematical modeling across subject areas can give
Q7 0.623 *** students a more meaningful and context-rich understanding of
Q8 0.700 *** mathematics. Numerous studies have shown that many students
Q9 0.700 *** find mathematical modeling difficult and complex (Anhalt et al.,
Q10 0.744 *** 2018; Corum and Garofalo, 2019; Czocher, 2017). For example,
Q11 0.637 *** some students have difficulty translating real-world problems into
Q12 0.636 *** mathematical terms, while others have difficulty finding appro-
Q13 0.627 *** priate mathematical models to represent complex systems and
Q14 0.617 *** phenomena. This study aimed to examine whether the different
Q15 0.678 ***
sub-dimensions of metacognition could be used to predict a
Q16 0.708 ***
Q17 0.700 ***
student’s level of competency in modeling.
Q18 0.622 *** We found no significant or positive relationship between
Vertical Q19 0.700 *** awareness and horizontal or vertical mathematization. Despite
mathematization Q20 0.660 *** numerous studies that do not support the finding of a significant
Q21 0.670 *** and positive relationship between these variables (Kreibich et al.,
Q22 0.703 *** 2022; Sevgi and Karakaya, 2020; Toraman et al., 2020), previous
Metacognition Awareness A1 0.700 *** research has primarily focused on metacognitive awareness rather
A5 0.662 *** than the sub-domain of awareness within metacognition. Indeed,
A11 0.738 *** much of the research in mathematics education has focused on
A16 0.684 *** problem-solving and not specifically on the context of mathe-
A20 0.700 *** matical modeling. This focus on problem-solving has led to
Cognitive strategy C2 0.714 ***
valuable insights into how students learn, think, and apply
C7 0.717 ***
C10 0.775 ***
mathematical concepts. However, certain aspects of mathematical
C15 0.758 *** modeling may have been less explored or understood in the
C17 0.700 *** process. One possible explanation could be insufficient mathe-
Planning P3 0.660 *** matical knowledge in mathematical modeling. Leong (2014)
P4 0.716 *** indicated that incorporating mathematical modeling into the
P8 0.731 *** curriculum may face challenges, including teacher readiness, time
P13 0.757 *** constraints, and educator dispositions. The extent of a student’s
P18 0.729 *** mathematical understanding can influence the connection
Self-checking S6 0.760 *** between awareness and horizontal or vertical mathematization.
S9 0.638 *** Students who do not have the requisite mathematical foundations
S14 0.735 *** may have difficulty making connections or applying problem-
S19 0.662 ***
solving techniques, regardless of their level of awareness. For
S12 0.715 ***
example, increased awareness can help students identify relevant
***Significant. information, recognize patterns and relationships, develop
appropriate assumptions, select mathematical tools, and reflect on
their modeling process.
As appeared in Table 4, the direct path coefficient was significant: Our results show a positive and significant correlation
(a) cognitive strategy → horizontal mathematization [β = 0.26, between cognitive strategy and horizontal mathematization;
P < 0.05, t = 2.535], (b) planning → horizontal mathematization however, no significant relationship was found between cog-
[β = 0.23, P < 0.05, t = 2.369], (c) self-checking → horizontal nitive strategy and vertical mathematization. This result con-
mathematization [β = 0.23, P < 0.05, t = 2.470]. The hypothesis firms previous research in this area (Hidayat et al., 2020, 2022;
was fully accepted. Students who used cognitive strategy, planning, Krüger et al., 2020). This observation can be attributed to the
and self-checking accomplished well in horizontal mathematization. complexity of the tasks. Horizontal mathematization involves
Conversely, the direct path coefficient of awareness to horizontal translating real-world problems into mathematical representa-
mathematization was insignificant [β = 0.17, P > 0.05, t = 1.685]. tions, whereas vertical mathematization involves working
Thus, the hypothesis was not fully supported. It implied that within the domain of mathematics to solve problems. Cognitive
awareness alone might not strongly predict success in horizontal strategies, such as organizing information, recognizing patterns,
mathematization. At the same time, the direct path coefficient was and selecting appropriate tools, may be more applicable to
not significant: (a) cognitive strategy → vertical mathematization horizontal mathematization. This result is consistent with
[β = 0.24, P > 0.05, t = 1.763], (b) planning → vertical mathema- Krüger et al.‘s (2020) view that using cognitive strategies pro-
tization [β = 0.15, P > 0.05, t = 1.180], (c) awareness → vertical vides direction in the formulation phase of the modeling pro-
mathematization [β = 0.08, P > 0.05, t = 0.635]. It showed that cess. Conversely, in vertical mathematization, tasks may be
awareness, cognitive strategy, and planning alone may not strongly more complex or abstract and require higher mathematical
predict success in vertical mathematization. The direct path knowledge or skills. Vertical mathematization involves going
coefficient of self-checking → vertical mathematization was deeper into the mathematical domain, working with more

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Fig. 2 The final model.

abstract concepts, and using advanced problem-solving tech- mathematization. Another possible explanation is that students’
niques. Cognitive strategies typically focus on organizing, different cognitive styles may lead to different approaches to
planning, and selecting tools that may not be as influential in mathematization processes. Students with different cognitive
this more abstract and complex domain. Consequently, cogni- styles may lead different approaches to mathematization pro-
tive strategies alone may not be sufficient to influence vertical cesses (Mariani and Hendikawati, 2017).

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Table 4 Path analysis.

Hypothesis Unstandardized estimate Standardized estimate Std. error t value P Decision

Awareness → Horizontal mathematization 0.094 0.170 0.056 1.685 0.092 Not supported
Cognitive strategy → Horizontal 0.120 0.260 0.048 2.535 0.011 Supported
mathematization
Planning → Horizontal mathematization 0.122 0.230 0.052 2.369 0.018 Supported
Self-checking → Horizontal mathematization 0.110 0.230 0.044 2.470 0.014 Supported
Awareness → Vertical mathematization 0.040 0.080 0.064 0.635 0.526 Not supported
Cognitive strategy → Vertical mathematization 0.097 0.240 0.055 1.763 0.078 Not supported
Planning → Vertical mathematization 0.069 0.150 0.059 1.180 0.238 Not supported
Self-checking → Vertical mathematization 0.113 0.270 0.053 2.138 0.033 Supported

This research’s results indicate a significant and positive rela- of the solution and its relation to the real world, students can
tionship between planning and horizontal mathematization, but develop a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts and
no significant correlation was found between planning and ver- their applications. In addition, monitoring can help students stay
tical mathematization. This result is consistent with previous organized and focused as they work through a problem, reducing
research (García et al., 2019; Herawaty et al., 2018; Zhang et al., the likelihood of making mistakes or missing important details.
2019). In a horizontal mathematization context, verbalization can Research has shown that the sub-dimension of monitoring can
potentially explain this observation. Zhang et al. (2019) indicated predict student engagement in classroom discussions (Akman
that students can improve their problem-solving skills through and Alagöz, 2018).
planning strategies such as verbalization. Verbalization, i.e.,
talking about the problem and their thought processes, can also
Conclusion
help students clarify their thinking and identify possible errors or
Mathematical modeling involves applying mathematical concepts
inconsistencies in their reasoning. By breaking down complex
and techniques to real-world situations and requires students to
problems into smaller, more manageable steps, students can more
think critically, creatively, and systematically about problems.
easily understand the problem and develop an action plan for
Students need opportunities to engage in various tasks that
solving it. In horizontal mathematization, students must be able
require applying their mathematical knowledge to real-world
to analyze the problem, identify the most important variables and
situations and sufficient time to gain experience and develop their
relationships, and develop a plan to solve the problem using
skills. Metacognition plays an important role in mathematical
mathematical concepts and procedures. However, the sub-
modeling by helping students become more aware of their
domain of planning is not used effectively in vertical mathema-
thinking processes, monitor their understanding, and decide
tization. Vertical mathematization requires students to engage in
when to seek help or additional support. According to this
a more analytical and abstract form of thinking, which can be
research, awareness alone did not significantly impact horizontal
more challenging than the more concrete and tangible aspects of
mathematization. However, using cognitive techniques, making
horizontal mathematics. In addition, vertical mathematization
intelligent plans, and self-checking significantly improved hor-
often involves multiple mathematical concepts and procedures,
izontal mathematization. To improve learners’ horizontal
making it more challenging to plan a clear and effective problem-
mathematics skills, it is important to motivate them to use proper
solving strategy. Students may rely on trial-and-error methods or
cognitive methods, acquire efficient planning techniques, and
intuitive problem-solving approaches rather than explicit
develop the habit of self-checking. In addition, the results pave
planning.
the way for further research on the exact cognitive strategies,
Our study shows a significant positive correlation between self-
planning methods, and self-checking procedures that support
checking and horizontal and vertical mathematization. This result
effective horizontal mathematization. By analyzing how these
is consistent with previous studies conducted on this topic, such
variables interact and influence student performance, insights can
as those by Akman and Alagöz (2018), García et al. (2019), and
be gained into instructional strategies and interventions that
Herawaty et al. (2018). This consistency of results between studies
support successful mathematical modeling. Finally, these dis-
highlights the importance of self-checking or monitoring in
coveries improve our understanding of the intricate connection
mathematical modeling. One possible explanation for this con-
between metacognition and mathematical modeling. Awareness
sistent finding is that self-checking is beneficial for students to
may not directly affect horizontal mathematization, but cognitive
identify errors, ensure accuracy, and build confidence in their
techniques, planning, and self-checking are critical. The unique
mathematical abilities. Using self-checking techniques, students
processes and techniques associated with different types of
monitor their understanding and advancement as they work
mathematical modeling must also be considered, as demonstrated
through the problem. This monitoring can help them identify
by the differential effects on vertical mathematization. These
errors or misunderstandings early on and correct their thought
findings extend our theoretical understanding of the relationship
processes or methods accordingly. Self-checking can also help
between mastery of mathematical modeling, metacognitive pro-
students stay organized and focused as they solve the problem,
cesses, and specific cognitive skills.
reducing the chance of making mistakes or overlooking impor-
tant details. For example, modelers correctly identified the rele-
vant variables and relationships in the problem. Similarly, Limitations and suggestions
monitoring strategies can improve vertical mathematization by It is common for research studies to have limitations, and the
helping students stay organized and focused, reflecting on their current study is no exception. Acknowledging and considering
problem-solving approaches, and interpreting the outcomes of the study’s limitations in future research is essential. Firstly, some
their solutions. For example, monitoring or self-checking can help hypotheses are fully supported by the research findings, while
students interpret the results of their problem-solving efforts in others are not. It is possible that other factors, such as students’
the context of the original problem. By reflecting on the meaning prior mathematical knowledge and experience, their motivation

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and engagement in mathematical modeling, and the quality of perspectives on the teaching and learning of mathematical modelling, 1.
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to overcome obstacles to the teaching of modelling. In: Jankevist UT, van den
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Freudenthal Institute; ERME, p. 1284–1291
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