MBA 201 Business Research Methods

Authors

Dr. Parag Arun Narkhede

Associate Professor

KCES’s Institute of Management & Research, Jalgaon

[email protected]

Page 1 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon
(NACC Accredited ‘B’ Grade University)
FACULTY OF COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT
Paper: 201: Business Research Methods
Unit – I Basics of Research Methodology
1.1. Meaning, Objective, Importance & Types of Research,
1.2. Research Process
1.3. Managerial Value of Business Research

Unit – II Research Problem:

2.1. Importance of Formulation, Sources, Considerations in selecting research Problem,
steps in formulation, Factors of Problem Identification
2.2. Formulation of Objectives, Establishing operational definition,
2.3. Variable- Concept, types/classification, construct, Hypothesis: Meaning, Sources,
Importance & Types of Hypothesis, Literature Survey

Unit – III Research Design & Sampling Design

3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Types & Feature of Research Design, Factors Affecting
Research Design
3.2. Sampling Design: Sample, Sampling, Steps, Criterion of selecting sampling procedure,
3.3. Sampling Methods: Probability Sampling, Non-probability Sampling

Unit – IV Measurement & Scaling Technique

4.1. Scale characteristic, Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
4.2. Criterion for good Measurement: Validity, Reliability, Sensitivity
4.3. Scaling Techniques: Rating Scales, Ranking Scales.
4.4. Factors in selecting appropriate measurement scale

Unit – V Data Collection

5.1. Types & Sources of Data: Primary & Secondary
5.2. Methods of Primary Data Collection: Observation, Interview, Questionnaire,
Schedule, Schedule vs Questionnaire, Wording Questions, guidelines for constructing
questions.
Unit – VI Qualitative research:
6.1. Meaning, Uses of qualitative research, Qualitative vs Quantitative research,
Orientations: Phenomenology, Ethnography, Grounded theory, Case studies.
6.2. Techniques in qualitative research: Focus groups, Depth interviews, conversations,
semi-structured interviews, Social Networking, Observations, collages, Free
Association technique, projective techniques.
Unit – VII Testing of Hypotheses
7.1. Basic Concept Concerning Testing of Hypotheses, Procedure for Hypotheses Testing
7.2. Advanced Tools For Hypothesis Testing Using SPSS:

Page 2 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 7.2.1. Introduction to SPSS package, creating data files
7.2.2. Multiple Response sets, Recoding, visual binning etc.
7.2.3. Frequencies, Descriptive statistics, Chi square analysis & Cross Tabulation
7.2.4. One sample t- test, Independent sample t-test, Linear Correlation &
Regression
7.2.5. One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
7.2.6. Multivariate Data Analysis: Factor Analysis, Cluster analysis
(Numerical are not Expected in Exam)
Unit – VIII Interpretation & Report Writing
8.1. Interpretation: Meaning, Techniques,
8.2. Effective use of graphic aid: Tables, charts, pie charts, line graphs, bar charts,
8.3. Research Outline/proposal,
8.4. Research report writing,

Page 3 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [1]
Research Methodology
Basics of Research Methodology
1.1. Meaning, Objective, Importance & Types of Research,
1.2. Research Process
1.3. Managerial Value of Business Research

1.1.a. Meaning of Research

Word ‘Research’ is comprises of two words = Re + Search. It means to
search again. So, research in simple terms, refers to a search for knowledge. Research is
a logical, scientific and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic or issue. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a
discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The
information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings,
books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing
knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is
done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and
reasoning

Definition of Research

The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defines research as “a careful

investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”

Page 4 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension defined
research as "the manipulation of things, concept or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
practice of an art".

According to Redman and Mory, defined research is a "systematized effort to gain new
knowledge". It is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical
sense.

According to Clifford Woody research comprises "defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis".

R.M. Hutchins, Chancellor of the University of Chicago, in “The Higher Learning in

America” says, “Research in the sense of the development, elaboration, and refinement of
principles, together with the collection and use of empirical materials to aid in these processes, is
one of the highest activities of a university and one in which all its professors should be engaged.”

James Harvey Robinson defines research as “Research is but diligent search which enjoys
the high flavour or primitive hunting.”

J.H. McGrath and D.E. Watson have defined the term ‘Research’ more comprehensively.
“Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry employed as the
research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of stimulating progress and helping
society and man relate more efficiently and effectively to the problems that society and man
perpetuate and create.”

Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to

its further advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the methods of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In sum, research is the search for knowledge,
using objective and systematic methods to find solution to a problem.
For example, we know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health; heroine is addictive;
cow dung is a useful source of biogas; malaria is due to the virus protozoan
plasmodium; AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV
(Human Immuno deficiency Virus).

Page 5 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
1.1.B. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The objective of research is to discover answers to questions by applying scientific
procedures. It means to find out truth which is hidden and has not yet been
discovered. The prime objectives of research are -

1. To discover new facts

2. To verify and test important facts
3. To help making decisions
4. To find alternate strategies
5. To analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect
relationship
6. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand
scientific and nonscientific problems
7. To identify and find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems
and
8. To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.
9.

1.1.C. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

Research is important both in scientific and non-scientific fields. In our life new
problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically
implementable solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that
arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions,
explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and
natural phenomena.

Some important avenues for research are:

1. A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific

community or an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It
may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding
and possible solution.
2. Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and
applications of them.
3. It is the fountain of knowledge and provides guidelines for solving problems.

Page 6 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
4. Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the
needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs
helps a government to prepare a budget.
5. It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to
improve the quality of products.
6. Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems
in them.
7. It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things,
new stars, etc.
8. Only through research can inventions be made; for example, new and novel
phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been
discovered only through research.
9. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social
phenomena and seek solution to social problems.
10. Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.

USES OF RESEARCH
Some of the ways it can be used one to:
 Categorise. This involves forming a typology of objects, events or concepts, i.e.
a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can be sorted. This can be useful in
explaining which ‘things’ belong together and how.
 Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means of collecting
data. It attempts to examine situations in order to establish what is the norm, i.e.
what can be predicted to happen again under the same circumstances.
 Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed to deal with
complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting the facts’ in order to make
sense of the myriad other elements involved, such as human, political, social,
cultural and contextual.
 Evaluate. This involves making judgements about the quality of objects or
events. Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or on a comparative
basis. To be useful, the methods of evaluation must be relevant to the context
and intentions of the research.

Page 7 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
  Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to highlight
differences and similarities between them, leading to a better understanding of
phenomena.
 Correlate. The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to see
whether and how they influence each other. The relationship might be just a
loose link at one extreme or a direct link when one phenomenon causes another.
These are measured as levels of association.
 Predict. This can sometimes be done in research areas where correlations are
already known. Predictions of possible future behaviour or events are made on
the basis that if there has been a strong relationship between two or more
characteristics or events in the past, then these should exist in similar
circumstances in the future, leading to predictable outcomes.
 Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may be able to find
ways to control it. For this you need to know what the cause and effect
relationships are and that you are capable of exerting control over the vital
ingredients. All of technology relies on this ability to control.

One can combine two or more of these objectives in a research project, with sometimes
one objective needing to be successfully achieved before starting the next, for example
you usually need to be able to explain how something happens before we can work out
how to control it.

1.1. D. TYPES OF RESEARCH

C. R. Kothari classified different types of research. They are as follows:

Page 8 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
1) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research/ Ex post facto research comprise surveys and fact-finding

enquiries of different types. The main objective of descriptive research is describing the
state of affairs as it prevails at the time of study. The most distinguishing feature of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only
report what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research
projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine
phenomena, such as the consumers' preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc.
Despite the inability of the researchers to control the variables, descriptive studies may
also comprise attempts by them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The
methods of research adopted in conducting descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including correlational and comparative methods.

Meanwhile in the analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available
facts or information, and analyse them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.

2) Applied vs. Basic (Fundamental):

An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an

industry, a business organisation, or the society is known as applied research.
Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting
a concrete social or business problem. Fundamental research mainly concerns
generalizations and formulation of a theory. In Young’s word, "Gathering knowledge
for knowledge's sake is termed 'pure' or 'basic' research". Researches relating to pure
mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon are instances of fundamental
research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behaviour also fall under the category of
fundamental research. Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find
a solution to some pressing practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find
information with a broad base of application and add to the already existing organized
body of scientific knowledge.

TABLE 1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCHES.

Basic Research Applied research

Page 9 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 Seeks generalization Studies individual or specific
cases without the objective to
3) generalize

Aims at basic processes Aims at any variable which

makes the desired difference
Attempts to explain why Tries to say how things can be
changed
things happen
Tries to get all the facts Tries to correct the facts
which are problematic
Reports in technical language of Reports in common language
the topic

Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in

terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. The various
available statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research.
They include correlation, regressions, time series analysis, etc.

Whereas, qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, or more

specifically, the aspects relating to or involving quality or kind. For example, an
important type of qualitative research is 'Motivation Research', which investigates into
the reasons for human behaviour. The main aim of this type of research is discovering
the underlying motives and desires of human beings, using in-depth interviews. The
other techniques employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence
completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective methods.
Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioural sciences,
which aim at discovering the underlying motives of human behaviour. Such research
help to analyse the various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain
manner, besides contributing to an understanding of what makes individuals like or
dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that conducting qualitative
research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while undertaking such
research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is important.

4) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Page 10 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
A research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as conceptual research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for
reinterpreting the existing ones.

Empirical research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on observation or experience

with hardy any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based. They often
come up with conclusions that can be verified through experiment or observation. They
are also known as experimental type of research. Under such research, it is important
to first collect facts, their source and actively do certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first identify
a working hypothesis or make a guess of the probable results. Next, he/she gathers
sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated hypothesis. Then he/she formulates
experimental designs, which according to him/her would manipulate the individuals
or the materials concerned, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research
is thus characterized by the researcher's control over the variables used to study their
effects. Empirical research is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that
certain variables influence the other variables in some way. Therefore, the results
obtained using the experimental or empirical studies are considered as one of the most
powerful evidences for a given hypothesis.

5) Other types of research:

The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned
methods. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to complete
it, or based on some other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may either be in
the nature of onetime or longitudinal research. While the research is restricted to a single
time-period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-periods in the latter
case.

Depending upon the environment in which the research is to be conducted, it may also
be laboratory research or field-setting research, or simulation research, besides being
diagnostic or clinical in nature.

Under such research, in-depth approaches or case-study methods may be employed to

analyse the basic causal relations. These studies usually conduct a detailed in-depth

Page 11 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
analysis of the causes of things or events of interest, and use very small samples and a
sharp data collecting method.

The research may also be explanatory in nature. Formalized research studies consist of
substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be verified.

As regards historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc., are
utilized to study past events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups
of the past or any remote point of time.

Research is also categorized as decision-oriented and conclusion-oriented. In the case of

decision-oriented research, it is always carried out for the need of a decision maker and
hence, the researcher has no freedom to conduct the research as per his/her own desires.
Whereas, under conclusion-oriented research, the researcher is free to choose the
problem, redesign the enquiry as it progresses and even change conceptualization as
he/she wishes to.

Further, operations research is a kind of decision- oriented research, because it is a

scientific method which provides the executive departments a quantitative basis for
decision-making with respect to the activities under their purview.

1.2 RESEARCH METHODS VS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Methods and Research Methodology are two terms that are often confused as
one and the same. Strictly speaking they are not so and they show differences between
them.

“Methods are the vehicles and processes used to gather data.”

“Methodology is the rationale and philosophical assumptions underlying a particular

study rather than a collection of methods, though methodology leads to and informs the
methods.”

Research methods, therefore, are the means, the instruments or the tools a particular
investigator chooses to accumulate the information required to answer his research
question. We all have used at least one or more of these tools for our research projects.
These, for example, include questionnaires, interviews, medical records, or
audio/visual materials.

Page 12 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
On the other hand, research methodology, in simpler terms is the manner or the
approach the investigator adopts in answering his/her research question.

Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like. On the
other hand research methodology involves the learning of the various techniques that
can be used in the conduct of research and in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys
and critical studies.

1.3 RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process comprises a series of steps or actions required for effectively

conducting research and for the sequencing of these steps. The following are the various

steps that provide useful procedural guideline regarding the conduct research.

1. Formulating The Research Problem;

2. Literature Survey;
3. Hypothesis formulation;
4. Preparing The Research Design;
5. Sampling Design;
6. Data Collection;
7. Execution of The Project;
8. Analysis of Data;
9. Hypothesis Testing;
10. Generalization and Interpretation, And
11. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of the Results.

Page 13 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
1. Research problem Formulation: There are two types of research problems, viz., those

which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between

variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to

study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that

he would like to inquire into. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be

considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation

of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a

scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research

Page 14 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into

meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

2. Extensive literature survey: After problem formulation it is essential to get more

insight into the problem. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive

literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and

indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go

to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be

tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be

remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are

similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great

help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Hypotheses formulation: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in

clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative

assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.

As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly

important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in

which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data

which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of

working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and

limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the

hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him

on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important

facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods

of data analysis to be used.

Page 15 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear

cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have

to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation

of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal

information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the

collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

5. Sampling design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute

a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete consideration of all the items in the ‘population’

is known as a census inquiry.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known

as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined

before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.

Thus, the plan to select 12 of a city’s 200 grain merchants in a certain way constitutes a

sample design. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.

With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in

the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine

this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,

systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-

probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and

quota sampling techniques.

It may be pointed out here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that

bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is

considered desirable when the universe happens to be small and a known characteristic

of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under which sample designs

Page 16 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like convenience and

low costs.

The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the

nature of the inquiry and other related factors.

6. Data Collection: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at

hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are

appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ

considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the

researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the

researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or

the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But

in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation (ii) Through personal interview (iii) Through telephone interviews

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires (v) Through schedules

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into

consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial

resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the

research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be

collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project

is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means

of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation,

questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected

Page 17 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training

of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals

which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks

should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely

and efficiently.

If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be

designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-response

problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them,

and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

8. Analysis of data: The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations

such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data

through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data

should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further

analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable

categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories

of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the

procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is

ready for tabulation.

Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the

form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal

of data, specially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save

time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem

simultaneously.

Page 18 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various

percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In

the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with

original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with

what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a

position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support

the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should

be answered while testing hypotheses.

Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians

for the purpose, the researcher may use analytical software like SPSS, Analytics R-

software for hypothesis testing. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one

or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.

Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the

researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of

data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.

10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several

times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a

theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain

generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to

explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The

process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may

lead to further researches.

Page 19 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the

report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care

keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main

text, and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by

acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by

a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and

an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope

of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings

and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they

should be summarised.

(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and

broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the

results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end

of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,

i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index

should also be given specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding

vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

Page 20 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the

information more clearly and forcibly.

4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints

experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

1.4 MANAGERIAL VALUE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Orientation in business covers different dimensions, depending on the purpose it

serves. Different businesses apply different orientations, depending on their
individual goals and strategies to maximize Managerial value.

 There are Three business orientations:

 Product-oriented
 Production-oriented
 Marketing-oriented
Product Oriented Firm Example
Prioritizes decision making that The fashion industry makes
emphasizes the physical product clothes in styles and sizes that few
design, trendiness or technical can adopt.
superiority

Research focuses on technicians and experts in the field

Production-Oriented Firm Example

Prioritizes efficiency and Indian auto industry's assembly-
effectiveness of the production line process is intent on reducing
processes in making decisions costs of production as low as
possible.
Research focuses on line employees, engineers, accountants, and
other efficiency experts.
Marketing-Oriented Firm Example
Focuses on how the firm provides Well-known hotel chains are
value to customers designed to address the needs of
travelers, particularly business
travelers.
Research focuses on customers.

Page 21 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces uncertainty by
providing information that facilitates decision making about strategies and
the tactics used to achieve an organization is strategic goals. The decision-making
process involves three interrelated stages.

A. Identifying the existence of problems and opportunities. Before any strategy

can be developed, an organization must determine where it wants to go and how it
will get there. Business research can help managers plan strategies by determining
the nature of situations by identifying the existence of problems or
opportunities present in the organization.

B. Diagnosis and Assessment . After an organization recognizes a problem or

identifies a potential opportunity, an important aspect of business research is often
the provision of diagnostic information that clarifies the situation. Managers need
to gains insight about the underlying factors causing the situation. If there is a
problem they need to specify what happened and why. If an opportunity exists they
may need to explore, clarify, and refine the nature of the opportunity.

C. Selecting and implementing a course of action. Business research is often

conducted to obtain specific information to help evaluate the various alternatives,
and to select the best course of action based on certain performance criteria.

D. Evaluation of the course of action. Evaluation research is conducted to inform

managers whether planned activities were properly executed and whether they
accomplished what they were expected to do. It serves an evaluation and control
function. Evaluation research is a formal, objective appraisal that provides
information about objectives and whether the planned activities accomplished what
they were expected to accomplish. This can be done through performance-
monitoring research, which is a form of research that regularly provides feedback
for evaluation and control of business activity. If this research indicates things are
not going as planned, further research may be required to explain why something
went wrong.´

Page 22 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Unit – II Research Problem:
2.1. Importance of Formulation, Sources, Considerations in selecting research Problem,
steps in formulation, Factors of Problem Identification
2.2. Formulation of Objectives, Establishing operational definition,
2.3. Variable- Concept, types/classification, construct, Hypothesis: Meaning, Sources,
Importance & Types of Hypothesis, Literature Survey

2 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The problems lie everywhere around us. Human nature is so complicated, that a
problem solved for one individual may still exist for another individual, a problem
solved for one, still remains a problem for another or a problem solved for the time being
may reappear with a lapse of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems
i.e. we are so much surrounded by the problem that we suffer from, “problem
blindness”. But in order to solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the
problem.
Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is
the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is
wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or
statement of the problem.
It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from
different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem,
but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active
involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.
Definitions of the Problem:
Different researcher diefines the problem differently, some of them are summarized as
below-
“Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.”
John Geoffery
“Problem is a question which is to be solved.”
John. G. Tornsand

Page 23 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
“To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful distinctions
from like questions found in related situations of need.”
Whitney
“A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists
when there is a no available answer to same question.”
J.C. Townsend
“A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists
between two or more variables?”
F.N. Kerlinger
“To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation
must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to
determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of
view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain
assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.”
Monero and Engelhart

2.1 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

“The mere formulation of a problem is far more essential than its

solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental
skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems
from a new angle requires creative imagination and marks real advances
in science.”

– Albert Einstein

The problem formulation consists of just one sentence and should make it clear to
everyone what research problem, you aim to address and to whom and where it is
relevant. In other words, the problem formulation is the heart (or core) of your thesis to
which you should always return if you lose track during your further research and
writing process.

Page 24 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 The aim of a problem formulation is also to set a framework for your research and a
good problem formulation is essential for completing a good study.

Example of a problem formulation:

“Is the level of Job satisfaction among Nationalised and Private bank employees differs
in North Maharashtra Region”

What is the problem addressed: difference in level of Job satisfaction among

Nationalised and Private bank employees.

To whom and/or where is the problem relevant: Nationalised and Private bank
employees in North Maharashtra Region

2 IMPORTANCE OF FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

There are several benefits of formulating a research problem. The actual research begins
with the formulation of a research problem. It makes you well aware of the tasks that
you have to perform in order to accomplish the research. Research is a process that you
have to complete in a sequence. A research problem helps you formulate that sequence.
Research problem also helps you avoid unnecessary steps during the research.

1. A research problem is the preliminary step in conducting a research study. A research

problem helps you understand the research procedure in a better manner. Most
beginners in research think that a research problem is easy to formulate but in reality
it is not so. A research problem needs great thought on the part of the researcher in
order to formulate a scientific research problem. A scientific research problem is one
that can be solved using scientific procedures.

2. In actual the purpose of the research problem is to determine the objective and
intention of the research, in the absence of an aim or objective you cannot determine
the research methodology. A research problem can help you identify each and every
step of the research process: the study design, sampling strategy, research instrument
and research analysis.

3. The research problem should have great clarity since the research process in itself
generates more questions. In the absence of a clear and well defined research problem
the researcher can become confused. In addition the research question or research

Page 25 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 problem should have to be interesting so that the researcher become well engaged in
the research. The passion of the researcher in conducting the research matters a lot in
the research.

4. The research problem should have to be manageable within your resources, otherwise
it will become difficult for you to undertake it. You should know about the time,
energy and money that you have in order to design a manageable research.

STEPS IN FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;
Step I Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the
research work.
Step II The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field
of his specialization.
Step III He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend
and studies are being conducted in the area.
Step IV On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
Step V He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his
personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of
supervisor or expert of the field.
Step VI He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

FACTORS OF PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Originating problems or questions constitute the initial phase in the process of problem-
formulation. The process of problem finding is having some component of analysis.
These components answer to the general questions like how to proceed in the process
of problem identification? three principal components in the progressive formulation of
a research problem like:

 What one wants to know? (The originating of a general question)

 Why one wants to have the particular questions answered? (the rationale behind
the question)
 Analyzing the questions formatted in search of their appropriateness.

a. What One Wants to Know?

Page 26 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This type of question generally represents the beginning of certain difficulties or
challenges which should be formulated in such specific terms so as to indicate where
exactly the answers to the problem can be found. One type of originating question calls
for discovering particular matter of common interest. Another type of originating
question draws direct attention to the search for analysis and comparison between
different variables in a society. Some questions may be descriptive in nature, while
another group of researchers may raise the questions based on the adequacy of certain
concepts, while some may be interested in analyzing observed empirical generalizations
and so on.
b. Why One Wants to Have the Particular Question Answered?
The second phase of problem formulation is that of analyzing the vagueness or rationale
of the formulated question. Rationale is defined as the statement of reasons why a
particular question is having some value in that circumstances. Hence, it answers the
question how the answers to the question(s) formulated will contribute to theory
or/and in practice?
c Analyzing the Questions Formulated:
Each question differs from another question in its degree of specificity. Some questions
may be quite diffused whereas some may be relatively specific and some questions
formulated may be undifferentiated or fused. Thus, the questions must be broken down
into several specifying questions related to the particular aspects-may be from
management field or related to the areas of social science or can be a combination
between the two.

NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

One of the important concerns before finalizing the problem in research is that of
thoroughly scanning the nature of the identified problem(s) by the researcher. The
researchers may face number of hurdles (ie., limited time, less budget, lack of resources,
etc.) in the process of research, hence, they have to compare the hurdles that they are
facing and the nature of problem they have identified. The following derivation will
help the reader in clarifying this concept.
Case 1: When the problem is narrow in scope

Page 27 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 For example: ‘Soft drink habits of management students of a particular institute
of a specific area. Like
‘Soft drink habits of management students of IMR, Jalgaon.
‘Socio-Economic Condition of Fruit Sellers of Mumbai’
Solution: These cases require less time to execute, are less expensive and also
require fewer resources.
Case 2: When the problem identified is broad in scope
For example: Impact of world economic crisis on corporate employment’
Impact of Government policies on rural development in India!
Solution: Take long time, are expensive and need more resources.
Case 3: The problem identified cannot be measured
For example: ‘Will this new Scientific Developments make society better?’
Is it possible to shift the human beings to Moon to settle there?’
Solutions: Difficult to estimate.
Based on the accessible limitations, the researchers are advised to select their own
problem. If they are having less time, less finance to execute research work, etc., it is
advisable to identify a research problem which may be narrow in scope and so on.

COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

The components of identifying a research problem imply that of analyzing some basic
necessities which are required in the process of identifying a research problem as
outlined below:
a. Existence of Both Researcher(s) and Respondent(s):
One of the basic requirements for identifying a research problem is the presence of both
the parties - the researchers) and the respondent (s). The respondent(s) may be an
individual or a group who face some difficulty or problem. Similarly, the researcher
may be an individual or a group who want to solve the existing problem of the
respondent(s). The respondents may be the customers, employees, executives, etc., in
case of business research whereas they may be common human beings in case of social
science research. For example, if the respondents are not facing any difficulty, then there
may not arise any question of decision-making and, hence, no chance of research.
b. Both must have Some Objectives:

Page 28 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
The second basic requirement is that, to identify a research problem, both the parties
must have some objectives. The respondents want to fulfil their basic requirements of
life, want to live in a healthy environment, willingness to purchase new products; to
maintain standard of living and as a whole are having unlimited wants. The researchers
task is to solve the existing hurdles in the process of achieving the desires of the
respondents, i.e., satisfaction of unlimited human wants.
c. Both must have Some Doubt while Selecting Alternatives:
The respondents are having a number of alternatives with them. This creates doubts in
their minds while deciding which alternative to select Similarly, the researchers are also
having few alternatives in the form of doubts. This may lead to the question of selecting
the important one that can solve the existing problem in a better way.
d. There must be an Environment:
An activity can emerge in an environment Likewise a research problem can exist in an
environment. The environment may be social, business, political, demographic,
technological or any such environment characterized by problems of any kind.

SOURCES OF IDENTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEM

From where the problem can be identified? Where do the problems lie? Or what will be
the sources of research problem? This is the question that' generally puzzles the minds
of researchers at the beginning of the research. Most of the researchers are always in
search of research problems. The task of problem selection is always confusing. One can
explore a research problem basically from three important sources. They are:

 Researcher’s Own Interest

 Contemporary Interest of the Researcher

 Gaps in the Existing Theories/Principles

Researcher’s Own Interest
Personal values play an important role along with other determinants in the
selection of a topic of research. Researcher(s) with different values tend to choose
different topics for investigation. It is always advisable and better to select the
problem based on the own interest of the researcher. A researcher may select a
problem for research from a given situation or circumstances or existing theory as

Page 29 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 per his/her area of interest. One may generate an idea either while reading a
research papers or reading a particular subject in the interested areas.
Contemporary Interest of the Researcher
In this dynamic world, a researcher may come across various problems which
require a specific study. Besides personal interest, social and or business
environmental conditions do often shape the preference of investigators in order to
identify research problem(s). Since societies and/or business environments differ in
respect of the premium they place on the work in different fields, these differences
affect the choice of research topics. In a given socio-business condition, thousands
and thousands of opportunities prevail and can be identified. It is, however,
researcher's own conscious, that matters a lot while identifying a research problem.
For instance, suppose the prices of major durable goods like that of LED TVs,
Microwave’s, etc., are reducing day-by-day in India. Here, the researcher may be
interested to study the extent of reduction in price in different time periods, factors
that are influencing the acquisition of durables, diffusion of durable goods and,
hence, demand for the durable goods in the market and so on. Conversion of a
problem of contemporary interest into a good and interesting research topic
depends largely on the skill and expertise of the researcher in that field of
knowledge.
Gaps in the Existing Theories/Principles
The third source in the process of problem identification is of analyzing the existing
gap in the available theories or principles in literatures. Irrespective of rapid
expansion of communication, there still exists a gap between what is known and
what is unknown. This identification of gap between the two is the task of the
researcher while selecting a research problem. Such type of research is extending
and broadening the field of knowledge in that area. The theoretical or empirical
studies conducted on this basis may sometimes alter, modify or revise the existing
theories or principles. Here, the researcher uses some existing theories or principles
from any discipline of knowledge, may be managerial economics, Organisation
behaviour, international trade, marketing management, consumer behaviour,
finance, etc. in the empirical analysis and suggest some modification or
development of some new theories in the existing one.

Page 30 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Hence, it can be said that selection of a research topic is not the end of research process,
rather it is only half a step forward. The selection of topics does not help the researcher
to see that the data are relevant to the methodology to be used, the design of the
research, etc.

2.2 FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES

Objectives are the goals set out to attain in the study. Since these objectives inform a
reader of what researcher want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important
to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings: main objectives; sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of the study. It is also a statement
of the main associations and relationships that researcher seek to discover or establish.
The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that researcher wants to
investigate within the main framework of the study. Sub-objectives should be
numerically listed. They should be worded clearly and unambiguously. Make sure that
each sub-objective contains only one aspect of the study. Use action-oriented words or
verbs when writing the objectives. The objectives should start with words such as ‘to
determine’, ‘to find out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to measure’ and ‘to explore’.
The way the main objectives and sub-objectives are worded determines how the
research is classified (e.g. descriptive, correlational or experimental). In other words, the
wording of the objectives determines the type of research design researcher need to
adopt to achieve them. Hence, researcher must be careful about the way to ‘word’ the
objectives.
Irrespective of the type of research, the objectives should be expressed in such a way
that the wording clearly, completely and specifically communicates to the readers of
intention. There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity or incompleteness, either in
the wording of the objectives or in the ideas they communicate. Figure 5 below displays
the characteristics of the wording of objectives in relation to the type of research study.

FIGURE 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTIVES

Identify the Identify the

main direction of
Clear Complete Specific variables to the
be relationship
correlated

Descriptive Statistics
Page 31 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Correlational studies (Experimental & non experimental

Hypothesis-testing studies
If the study is primarily descriptive, main objective should clearly describe the major
focus of the study, even mentioning the organisation and its location unless these are to
be kept confidential (e.g. to describe the types of training programme provided by [name of the
organisation] to Management trainee in [name of the place] or to find out the opinion of the
community about the health services provided by [name of the health centre/department] in
[name of the place]). Identification of the organisation and its location is important as the
services may be peculiar to the place and the organisation and may not represent the
services provided by others to similar populations.
If the study is correlational in nature, in addition to the first three characteristics shown
in Figure 5, the wording of the main objective should also include the main variables
being correlated (e.g. to ascertain the impact of migration on family roles or to compare the
effectiveness of different teaching methods on the comprehension of students).
If the overall thrust of the study is to test a hypothesis, the wording of the main
objectives should also indicate the direction of the relationship being tested (e.g. to
ascertain if an increase in youth unemployment will increase the incidence of street crime, or
to demonstrate that the provision of maternal and child health services to Native people
in rural Australia will reduce infant mortality).

ESTABLISHING OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

In defining the problem, you may use certain words or items that are difficult to
measure and/or the understanding of which may vary from respondent to respondent.
In a research study it is important to develop, define or establish a set of rules, indicators
or yardsticks in order to establish clearly the meaning of such words/items. It is
sometimes also important to define clearly the study population from which you need
to obtain the required information. When researcher define concepts that he plans to
use either in his research problem and/or in identifying the study population in a
measurable form, they are called working definitions or operational definitions.
Researcher must understand that these working definitions that he develops are only

Page 32 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
for the purpose of his study and could be quite different to legal definitions, or those
used by others. As the understanding of concepts can vary markedly from person to
person, the working definitions will inform the readers what exactly researcher mean
by the concepts that researcher has used in his study. The following example studies
help to explain this. The main objectives are:
1. To find out the number of children living below the poverty line in Australia.
2. To ascertain the impact of immigration on family roles among immigrants.
3. To measure the effectiveness of a retraining programme designed to help young
people.
Although these objectives clearly state the main thrust of the studies, they are not
specific in terms of the main variables to be studied and the study populations.
Researcher cannot count the number of children living below the poverty line until he
decides what constitutes the poverty line and how to determine it; researcher cannot
find out the impact of immigration on family roles unless he identify which roles
constitute family roles; and researcher cannot measure effectiveness until he define
what effectiveness is. On the other hand, it is equally important to decide exactly what
is mean by ‘children’, ‘immigrants’ or ‘young’.
Up to what age will you consider a person to be a child (i.e. 5, 10, 15 or 18)? Who would
you consider young? A person 15 years of age, 20, 25 or 30? Who would you consider
to be an immigrant? A person who immigrated 40, 20 or 5 years ago? In addition, are
you going to consider immigrants from every country or only a few? In many cases you
need to develop operational definitions for the variables and concepts you are studying
and for the population that becomes the source of the information for your study. Table
4.2 lists the concepts and the population groups to be operationalised for the above
examples.

TABLE 3 OPERATIONALISATION OF CONCEPTS AND THE STUDY POPULATIONS

Concepts to be studied Populations to be studied

Study Study
Concepts Issues Issues
Populations
1 Poverty What Children Who would
line constitutes you consider a
poverty line*? child?

Page 33 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 2 Family What Immigrants Who would
roles constitutes you consider
family roles ? an immigrant?
3 Effective What The Young Who would
ness constitutes you consider a
‘effectiveness'? young person?
Researcher Operationalise the Operationalise the study
should concepts: define in population: define in
practical, observable and identifiable terms ‘children’,
measurable terms ’poverty ’immigrants’ and ’young'
line', ‘family roles' and
effectiveness’

In a research study it is essential to define these clearly in order to avoid ambiguity and
confusion. This is achieved through the process of developing operational/working
definitions. Researcher need to develop operational definitions for the major concepts
he is using in the study and develop a framework for the study population enabling
researcher to select appropriate respondents.
Operational definitions may differ from day-to-day meanings as well as dictionary or
legal definitions. These meanings may not be helpful in identifying either the study
population or the concepts researcher is studying. Though in daily life we often use
words such as ‘children’, ‘youth’ and ‘immigrant’ loosely, researcher need to be more
specific when using them in a research study. Researcher should work through his own
definitions.
Operational definitions give an operational meaning to the study population and the
concepts used. It is only through making the procedures explicit that researcher can
validly describe, explain, verify and test. It is important to remember that there are no
rules for deciding if an operational definition is valid. Researchers arguments must
convince others about the appropriateness of his definitions.

2.3 A VARIABLE-

We all make value judgements constantly in our daily lives: ‘This food is excellent’; ‘I
could not sleep well last night’; ‘I do not like this’; and ‘I think this is wonderful’. These
are all judgements based upon our own preferences, indicators or assessment. Because
these explain feelings or preferences, the basis on which they are made may vary
markedly from person to person.

Page 34 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
There is no uniform yardstick with which to measure them. A particular food may be
judged ‘excellent’ by one person but ‘awful’ by another, and something else could be
wonderful to one person but ugly to another. When people express these feelings or
preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in their minds, or in relation to
their expectations. If you were to question them you will discover that their judgement
is based upon indicators and/or expectations that lead them to conclude and express a
particular opinion.
Let us consider this in a professional context:
‘This training programme is effective.’
‘This training programme is not effective.’
‘We are providing a quality service to our clients.’
‘This is a waste of time.’
‘In this institution women are discriminated against.’
‘There is no accountability in this office.’
‘This product is not doing well.’
These are not preferences per se; these are judgements that require a sound basis on
which to proclaim. For example, if you want to find out if a programme is effective, if a
service is of quality or if there is discrimination, you need to be careful that such
judgements have a rational and sound basis. This warrants the use of a measuring
mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that knowledge about variables
plays an important role.
An image, perception or concept that is capable of measurement – hence capable of
taking on different values – is called a variable. In other words, a concept that can be
measured is called a variable.
According to Kerlinger, ‘A variable is a property that takes on different values. Putting
it redundantly, a variable is something that varies … A variable is a symbol to which
numerals or values are attached’.
Black and Champion define a variable as ‘rational units of analysis that can assume any
one of a number of designated sets of values’.
A concept that can be measured on any one of the four types of measurement scale,
which have varying degrees of precision in measurement, is called a variable.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CONCEPT AND A VARIABLE

Page 35 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a variable. Concepts are
mental images or perceptions and therefore their meanings vary markedly from
individual to individual, whereas variables are measurable, though, of course, with
varying degrees of accuracy. A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable can be
subjected to measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of
measurement. Concepts are subjective impressions which, if measured as such would
cause problems in comparing responses obtained from different respondents.
According to Young: Each collaborator must have the same understanding of the
concepts if the collaborative data are to be similarly classified and the findings pooled
and tested, or reproduced. Classification and comparison demand uniform and precise
definitions of categories expressed in concepts. It is therefore important for the concepts
to be converted into variables (either directly or through a set of indicators) as they can
be subjected to measurement, even though the degree of precision with which they can
be measured markedly varies from one measurement scale to another (nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio). Table 2 gives examples of concepts and variables to illustrate the
differences between them.
TABLE 4 EXAMPLES OF CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES
Concepts Variables
 Effectiveness
 Satisfaction  Gender (male/female)
 Impact  Attitude
 Excellent  Age (x years, y months)
 High achiever  Income ($ __ per year)
 Self-esteem  Weight ( __ kg)
 Rich  Height ( __ cm)
 Domestic violence  Religion (Hindu, Catholic,
 Extent and pattern of alcohol protestant, Jew, Muslim)
consumption
 Subjective impression  Measurable though the degree of
 No uniformity as to its precision varies from scale to
understanding among different scale and from variable to
people variable (e.g. attitude –
 As such cannot be measured subjective, income – objective)

CONVERTING CONCEPTS INTO VARIABLES

Page 36 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
If we are using a concept in our study, we need to consider its operationalisation – that
is, how it will be measured. In most cases, to operationalise a concept you first need to
go through the process of identifying indicators – a set of criteria reflective of the concept
– which can then be converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept
might vary with the researcher but those selected must have a logical link with the
concept. Some concepts, such as ‘rich’ (in terms of wealth), can easily be converted into
indicators and then variables. For example, to decide objectively if a person is ‘rich’, one
first needs to decide upon the indicators of wealth. Assume that we decide upon income
and assets as the indicators. Income is also a variable since it can be measured in dollars;
therefore, you do not need to convert this into a variable. Although the assets owned by
an individual are indicators of his/her ‘richness’, they still belong to the category of
concepts. We need to look further at the indicators of assets. For example, house, boat,
car and investments are indicators of assets. Converting the value of each one into
dollars will give the total value of the assets owned by a person. Next, fix a level, based
upon available information on income distribution and an average level of assets owned
by members of a community, which acts as the basis for classification. Then analyse the
information on income and the total value of the assets to make a decision about
whether the person should be classified as ‘rich’. The operationalisation of other
concepts, such as the ‘effectiveness’ or ‘impact’ of a programme, may prove more
difficult. Table 3 shows some examples that will help you to understand the process of
converting concepts into variables.

TABLE 5 EXAMPLES TO CONVERTING CONCEPTS INTO VARIABLES

Concept Indicator Variable Decision level
Rich 1. Income 1. Income per year 1 if > ₹1Cr
2. Assets 2. Total value of Cars, 2 if > ₹ 5 Cr
investments and other
physical assets
Effectiveness 1. Number of 1. Number of participants Whether the
of Training participants trained per training difference in
Program 2. Impact on 2. Changes in work before and after
work effacement levels are
efficiency 3. Changes statistically
3. Changes in interpersonal/intrapersonal significant
behaviour behaviour

TYPES OF VARIABLE

Page 37 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
A variable can be classified in a number of ways. The classification developed by Ranjit
kumar results from looking at variables in three different ways (see Figure 1):
FIGURE 1 TYPES OF VARIABLE A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP

Connecting or linking
Variables (4)

Cause Effect
Outcome Variable (2)
Change Variable (1)

Variables that affect

the relationship (3)

 the causal relationship;

 the study design;
 the unit of measurement.

1. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP

In studies that attempt to investigate a causal relationship or association, four sets of

variables may operate (see Figure 2):
1. change variables, which are responsible for bringing about change in a phenomenon,
situation or circumstance;
2. outcome variables, which are the effects, impacts or consequences of a change variable;
3. variables which affect or influence the link between cause-and-effect variables;
4. connecting or linking variables, which in certain situations are necessary to complete
the relationship between cause-and-effect variables.
In research terminology, change variables are called independent variables,
outcome/effect variables are called dependent variables, the unmeasured variables
affecting the cause-and-effect relationship are called extraneous variables and the
variables that link a cause-and-effect relationship are called intervening variables.
Hence:
1. Independent variable – the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about
change(s) in a phenomenon or situation.
2. Dependent variable – the outcome or change(s) brought about by introduction of an
independent variable.

Page 38 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
3. Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect
changes in the dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may
increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent
and dependent variables.
4. Intervening variable – sometimes called the confounding variable, it links the
independent and dependent variables. In certain situations, the relationship between an
independent and a dependent variable cannot be established without the intervention
of another variable. The cause, or independent, variable will have the assumed effect
only in the presence of an intervening variable.

FIGURE 2 CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP EXAMPLE 1

Smoking Cancer

(Assumed Cause) (Assumed Effect)

Independent Dependent Variable

Variable
Affect the relationship

The Age of the person

Extent of Smoking
Duration of smoking
Extent of daily exercise

Extraneous variable

To explain these variables let us consider some examples. Suppose you want to study
the relationship between smoking and cancer. We assume that smoking is a cause of
cancer. Studies have shown that there are many factors affecting this relationship, such
as the number of cigarettes or the amount of tobacco smoked every day; the duration of
smoking; the age of the smoker; dietary habits; and the amount of exercise undertaken
by the individual. All of these factors may affect the extent to which smoking might
cause cancer. These variables may either increase or decrease the magnitude of the
relationship.

Page 39 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
In the above example the extent of smoking is the independent variable, cancer is the
dependent variable and all the variables that might affect this relationship, either
positively or negatively, are extraneous variables. See Figure 2

FIGURE 3 CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP EXAMPLE- 2

Extent of the use of

Mortality contraceptives
Fertility

Independent Intervening
Dependent Variable
Variable Variable

 Attitudes towards use of contraceptive

among the population
 Level of education
 Socioeconomic status of the population
 Provision and quality of health
services
 Individual motivation.
 Age and Religion etc.

Extraneous variable

The example in Figure 3 helps to understand intervening variables. Suppose we want

to study the relationship between fertility and mortality. Our aim is to explore what
happens to fertility when mortality declines. The history of demographic transition has
shown that a reduction in the fertility level follows a decline in the mortality level,
though the time taken to attain the same level of reduction in fertility varied markedly
from country to country. As such, there is no direct relationship between fertility and
mortality. With the reduction in mortality, fertility will decline only if people attempt to
limit their family size. History has shown that for a multiplicity of reasons people have
used one method or another to control their fertility, resulting in lower fertility levels. It
is thus the intervention of contraceptive methods that completes the relationship: the
greater the use of contraceptives, the greater the decline in the fertility level and the
sooner the adoption of contraceptive methods by people, the sooner the decline. The
extent of the use of contraceptives is also affected by a number of other factor, for
example attitudes towards contraception, level of education, socioeconomic status and

Page 40 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
age, religion, and provision and quality of health services. These are classified as
extraneous variables.

2. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE STUDY DESIGN

A study that examines association or causation may be a controlled/contrived

experiment, a quasi experiment or an ex post facto or non-experimental study. In
controlled experiments the independent (cause) variable may be introduced or
manipulated either by the researcher or by someone else who is providing the service.
In these situations there are two sets of variables (see Figure 4):

FIGURE 4 ACTIVE AND ATTRIBUTE VARIABLES

Study Intervention Study Population
 Different teaching models  Age
 Experimental Intervention  Gender
 Program Service  Level of Motivation
etc.  Attitudes
 Religions
etc.
Active Variables Attribute variable
A researcher can manipulate A researcher cannot manipulate

Active variables – those variables that can be manipulated, changed or controlled.

Attribute variables – those variables that cannot be manipulated, changed or
controlled, and that reflect the characteristics of the study population, for example age,
gender, education and income.
Suppose a study is designed to measure the relative effectiveness of three teaching
models (Model A, Model B and Model C). The structure and contents of these models
could vary and any model might be tested on any population group. The contents,
structure and testability of a model on a population group may also vary from
researcher to researcher. On the other hand, a researcher does not have any control over
characteristics of the student population such as their age, gender or motivation to
study. These characteristics of the study population are called attribute variables.
However, a researcher does have the ability to control and/or change the teaching

Page 41 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
models. S/he can decide what constitutes a teaching model and on which group of the
student population it should be tested (if randomisation is not used).

3. FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement, there are two ways of categorising
variables:
 whether the unit of measurement is categorical (as in nominal and ordinal scales)
or continuous in nature (as in interval and ratio scales);
 whether it is qualitative (as in nominal and ordinal scales) or quantitative in
nature (as in interval and ratio scales).
On the whole there is very little difference between categorical and qualitative, and
between continuous and quantitative, variables. The slight difference between them is
explained below.
Categorical variables are measured on nominal or ordinal measurement scales,
whereas for continuous variables the measurements are made on either an interval or
a ratio scale. There are three types of categorical variables:
1. Constant Variable – has only one category or value, for example taxi, tree and
water;
2. Dichotomous Variable – has only two categories, as in male/female, yes/no,
good/bad, head/tail, up/down and rich/poor;
3. Polytomous Variable – can be divided into more than two categories, for
example religion (Christian, Muslim, Hindu); political parties (Labor, Liberal,
Democrat); and attitudes (strongly favourable, favourable, uncertain,
unfavourable, strongly unfavourable).

Continuous variables, on the other hand, have continuity in their measurement, for
example age, income and attitude score. They can take any value on the scale on which
they are measured. Age can be measured in years, months and days. Similarly, income
can be measured in dollars and cents.
In many ways qualitative variables are similar to categorical variables as both use either
nominal or ordinal measurement scales. However, there are some differences. For
example, it is possible to develop categories on the basis of measurements made on a
continuous scale, such as measuring the income of a population in dollars and cents and

Page 42 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
then developing categories such as ‘low’, ‘middle’ and ‘high’ income. The measurement
of income in dollars and cents is classified as the measurement of a continuous variable,
whereas its subjective measurement in categories such as ‘low’, ‘middle’ and ‘high’
groups is a qualitative variable.
Although this distinction exists, for most practical purposes there is no real difference
between categorical and qualitative variables or between continuous and quantitative
variables. Table 4 shows similarities and differences among the various types of
variable.
TABLE 6 CATERIGORICAL/CONTINUOUS AND QUANTITAIVE/ QUALITATIVE
VARIABLE
Categorical
Continuous Qualitative Quantitative
Constant Dichotomous polytomous
– Water – Yes/no Attitudes Gender Educational
– Tree – Good/bad – strongly Income (₹) – male Level
– Taxi – Rich/poor – favourable – female ___no of years
– Day/night – favourable Educational completed
– Male/female – uncertain Age (Years) Level
– Hot/cold – strongly – PG Age____
– unfavourable – UG years/month
Political Parties Weight – Metric
– Congress (Kg) Age Income
– BJP – old ________₹ per
– AAP – young month/year
– Communist – child
Age group Income group Temperature
– old – high ______°C or °F
– young – middle
– child – low
Income group Temperature
– high – Cold
– middle – hot
– low

CONSTRUCTS

Sometimes, a single variable cannot capture a concept alone. Using multiple variables
to measure one concept can often provide a more complete account of some concept
than could any single variable. Even in the physical sciences, multiple measurements
are often used to make sure an accurate representation is obtained. In social science,
many concepts are measured with multiple measurements.
A construct is a term used for concepts that are measured with multiple variables. For
instance, when a business researcher wishes to measure the customer orientation of a
salesperson, several variables like these may be used, each captured on a 1–5 scale:

Page 43 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 1. I offer the product that is best suited to a customer’s problem.
2. A good employee has to have the customer’s best interests in mind.
3. I try to find out what kind of products will be most helpful to a customer.
Constructs can be very helpful in operationalizing a concept.
An operational definition is like a manual of instructions or a recipe: even the truth of a
statement like “Gaston Gourmet likes key lime pie” depends on the recipe. Different
instructions lead to different results. In other words, how we define the construct will
affect the way we measure it. An operational definition tells the investigator, “Do such-
and-such in so-and-so manner.”

2.4 HYPOTHESIS

Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition
or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified
group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often
a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example,
consider statements like the following ones:

“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counselling” Or “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”

These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may
conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which
can be put to a test to determine its validity.

MEANING
Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomenon either asserted
merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly
probable in the light of established facts" (Kothari 1988). A research hypothesis is quite

Page 44 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific methods
that involve an independent and some dependent variables. For instance, the following
statements may be considered:

i. “students who take tuitions perform better than the others who not receive
tuitions" or,
ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students".
These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus,
they indicate that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition
that can be put to test in order to examine its validity.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
The sources of Hypothesis are almost the same as problems. The major sources of the
Hypothesis;
• Reading Material- Published books, Journals, Magazines, Seminar Reports,
• Principle of Theories – Rule of Law, Basic Structure etc.,
• Researchers Personal Experience, and
• Other Studies.

IMPORTANCE
2. Gives definite point to the inquiry
3. Helps establishing direction
4. Directs our search for order among facts & provide considerable advantage in
inquiry with suggested explanation or solution
5. Prevents blind search & indiscriminate gathering of data
6. While searching for significant & relevant facts to explain the problem, shows
the essential relationship that exists between various elements within the
complexity
7. Helps to delimit the field of inquiry
8. In his search, researcher may fall back on previous experience of his own or that
of others & single out those factors that are known to have explained similar

Page 45 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 situations in the past as observed in the descriptive literature or speculative
philosophy

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis:
In the context of statistical analysis, hypothesis is of two types, viz., null hypothesis
and alternative hypothesis. When two methods A and B are compared on their relative
superiority, and it is assumed that both the methods are equally good, then such a
statement is called as the null hypothesis. On the other hand, if method A is
considered relatively superior to method B, or vice-versa, then such a statement is
known as an alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is expressed as H0, while the
alternative hypothesis is expressed as Ha. For example, if a researcher wants to test the
hypothesis that the population mean (µ) is equal to the hypothesized mean (H0) = 100,
then the null hypothesis should be stated as the population mean is equal to the
hypothesized mean 100. Symbolically it may be written as:-

H0: = µ =µH0 = 100

If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should be concluded that
something else is true. The conclusion of rejecting the null hypothesis is called as
alternative hypothesis. To put it in simple words, the set of alternatives to the null
hypothesis is termed as the alternative hypothesis. If H0 is accepted, then it implies
that Ha is being rejected. On the other hand, if H0 is rejected, it means that Ha is being
accepted. For H0: = µ = µH0 = 100, the following three possible alternative hypotheses
may be considered (Kothari 1988).

Alternative
To be read as follows
hypothesis

the alternative hypothesis is that the population

Ha:µ≠µH0 mean is not equal to 100, i.e., it could greater than or
less than 100

the alternative hypothesis is that the population

Ha: µ ˃ µH0
mean is greater than 100

Page 46 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 the alternative hypothesis is that the population
Ha: µ ˂ µH0
mean is less than 100

Before the sample is drawn, the researcher has to state the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis. While formulating the null hypothesis, the following aspects
need to be considered:

1. Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which a researcher wishes to prove,

whereas the null hypothesis is the one which he/she wishes to disprove. Thus,
a null hypothesis is usually the one which a researcher tries to reject, while an
alternative hypothesis is the one that represents all other possibilities.
2. The rejection of a hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, as it
indicates that it is a null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it
when it is true is a (i.e., the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
3. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
about or approximately a certain value.

2.5. LITERATURE SURVEY

After defining a problem, the researcher has to do literature survey connected with the
problem. Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books and other
documents related to the defined problem. It is very essential to know whether the
defined problem has already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that are
useful to investigate the problem and other related details. One can survey-

2. The journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various journals,

3. Review articles related to the topic chosen,
4. Journals which publish research articles,
5. Advanced level books on the chosen topic,
6. Proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,

Page 47 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 7. Reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby experts
working on the topic chosen and
8. Internet.

No research shall be complete unless we make use of the knowledge available in books,
journals and internet. Review of the literature in the area of research is a preliminary
step before attempting to plan the study. Literature survey helps us

1. Sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even leads to defining other closely

related problems,
2. Get proper understanding of the problem chosen,
3. Acquire proper theoretical and practical knowledge to investigate the problem,
4. Show how the problem under study relates to the previous research studies and
5. Know whether the proposed problem had already been solved.

Through survey one can collect relevant information about the problem. Clarity of ideas
can be acquired through study of literature.

Apart from literature directly connected with the problem, the literature that is
connected with similar problems is also useful. It helps formulate the problem in a clear-
cut way. A review on past work helps us know the outcome of those investigations
where similar problems were solved. It can help us design methodology for the present
work. We can also explore the vital links with the various trends and phases in the
chosen topic and familiarize with characteristic precepts, concepts and interpretations.
Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of the research proposal.

Because a Ph.D. thesis or M.Phil. Dissertation is a study in depth aiming contribution to

knowledge, a careful check should be made to ensure that the proposed study has not
previously been performed and reported. The earlier studies which are relevant to the
problem chosen should be carefully studied. Ignorance of prior studies may lead to a
researcher duplicating a work already carried out by another researcher. A good library
will be of great help to a researcher at this stage. One can visit nearby research
institutions and avail the library facility. Review the latest research papers and Ph.D.
theses to acquire recent trends.

Page 48 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 49 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [3]
Research Design & Sampling Design
3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Types & Feature of Research Design, Factors Affecting
Research Design
3.2. Sampling Design: Sample, Sampling, Steps, Criterion of selecting sampling procedure,
3.3. Sampling Methods: Probability Sampling, Non-probability Sampling

Page 50 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
2.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

2.1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research
design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. “A research
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data. As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing
the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More
explicitly, the designing decisions happen to be in respect of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

(vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix) How will the data be analysed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research
design into the following parts:

(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study;

Page 51 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 (b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;

(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are
to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed;
and

(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.

From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research
design as Under:

(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.

(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analysing the data.

(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.

In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research
problem; (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the
population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

2.1.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

i) Exploratory/ Formulative

The exploratory research design is known as formulative research design. The main
objective of using such a research design is for formulating a research problem for
an in-depth or more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis
from an operational aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of
ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for such a study should
be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of
the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the
initial research problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the
exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the research procedure

Page 52 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three methods are considered in
the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of related
literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of' insight-stimulating' instances.

ii) Descriptive/ Diagnostic

A descriptive research design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a

particular individual, or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design
determines the frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with
another variable. In other words, the study analyzing whether a certain variable is
associated with another comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand,
a study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and
characteristics relating to an individual, group or situation, are instances of
descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research design falls under
this category. As a research design, both the descriptive and diagnostic studies share
common requirements, and hence they may grouped together. However, the
procedure to be used must be planned carefully, and so the research design should
also be planned carefully. The research design must also make appropriate
provision for protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard
to the completion of the research study in as economical manner as possible. The
research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also
focus attention on the following: (a) formulation of the objectives of the study,

(b) proper designing of the methods of data collection ,

(c) sample selection,

(d) data collection,

(e) processing and analysis of the collected data, and

(f) Reporting the findings.

iii) Hypothesis Testing/Experimental Research design

Hypothesis-testing research designs are those in which the researcher tests the
hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies
require procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but

Page 53 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy
such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it
often refers to the design of experiments.

Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of

such designs was made by him when he was working at Roth-Amsted Experimental
Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of
experimental designs has its origin in agricultural research.

Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different
blocks and then by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever
information is collected and inferences drawn from them, happens to be more
reliable. This fact inspired him to develop certain experimental designs for testing
hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today, the experimental designs are
being used in researches relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since
experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still
use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment,
yield, plot, block etc.) in experimental designs.

2.1.3 FACTORS AFFECTING RESEARCH DESIGN

Though it is highly desirable to formulate an effective research design for the study, yet
it is a practice I that not all the studies always solve the desired objectives because of a
number of reasons such as:

a. Non-availability of sufficient data

b. Non-availability of time
c. Non-availability of resources: capital, manpower, skill, etc:
d. Non-ability of the. Researcher: research should be a skilled expert in the field
e. External factors: Inappropriate means of communication, threats, fears, political
interference, etc.
Creating an effective research design is likely to be one of the most difficult and
eminently useful tasks in drafting a proposal. An effective research design links abstract
and stylized concepts and questions with the empirical world's complexities and
challenges. A research design must at once be specific and highly flexible. It must be
expansive enough to adapt these very complexities while still pointing the researchers

Page 54 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
towards relevant data. The methods that the researchers generally use should be
extensions of substantive question and epistemological orientation, Contrary to some
disciplinarians’ claims, there is no single research model that one can or should follow.
Numerous alternatives must always be considered and choices should be made. What
follows is a set of general principles and questions to consider in making those choices.

2.1.4 FEATURE OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
and economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises
the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design
which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many
investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the
question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research problem
and also with the nature of the problem to be studied. A design may be quite suitable
in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some
other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of
research problems.

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:

(i) The means of obtaining information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;

(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) The nature of the problem to be studied; and

(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.

If the research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative one, wherein the

major emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most
appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many different
aspects of a phenomenon. But when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a

Page 55 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
situation or of an association between variables (or in what are called the descriptive
studies), accuracy becomes a major consideration and a research design which
minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is considered a
good design.

Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

require a design which will permit inferences about causality in addition to the
minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability. But in practice it is the most
difficult task to put a particular study in a particular group, for a given research may
have in it elements of two or more of the functions of different studies. It is only on the
basis of its primary function that a study can be categorised either as an exploratory or
descriptive or hypothesis-testing study and accordingly the choice of a research design
may be made in case of a particular study. Besides, the availability of time, money, skills
of the research staff and the means of obtaining the information must be given due
weightage while working out the relevant details of the research design such as
experimental design, survey design, sample design and the like.

2.2 SAMPLING DESIGN

2.2.1. A SAMPLE
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’ A complete
enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is
left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the
slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observation increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its
extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy.

However, it needs to be emphasised that when the universe is a small one, it is no use
resorting to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life,
considerations of time and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e.,
selection of only a few items. The respondents selected should be as representative of
the total population as possible in order to produce a miniature cross-section. The

Page 56 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
selected respondents constitute what is technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection
process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey so conducted is known as ‘sample
survey’. Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part of size n (which is < N)
of this population is selected according to some rule for studying some characteristic of
the population, the group consisting of these n units is known as ‘sample’.

2.2.1.B SAMPLING
Though sampling is not new but the sampling theory has been developed recently.
People knew or not but they have been using the sampling technique in their day to day
life. For example a house wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been
well-cooked and give the generalized result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel.
The result arrived at is most of the times 100% correct. In another example, when a
doctor wants to examine the Wood for any deficiency, takes only a few drops of blood
of the patient and examines. The result arrived at is most of the times correct and
represent the whole amount of blood available in the body of the patient. In all these
cases, by inspecting a few, they simply believe that the samples give a correct idea about
the population. Most of our decision are based on the examination of a few items only
i.e. sample studies.

In the words of Croxton and Cowdon," It may be too expensive or too time
consuming to attempt either a complete or a nearly complete coverage in a statistical
study. Further to arrive at valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to enumerate all or
nearly all of a population. We may study a sample drawn from the large population
and, if that sample is adequately representative of the population, we should be able to
arrive at valid conclusions."

According to Rosander," The sample has many advantages over a census or

complete enumeration. If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably
cheaper; but may give results which are just accurate and sometimes more accurate than
those of a census. Hence a carefully designed sample may actually be better than a
poorly planned and executed census."

2.2.1.C STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN

Page 57 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following
points:

(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly
define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe
can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case
of an infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea
about the total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in
a factory and the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars
in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are
examples of infinite universes.

(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit
such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have
to decide one or more of such units that he has to select for his study.

(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be
drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe
only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be
comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the
source list to be as representative of the population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The size
of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfils the requirements of efficiency,
representativeness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample,
researcher must determine the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence
level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in
case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population
must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest
in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs

Page 58 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance,
we may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some
characteristic in the population, or we may be interested in knowing some average
or the other measure concerning the population. There may also be important sub-
groups in the population about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has
a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.

(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a
major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to
the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for
the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself.
There are several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which
the researcher must choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design
which, for a given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

2.2.1.D CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis
viz., the cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from
the data. Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz.,
systematic bias and sampling error. Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling
procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At
best the causes responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually a
systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a

biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will

result in systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the
questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring

Page 59 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a
measuring device.

3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included

in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation
the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is
often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.

4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently

when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed
situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in
course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete
a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they
generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if
kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of a
systematic bias.

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting
of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a
downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation department,
whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social
organisation. People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax
purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.

Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’
answer rather than revealing their true feelings.

2.2.2 SAMPLING METHODS

2.2.2.1 PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under
this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample. It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from
the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process. Here it is blind
chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected. The results
obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of probability

Page 60 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from
a random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design
over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical
Regularity which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the
sample will have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the
reason why random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a
representative sample.

Random sampling from a finite population refers to that method of sample selection
which gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being picked up
and each item in the entire population to have an equal chance of being included in the
sample. This applies to sampling without replacement i.e., once an item is selected for
the sample, it cannot appear in the sample again

(Sampling with replacement is used less frequently in which procedure the element
selected for the sample is returned to the population before the next element is selected.
In such a situation the same element could appear twice in the same sample before the
second element is chosen). In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple
random sampling) are:

(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the
sample; and all choices are independent of one another.

(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.

Keeping this in view we can define a simple random sample (or simply a random
sample) from a finite population as a sample which is chosen in such a way that each of
the NCn possible samples has the same probability, 1/NCn, of being selected. To make
it more clear we take a certain finite population consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d,
e, f) i.e., N = 6. Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it. Then there
are 6C3 = 20 possible distinct samples of the required size, and they consist of the
elements abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde,
cdf, cef, and def. If we choose one of these samples in such a way that each has the
probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will then call this a random sample.

Simple Random Sampling-

Page 61 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where
each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability
of being selected.

For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items,
then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another method of random
sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then,
300 five digits random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some
random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the
table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to
the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.

When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000,
it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant
range.

Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected.
In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled
by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.

Systematic Sampling
In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item on a list.
Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is
introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit
with which to start. For instance, if a 4 per cent sample is desired, the first item would
be selected randomly from the first twenty-five and thereafter every 25th item would
automatically be included in the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling only the first unit
is selected randomly and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals. Although a systematic sample is not a random sample in the strict sense of the
term, but it is often considered reasonable to treat systematic sample as if it were a
random sample.

Page 62 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Systematic sampling has certain plus points. It can be taken as an improvement over a
simple random sample in as much as the systematic sample is spread more evenly over
the entire population. It is an easier and less costlier method of sampling and can be
conveniently used even in case of large populations. But there are certain dangers too
in using this type of sampling. If there is a hidden periodicity in the population,
systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient method of sampling.

For instance, every 25th item produced by a certain production process is defective. If
we are to select a 4% sample of the items of this process in a systematic manner, we
would either get all defective items or all good items in our sample depending upon the
random starting position. If all elements of the universe are ordered in a manner
representative of the total population, i.e., the population list is in random order,
systematic sampling is considered equivalent to random sampling. But if this is not so,
then the results of such sampling may, at times, not be very reliable. In practice,
systematic sampling is used when lists of population are available and they are of
considerable LENGTH.

Stratified Random Sampling

If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to obtain a
representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided into several
sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total population (the
different sub-populations are called ‘strata’) and then we select items from each stratum
to constitute a sample. Since each stratum is more homogeneous than the total
population, we are able to get more precise estimates for each stratum and by estimating
more accurately each of the component parts, we get a better estimate of the whole. In
brief, stratified sampling results in more reliable and detailed information.

Cluster Sampling
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample
can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and
then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with
the ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
Thus in cluster sampling the total population is divided into a number of relatively
small subdivisions which are themselves clusters of still smaller units and then some of

Page 63 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
these clusters are randomly selected for inclusion in the overall sample. Suppose we
want to estimate the proportion of machine parts in an inventory which are defective.
Also assume that there are 20000 machine parts in the inventory at a given point of time,
stored in 400 cases of 50 each. Now using a cluster sampling, we would consider the 400
cases as clusters and randomly select ‘n’ cases and examine all the machine parts in each
randomly selected case.

Cluster sampling, no doubt, reduces cost by concentrating surveys in selected clusters.

But certainly it is less precise than random sampling. There is also not as much
information in ‘n’ observations within a cluster as there happens to be in ‘n’ randomly
drawn observations. Cluster sampling is used only because of the economic advantage
it possesses; estimates based on cluster samples are usually more reliable per unit cost.

Area Sampling
If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is
better known as area sampling. In other words, cluster designs, where the primary
sampling unit represents a cluster of units based on geographic area, are distinguished
as area sampling.

The plus and minus points of cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling.

Multi-stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a kind of complex sample design in which two or more levels
of units are imbedded one in the other. For example: geographic areas (primary units),
factories (secondary units), employees (tertiary units). At each stage, a sample of the
corresponding units is selected. At first, a sample of primary units is selected, then, in
each of those selected, a sample of secondary units is selected, and so on. All ultimate
units (individuals, for instance) selected at the last step of this procedure are then
surveyed.

The reasons for adopting such a design may be reducing costs, for example, when
interviewers are assigned to persons located in a restricted area, or reducing the sample
error. Multi-stage sampling is sometimes used when no general sample frame exists. In
this case, a first step is to select, at random, a sample of areas, collective units, or villages
from a list where they are all registered (primary units). Then, for each selected primary

Page 64 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
unit, a comprehensive enumeration of all units of lower rank is made, thus obtaining a
local sample frame among which a sample of secondary units will be selected.

For example, for each village of the primary sample, a list of all housing units is
established, allowing for a selection of a sample of households. Different probabilities
can be used at each stage, as well as within one particular stage, for the different units
to be selected. Probabilities at the successive stages multiply, so that the resulting
probability for selecting one final unit is the product of the probabilities used at each
step. The corresponding answers need to be weighted by the inverse of that final
probability in order to obtain unbiased estimates.

Proportional Sampling,
In case the cluster sampling units do not have the same number or approximately the
same number of elements, it is considered appropriate to use a random selection process
where the probability of each cluster being included in the sample is proportional to the
size of the cluster. For this purpose, we have to list the number of elements in each
cluster irrespective of the method of ordering the cluster. Then we must sample
systematically the appropriate number of elements from the cumulative totals. The
actual numbers selected in this way do not refer to individual elements, but indicate
which clusters and how many from the cluster are to be selected by simple random
sampling or by systematic sampling. The results of this type of sampling are equivalent
to those of a simple random sample and the method is less cumbersome and is also
relatively less expensive.

Sequential sampling.
This sampling design is somewhat complex sample design. The ultimate size of the
sample under this technique is not fixed in advance, but is determined according to
mathematical decision rules on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
This is usually adopted in case of acceptance sampling plan in context of statistical
quality control. When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the basis of a single
sample, it is known as single sampling; when the decision is to be taken on the basis of
two samples, it is known as double sampling and in case the decision rests on the basis
of more than two samples but the number of samples is certain and decided in advance,
the sampling is known as multiple sampling. But when the number of samples is more
than two but it is neither certain nor decided in advance, this type of system is often

Page 65 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
referred to as sequential sampling. Thus, in brief, we can say that in sequential sampling,
one can go on taking samples one after another as long as one desires to do so.

2.2.2.2 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis
for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in
the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as
deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. In this type of
sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice
concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling
the organisers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so select out of a huge
one will be typical or representative of the whole. For instance, if economic conditions
of people living in a state are to be studied, a few towns and villages may be purposively
selected for intensive study on the principle that they can be representative of the entire
state. Thus, the judgement of the organisers of the study plays an important part in this
sampling design. In such a design, personal element has a great chance of entering into
the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield
results favourable to his point of view and if that happens, the entire inquiry may get
vitiated. Thus, there is always the danger of bias entering into this type of sampling
technique. But in the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience so as to take sound judgement, the results obtained from an
analysis of deliberately selected sample may be tolerably reliable. However, in such a
sampling, there is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being
included. Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be estimated and the element
of bias, great or small, is always there. As such this sampling design in rarely adopted
in large inquires of importance. However, in small inquiries and researches by
individuals, this design may be adopted because of the relative advantage of time and
money inherent in this method of sampling.

Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, samples are taken with a purpose in mind. Usually researcher
would have one or more specific predefined groups he is seeking. For instance, have
you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who

Page 66 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
are stopping various people and asking if they could interview them? Most likely they
are conducting a purposive sample (and most likely they are engaged in market
research). They might be looking for Unmarried females between 30-40 years old. They
size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category they stop to
ask if they will participate. One of the first things they're likely to do is verify that the
respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling
can be very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and
where sampling for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive
sample, you are likely to get the opinions of your target population, but you are also
likely to overweight subgroups in your population that are more readily accessible.

Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is also known as grab, opportunity, accidental or haphazard
sampling. With this method, the researcher uses subjects that are easy to reach. As the
name describes, the researcher chooses subjects because of convenience. Some examples
of convenience sampling are when students use their classmates in a research study or
a television reporter interviews people on the street.

When time or cost is a factor, some researchers might use convenience sampling. It is
often used in pilot or exploratory studies when the researcher wants an inexpensive and
quick way to discern whether further research is warranted. Many social science studies
use convenience sampling with students, paid volunteers or clients.

Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under quota sampling
the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different strata, with some
restrictions on how they are to be filled. In other words, the actual selection of the items
for the sample is left to the interviewer’s discretion. This type of sampling is very
convenient and is relatively inexpensive. But the samples so selected certainly do not
possess the characteristic of random samples. Quota samples are essentially judgement
samples and inferences drawn on their basis are not amenable to statistical treatment in
a formal way.

Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, researchers begin by identifying someone who meets the criteria
for inclusion in his study. He then asks them to recommend others who they may know

Page 67 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
who also meet the criteria. Although this method would hardly lead to representative
samples, there are times when it may be the best method available. Snowball sampling
is especially useful when researcher trying to reach populations that are inaccessible or
hard to find. For instance, if researcher is studying the homeless, he not likely to be able
to find good lists of homeless people within a specific geographical area. However, if he
go to that area and identify one or two, he may find that they know very well who the
other homeless people in their vicinity are and how he can find them.

Judgment Sampling
The researcher’s judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as
representative of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is
used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop
hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.

PROBABILITY VS NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Sr.
Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
no
It is a method of sampling which In the absence of any idea of
gives the probability that a probability the method of
1
sample is representative of sampling is known as non-
population. probability sampling.
Probability sampling is generally It is generally used in action
used in fundamental research in researches in which one studies a
2
which the purpose is to class without any generalization
generalize the results. purpose.
It refers from the sample as well
3 There is no idea of population.
as the population.
Every individual of the There is no probability of
4 population has equal probability selecting
to be taken into the sample. any individual
It may be representative of the
5 It has free distribution.
population.
The observations are not used
Its observations (data) are used
6 for
for the inferential purpose.
generalization purpose.
Inferential or parametric Non-inferential or non-
7
statistics are used. parametric statistics are used.
There is a risk of drawing There is no risk for drawing
8
conclusion. conclusions.
It is based on Law of probability
sampling i.e. Law of Statistical It is not based on law of
9
Regularity and Law of Inertia of probability sampling.
the Large Sample.

Page 68 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 69 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [4]
3.
4. Measurement & Scaling Technique
4.1. Scale characteristic, Measurement Scales: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
4.2. Criterion for good Measurement: Validity, Reliability, Sensitivity
4.3. Scaling Techniques: Rating Scales, Ranking Scales.
4.4. Factors in selecting appropriate measurement scale

Page 70 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
MEASUREMENT SCALES:

The decision statement, corresponding research questions, and research hypotheses can
be used to decide what concepts need to be measured in a given project. Measurement is
the process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by assigning
numbers in a reliable and valid way. The numbers convey information about the property
being measured. When numbers are used, the researcher must have a rule for assigning
a number to an observation in a way that provides an accurate description.

Business researchers use many scales or number systems. Not all scales capture the
same richness in a measure. Not all concepts require a rich measure. Traditionally, the
level of scale measurement is seen as important because it determines the mathematical
comparisons that are allowable. The four levels or types of scale measurement are
nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio level scales. Each type offers the researcher
progressively more power in analyzing and testing the validity of a scale.

SCALE CHARACTERISTIC

All the scales, which we use for business research, are constructed based on three
characteristics. These three characteristics, whether they are present in a particular scale
or hot, define the scale. These three characteristics are order, distance, and origin.
Order. It denotes the relative size, position, or importance associated with the
characteristics of an object. Order represents the relative position and does not say
anything about the absolute value of the characteristics of an object. For instance,
characteristics of an object may assume value: good, better, best. It may be seen that
good, better, and best are based on the description of the characteristics of an object.
These three descriptions have an order among them. This means that better is better than
good and best is better than better.
For example, a list of movies may be provided to the consumer who is then required to
rate them in order of preference. All scales do not possess the order characteristic. For
example, in a yes/no scale neither of them can be said to be greater than or less than the
other, though numerical values are assigned to both these options. Similarly, gender
scale is another example which does not possess any order.

Page 71 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Distance. It indicates' that there are clearly known and measurable differences between
the scale descriptors. Consider the number of customers visiting the shop in a specific
time period. For different times, the numbers measured have a clearly defined
difference between them. Clearly a scale that has distance also has order. In the above
example, we have certain intervals which have higher number of people visiting and,
hence, are higher up in the order, as compared to others.
Origin. It implies that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning point, also called a zero
point. Again the example of number of customers visiting in a specific interval is an
example of a scale with origin as we have zero point for the case when we have no
customer visiting in the interval. While perception scales and gender scales are
generally devoid of origin

NOMINAL SCALE
According to this method, numbers are assigned to objects or persons in the process of
counting. The procedure consists in classifying persons, events or objects into a number
of mutually exclusive groups on the basis of the presence or absence of a particular
characteristic. Nominal measurement is characterized by counting. For instance, the
number of women employees in a particular bank. In the case of nominal scale, mode is
the applicable measure of central tendency.

Thus, nominal scales classify objects in accordance with the qualitative characteristics
that cannot be ranked. These include characteristics such as age, religion, sex etc. and
the various categories of classification are exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
Mathematical operations cannot be carried out on nominal scales, even though
frequencies can be calculated.

ORDINAL SCALE
According to this scale, objects can be ranked by using numerals or suitable letters.
These are ranking scales according to which objects can be categorized on the basis of
"more than" or "less than". Ordinal scale distinguishes two objects with reference to an
attribute qualitatively. This scale has only order and not a unique origin or distance.
Median is a measure of dispersion that can be used. The co-relation method based on
ranks can be used. Non-parametric procedure in regard to statistical significance are
also applicable.

Page 72 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Consumer-oriented marketing research is also based on ordinal data. This is because, a
consumer can rank the order of his preferences for a number of brands, or different
qualities of goods. However, ordinal scale cannot provide a measure of the extent of
qualitative substance that an object possesses. Ordinal scale plays an important role in
regard to attitude measurement or psychological scaling.

INTERVAL SCALE
An interval scale shows equality of differences. Intervals indicate equal quantities of the
variable that is measured. The numbers indicated on an interval scale can be added or
subtracted but cannot be multiplied or divided. Multiplication and division is not
possible as there is no unique origin or zero for the scale. For instance, the centigrade
and Fahrenheit temperature scales start with different points of origin. In the centigrade
scale the freezing point of water, which is the point of origin is zero whereas for
Fahrenheit scale the point of origin is 32. Statistical analysis can be carried out on the
basis of interval. For example, measures of central tendency such as mean, median or
mode and measures of dispersion such as range, standard deviation are based on this
scale. Further, t-test, analysis of variance correlation analysis is related to this scale.
Interval scale procedure is a common feature in attitude measurement.

RATIO SCALE

Page 73 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
A ratio scale possesses not only the characteristic properties of the interval scale of
measurement but also a natural true or absolute zero scale position or point. The values
on this scale can be multiplied or divided.

NATURAL ZERO

Some scales of measurement have a natural zero and some do not. For
example, height, weight etc have a natural 0 at no height or no weight.
Consequently, it makes sense to say that 2m is twice as large as 1m.
Both of these variables are ratio scale. On the other hand, year and
temperature (C) do not have a natural zero. The year 0 is arbitrary and
it is not sensible to say that the year 2000 is twice as old as the year
1000. Similarly, 0oC is arbitary (why pick the freezing point of water?)
and it again does not make sense to say that 20oC is twice as hot as
10oC. Both of these variables are interval scale.

For instance, 12 kilograms is a multiple of 6 kilograms (6 x 2) and 6 kilograms is exactly

half of 12 kilograms. Zero kilograms on the scale represent total absence of the substance
of weight. On account of the properties of identity, rank order, distance or difference in
magnitude and unique origin the ratio scale is considered as the most superior
measurement scale when compared with the other measures i.e. nominal scale, ordinal
scale and interval scale.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. This

objective, however, is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must be
aware about the sources of error in measurement. The following are the possible sources
of error in measurement.

(a)Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative

feelings or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not
admit his ignorance. All this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of 'guesses.'
Transient factors like fatigue, boredom, anxiety etc. may limit the ability of the
respondent to respond accurately and fully.

Page 74 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 (b)Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement.
Any condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the
interviewer-respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is present, he can
distort responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels
that anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

(c)Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering

questions. His behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain
replies from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings.
Errors may also creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or
statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis stage.

(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument The
use of complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous
meanings, poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions,
etc., are a few things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result
in measurement errors. Another type of instrument deficiency is the poor sampling
of the universe of items of concern.

3.2 CRITERION OF GOOD MEASUREMENT

1. VALIDITY
Validity is the accuracy of a measure or the extent to which a score truthfully represents
a concept. In other words, are we accurately measuring what we think we are
measuring? Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an
instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as
utility. In others words, validity is the extent to which differences found with a
measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being tested. But the
question arises: how can one determine validity without direct confirming knowledge?
The answer may be that we seek other relevant evidence that confirms the answers we
have found with our measuring tool. What is relevant evidence often depends upon the
nature of the research problem and the judgement of the researcher. But one can

Page 75 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
certainly consider three types of validity in this connection: (i) Content validity; (ii)
Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.

(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate
coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of
the universe, the content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental
and intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how
well the measuring instrument meets the standards, but there is no numerical way to
express it

(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the
existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of
measures used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must
possess the following qualities:

Relevance : (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper

measure.)

Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject
an equal opportunity to score well.)

Reliability :( A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)

Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)

In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (f)

Predictive validity and (if) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test
in predicting some future performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a
test in closely relating to other measures of known validity. Criterion-related validity is
expressed as the coefficient of correlation between test scores and some measure of
future performance or between test scores and scores on another measure of known
validity.

(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess
construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other
theoretical propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can
be accounted for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. For determining
construct validity, we associate a set of other propositions with the results received from

Page 76 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
using our measurement instrument. If measurements on our devised scale correlate in
a predicted way with these other propositions, we can conclude that there is some
construct validity.

If the above stated criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring
instrument is valid and will result in correct measurement; otherwise we shall have to
look for more information and/or resort to exercise of judgement

2. RELIABILITY
Reliability is an indicator of a measure’s internal consistency. Consistency is the key to
understanding reliability. A measure is reliable when different attempts at measuring
something converge on the same result. For example, consider an exam that has three
parts: 25 multiple-choice questions, 2 essay questions, and a short case. If a student gets
20 of the 25 (80 percent) multiple-choice questions correct, we would expect she would
also score about 80 percent on the essay and case portions of the exam. Further, if a
professor’s research tests are reliable, a student should tend toward consistent scores on
all tests. In other words, a student who makes an 80 percent on the first test should make
scores close to 80 percent on all subsequent tests. Another way to look at this is that the
student who makes the best score on one test will exhibit scores close to the best score
in the class on the other tests. If it is difficult to predict what students would make on a
test by examining their previous test scores, the tests probably lack reliability or the
students are not preparing the same each time.
So, the concept of reliability revolves around consistency. Think of a scale to measure
weight. You would expect this scale to be consistent from one time to the next. If you
stepped on the scale and it read 140 pounds, then got off and back on, you would expect
it to again read 140. If it read 110 the second time, while you may be happier, the scale
would not be reliable.
Internal consistency represents a measure’s homogeneity. An attempt to measure
trustworthiness may require asking several similar but not identical questions. The set
of items that make up a measure are referred to as a battery of scale items. Internal
consistency of a multiple-item measure can be measured by correlating scores on
subsets of items making up a scale.

Page 77 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
The split-half method of checking reliability is performed by taking half the items from
a scale (for example, odd-numbered items) and checking them against the results from
the other half (even-numbered items). The two scale halves should produce similar
scores and correlate highly.
The problem with split-half method is determining the two halves. Should it be even-
and odd numbered questions? Questions 1–3 compared to 4–6? Coefficient alpha
provides a solution to this dilemma.
Coefficient alpha (α) is the most commonly applied estimate of a multiple-item scale’s
reliability. Coefficient α represents internal consistency by computing the average of all
possible split-half reliabilities for a multiple-item scale. The coefficient demonstrates
whether or not the
different items converge. Although coefficient α does not address validity, many
researchers use α as the sole indicator of a scale’s quality. Coefficient alpha ranges in
value from 0, meaning no consistency, to 1, meaning complete consistency (all items
yield corresponding values). Generally speaking, scales with a coefficient α between
0.80 and 0.95 are considered to have very good reliability.
Scales with a coefficient α between 0.70 and 0.80 are considered to have good reliability,
and an α value between 0.60 and 0.70 indicates fair reliability. When the coefficient α is
below 0.6, the scale has poor reliability.10 Most statistical software packages, such as
SPSS, will easily
compute coefficient α.

3. SENSITIVITY
The sensitivity of a scale is an important measurement concept, particularly when
changes in attitudes or other hypothetical constructs are under investigation. Sensitivity
refers to an instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability in a concept. A
dichotomous response category, such as “agree or disagree,” does not allow the
recording of subtle attitude changes. A more sensitive measure with numerous
categories on the scale may be needed. For example, adding “strongly agree,” “mildly
agree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “mildly disagree,” and “strongly disagree” will
increase the scale’s sensitivity.

Page 78 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
The sensitivity of a scale based on a single question or single item can also be increased
by adding questions or items. In other words, because composite measures allow for a
greater range of possible scores, they are more sensitive than single-item scales. Thus,
sensitivity is generally increased by adding more response points or adding scale items.

3.3 SCALING TECHNIQUES,

In research we quite often face measurement problem (since we want a valid

measurement but may not obtain it), especially when the concepts to be measured are
complex and abstract and we do not possess the standardised measurement tools.
Alternatively, we can say that while measuring attitudes and opinions, we face the
problem of their valid measurement. Similar problem may be faced by a researcher, of
course in a lesser degree, while measuring physical or institutional concepts. As such
we should study some procedures which may enable us to measure abstract concepts
more accurately. This brings us to the study of scaling techniques.

MEANING OF SCALING
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion,
attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two ways viz., (i) making a judgement
about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that
has been defined in terms of that characteristic and (ii) constructing questionnaires in
such a way that the score of individual's responses assigns him a place on a scale. It may
be stated here that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of
some characteristic e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the lowest point along
with several intermediate points between these two extreme points. These 1Scale-point
positions are so related to each other that when the first point happens to be the highest
point, the second point indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as
compared to the third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared
to the fourth and so on. Numbers for measuring the distinctions of degree in the
attitudes/Opinions are, thus, assigned to individuals corresponding to their scale-
positions. All this is better understood when we talk about scaling technique(s). Hence
the term 'scaling' is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine quantitative
measures of subjective abstract concepts. Scaling has been defined as a "procedure for

Page 79 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a property of objects in order to impart
some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question."

SCALE CLASSIFICATION BASES

The number assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified
on one or more of the following bases: (a) subject orientation; (b) response form; (c)
degree of subjectivity; (d) scale properties; (e) number of dimensions and (f) scale
construction techniques. We take up each of these separately.

(a) Subject orientation: Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics of

the respondent who completes it or to judge the stimulus object which is presented to
the respondent. In respect of the former, we presume that the stimuli presented are
sufficiently homogeneous so that the between-stimuli variation is small as compared to
the variation among respondents. In the latter approach, we ask the respondent to judge
some specific object in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume that the
between-respondent variation will be small as compared to the variation among the
different stimuli presented to respondents for judging.

(b) Response form : Under this we may classify the scales as categorical and
comparative. Categorical scales are also known as rating scales. These scales are used
when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to other objects. Under
comparative scales, which are also known as ranking scales, the respondent is asked to
compare two or more objects. In this sense the respondent may state that one object is
superior to the other or that three models of pen rank in order 1, 2 and 3. The essence of
ranking is, in fact, a relative comparison of a certain property of two or more objects.

(c) Degree of subjectivity: With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we
measure subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference judgements. In
the former case, the respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which
solution he would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to
judge which person is more effective in some aspect or which solution will take fewer
resources without reflecting any personal preference.

(d) Scale properties: Considering scale properties, one may classify the scales as
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Nominal scales merely classify without
indicating order, distance or unique origin. Ordinal scales indicate magnitude

Page 80 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
relationships of 'more than' or 'less than', but indicate no distance or unique origin.
Interval scales have both order and distance values, but no unique origin. Ratio scales
possess all these features.

(e) Number of dimensions: In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as 'uni-
dimensional and 'multidimensional' scales. Under the former we measure only one
attribute of the respondent or object; whereas multidimensional scaling recognizes that
an object might be described better by using the concept of an attribute space of 'n"
dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.

(f) Scale construction techniques: Following are the five main techniques by which
scales can be developed.

(i)Arbitrary approach: It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc basis. This

is the most widely used approach. It is presumed that such scales measure the
concepts for which they have been designed, although there is little evidence to
support such an assumption.

(ii) Consensus approach: Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for
inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area
and unambiguous in implication.

(iii) Item analysis approach: Under it a number of individual items are developed into
a test which is given to a group of respondents. After administering the test, the
total scores are calculated for everyone. Individual items are then analysed to
determine which items discriminate between persons or objects with high total
scores and those with low scores.

(iv) Cumulative scales are chosen on the basis of their conforming to some ranking
of items with ascending and descending discriminating power. For instance, in
such a scale the endorsement of an item representing an extreme position should
also result in the endorsement of all items indicating a less extreme position.

(v) Factor scales may be constructed on the basis of inter-correlations of items which
indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationship between items. This
relationship is typically measured through factor analysis method.

SCALING TECHNIQUES

Page 81 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
The important scaling techniques often used in the context of research especially in
context of social or business research are...

Rating scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of
aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. When we use rating scales (or categorical
scales), we judge an object in absolute terms against some specified criteria i.e., we judge
properties of objects without reference to other similar objects. These ratings may be in
such forms as "like-dislike", "above average, average, below average", or other
classifications with more categories such as "like very much — like some what — neutral
— dislike somewhat—dislike very much"; "excellent—good—average— below average
— poor", "always — often — occasionally — rarely — never", and so on. There is no
specific rule whether to use a two-points scale, three-points scale or scale with still more
points. In practice, three to seven points scales are generally used for the simple reason
that more points on a scale provide an opportunity for greater sensitivity of
measurement.

Rating scale may be either a graphic rating scale or an itemized rating scale.

(i)The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is commonly used in practice. Under it
the various points are usually put along the line to form a continuum and the rater
indicates his rating by simply making a mark (such as /) at the appropriate point on a
line that runs from one extreme to the other. Scale-points with brief descriptions may be
indicated along the line, their function being to assist the rater in performing his job.
The following is an example of five-points graphic rating scale when we wish to
ascertain people's liking or disliking any product:

How do you like the product? (Please check)

Like very much Like somewhat Neutral Dislike somewhat Dislike very much

This type of scale has several limitations. The respondents may check at almost any
position along the line which fact may increase the difficulty of analysis. The meanings
of the terms like "very much" and "somewhat" may depend upon respondent's frame of

Page 82 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
reference so much so that the statement might be challenged in terms of its equivalency.
Several other rating scale variants (e.g., boxes replacing line) may also be used.

(ii) The itemized rating scale (also known as numerical scale) presents a series of
statements from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. These
statements are ordered progressively in terms of more or less of some property. An
example of itemized scale can be given to illustrate it-Suppose we wish to inquire as to
how well does a worker get along with his fellow workers? In such a situation we may
ask the respondent to select one, to express his opinion, from the following:

• He is almost always involved in some friction with a fellow worker.

• He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers.
• He sometimes gets involved in friction.
• He infrequently becomes involved in friction with others.
• He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers.

The chief merit of this type of scale is that it provides more information and meaning to
the rater, and thereby increases reliability. This form is relatively difficult to develop
and the statements may not say exactly what the respondent would like to express.

Rating scales have certain good points. The results obtained from their use compare
favourably with alternative methods. They require less time, are interesting to use and
have a wide range of applications. Besides, they may also be used with a large number
of properties or variables. But their value for measurement purposes depends upon the
assumption that the respondents can and do make good judgements. If the respondents
are not very careful while rating, errors may occur. Three types of errors are common
viz., the error of leniency, the error of central tendency and the error of hallo effect. The
error of leniency occurs when certain respondents are either easy raters or hard raters.
When raters are reluctant to give extreme judgements, the result is the error of central
tendency. The error of hallo effect or the systematic bias occurs when the rater carries
over a generalised impression of the subject from one rating to another. This sort of error
takes place when we conclude, for example, that a particular report is good because we
like its form or that someone is intelligent because he agrees with us or has a pleasing
personality. In other words, hallo effect is likely to appear when the rater is asked to rate
many factors, on a number of which he has no evidence for judgement.

Page 83 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Ranking scales: Under ranking scales (or comparative scales) we make relative
judgements against other similar objects. The respondents under this method directly
compare two or more objects and make choices among them. There are two generally
used approaches of ranking scales viz.,

(a) Method of paired comparisons: Under it the respondent can express his attitude by
making a choice between two objects, say; between a new flavour of soft drink and an
established brand of drink. But when there are more than two stimuli to judge, the
number of judgements required in a paired comparison is given by the formula:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑁=
2

Where N = number of judgements

n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged. For instance, if there are ten suggestions
for bargaining proposals available to a workers union, there are 45 paired comparisons
that can be made with them. When N happens to be a big figure, there is the risk of
respondents giving ill-considered answers or they may even refuse to answer. We can
reduce the number of comparisons per respondent either by presenting to each one of
them only a sample of stimuli or by choosing a few objects which cover the range of
attractiveness at about equal intervals and then comparing all other stimuli to these few
standard objects. Thus, paired-comparison data may be treated in several ways. If there
is substantial consistency, we will find that if X is preferred to Y, and Y to Z, then X will
consistently be preferred to Z. If this is true, we may take the total number of preferences
among the comparisons as the score for that stimulus.

(b) Method of rank order: Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents
are asked to rank their choices. This method is easier and faster than the method of
paired comparisons stated above. For example, with 10 items it takes 45 pair
comparisons to complete the task, whereas the method of rank order simply requires
ranking of 10 items only. The problem of transitivity (such as A prefers to B, B to C, but
C prefers to A) is also not there in case we adopt method of rank order.

Moreover, a complete ranking at times is not needed in which case the respondents may
be asked to rank only their first, say, four choices while the number of overall items

Page 84 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
involved may be more than four, say, it may be 15 or 20 or more. To secure a simple
ranking of all items involved we simply total rank values received by each item. There
are methods through which we can as well develop an interval scale of these data. But
then there are limitations of this method. The first one is that data obtained through this
method are ordinal data and hence rank ordering is an ordinal scale with all its
limitations. Then there may be the problem of respondents becoming careless in
assigning ranks particularly when there are many (usually more than 10) items.

3.4 FACTORS IN SELECTING APPROPRIATE MEASUREMENT SCALE.

A researcher always faces a dilemma in deciding the type of scale to be used for the
research. He or she generally considers six factors in deciding the type of scale to be
selected. These six factors are as follows-

3.4.1 Decision on the Basis of Objective of Conducting a Research

The researchers have versatile and numerous objectives to be focused on. In the field of
the business research, the researches generally try to uncover attitudes of consumer for
an object, attitude change for an object, product or product attribute preference,
consumer behaviour, consumer satisfaction, purchase intention or purchase behaviour,
post-purchase behaviour, and so on. For example, if a company is in the process of
launching a new product in a particular geographical area, then the first objective of
using any scale is to uncover the purchase intention of the consumer. In addition to
obtaining this information, the researcher can also generate other information such as
the satisfaction level of consumers from the other products of the company as well as
consumer preference for the products of the other companies. Hence, while deciding
about the measurement of scale, the research objective must be considered first.

3.4.2 Decision Based on the Response Data Type Generated by Using a Scale

To get the nominal information, a nominal scale (multiple-choice scales) is used. This
kind of demographic information provides a new dimension to research. For example,
product preference can always he clubbed with some demographic variables such as
age or gender of a consumer. A respondent's attitude significantly varies in the light of
differences among the demographic characteristics of respondents. A researcher has to
use a ranking scale when he or she is supposed to make comparisons between the two

Page 85 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
objects or object attributes. The ranking scales are also used to rank different objects
simultaneously from a list of objects presented to them. The rating scales are generally
used when research focus is to get the respondent's response for an object on a rating
continuum usually on a 1- to 5- or 1- to 7-point rating scale. For example, a respondent
is presented with the I - to 5-point rating scale in which I is strongly disagree and 5
strongly agree. The respondent is supposed to provide his or her opinion about the
service facility statements (items) of a five-star hotel group. Sometimes, a ratio scale is
used to obtain direct information such as average income of a group and its comparison
with the other groups.

3.4.3 Decision Based on Using Single or Multi-Item Scale

Single-item scale or multi-item scale or both has its own advocates and opponents in the
field of business research. Proponents of the multi-item scale believe that a single
observation may be misleading and lacking in context, thus the multi-item
measurement scales can help to overcome these distortions. Practitioner’s preference for
single-item measures is not theoretically based but rather is practical, in that single-item
measures minimize respondent refusal and reduce data collection and data processing
cost. Based on the research objective, a researcher should take a decision about the
single-item or multi-item scale.

3.4.4 Decision Based on Forced or Non-Forced Choice

In a forced-choice rating scale, the researchers do not include a “no opinion” option in
the scale points. This forces a respondent to provide an opinion even when he has no
opinion about the object. In some cases, researchers conduct a research study under the
assumption that the respondent will definitely be providing an opinion in terms of
selecting a rating point. In such situations, the respondents may sometimes have an
undecided attitude and they usually select the mid-point of the scale. This mid-point of
the scale is necessarily not the no opinion option and hence biases the result. The
respondents tendency to select the middle option distorts the result, as measures of
central tendency such as mean and median of the data tend to shift towards the mid-
point. In such a situation, a researcher can incorporate a no opinion point in the scale to
avoid biased responses. In a non-forced-choice rating scale, a no opinion option is
provided by the researcher.

Page 86 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
3.4.5 Decision Based on Using Balanced or Unbalanced Scale

In a balanced scale, the number of favourable categories and unfavourable categories

remains equal. In an unbalanced scale, favourable and unfavourable categories remain
unequal. A balanced scale is of the following form: strongly disagree, disagree, neither
agree nor disagree, agree, and strongly agree. Note that in this type of scale, two rating
points indicate agreement, two rating points indicate non-agreement and one point is
the neutral state (neither agree nor disagree). Hence, this scale is a balanced scale. An
unbalanced scale is of the following form: strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly
agree, and very strongly agree. It can be noted that in the discussed scale, three rating
points indicate agreement and only two rating points indicate non-agreement resulting
in an unbalanced scale The respondents have the tendency of rating higher when object
is familiar to them or when the object involves “ego” of the respondents. Usually,
researchers use a balanced scale with equal number of favourable and unfavourable
terms. Sometimes researchers know in advance that the respondents will present a
skewed response in favour and non-favour of the research phenomenon. In this case, an
unbalanced scale in the direction of skewness may be an appropriate choice. In the case
of using an unbalanced rating scale, the researchers have to lake this consideration when
doing data analysis.

3.4.6 Decision Based on the Number of Scale Points and Its Verbal Description

The researchers generally use a 3-, 5-, 7-, 9-, or II-point scale. In some rare cases, a 13-
point scale is also used. When an object is simple and has no major impact on the
respondent's life, a simple 3-point scale can be used. In other case, when the object
requires high involvement of the respondent, any scale ranging from 5 to 11 points can
be considered by the researcher.

While deciding the number of scale categories, some factors such as handling comfort
of respondents, respondent’s awareness about the subject matter, and mode of data
collection method must be considered. It is obvious that the respondent finds a great
deal of difficulty in handling scale categories if these are many. Therefore, based on the
researcher’s essentiality to include scale categories, too many items in scale categories
must be avoided. The respondent’s familiarity with the subject matter or objects allows
a researcher to include a large number of categories. Oh the other hand, if the

Page 87 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
respondent is unaware or little aware about the object or subject matter, the inclusion of
a large number of categories must be avoided. Mode of data collection is also a
determinant of scale categories. For example, a researcher will be uncomfortable using
a large number of categories while administering the questionnaire through a
telephone. The telephone method of data collection requires some fewer scale
categories.

A scale can have numerical or verbal or pictorial descriptions associated with the scale
points. In some cases, researchers label extreme scale points. In some other cases, the
researchers label every scale point. As a general rule, the description of the scale point
should be close to the concerned point. As another matter of understanding, labelling
all the scale points allows a researcher to avoid scale ambiguity. These are the general
recommendations. although the final decision is a matter of researcher’s wisdom.

Page 88 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 89 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [5]
Data Management
4.
5. Data Collection
5.1. Types & Sources of Data: Primary & Secondary
5.2. Methods of Primary Data Collection
5.2.1. Observation: Characteristic, Merits & Demerits
5.2.2. Interview: Characteristic, Types, Steps, Merits & Demerits
5.2.3. Questionnaire: Wording Questions, guidelines for constructing questions,
best questions sequence formulating Questionnaire, Merits & Demerits
Schedule, Schedule vs Questionnaire

Page 90 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 DATA MANAGEMENT
5.1 DATA COLLECTION

PRIMARY DATA
Primary data is data gathered for the first time by the researcher.it is the data observed
or collected directly from first-hand experience.

SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data are those data which have been already collected and analysed by some
earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.

According to W.A.Neiswanger," A primary source is a publication in which the data are

published by the same authority which gathered and analysed them. A secondary
source is a publication, reporting the data which have been gathered by other authorities
and for which others are responsible."

Sources of secondary data:-The various sources of secondary data can be divided into
two broad categories:

1. Published sources and,

2. Unpublished sources.

1. Published Sources: Various governmental, international and local agencies publish

statistical data, and chief among them are explained below:

(a) International Publications: There are some international institutions and bodies like
I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E, and the U.N.O etc. who publish regular and occasional
reports on economic and statistical matters.

(b) Official publications of Central and State Governments: Several departments of the
Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on a number of subjects.
They gather additional information. Some of the important publications are: the
Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Statistical Abstracts of States,
Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.

Page 91 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
(c) Semi- official publications: Semi-Government institutions like Municipal
Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats, etc. publish reports relating to different
matters of public concern.

(d) Publications of Research Institutions: Indian Statistical Institution (I.S.I), Indian

Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R), Indian Agricultural Statistics Research
Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc. publish the findings of their research programmes.

(e) Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions

(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as

the Raj Committee's Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee's Report
on Taxation and Black Money, etc. are also important sources of secondary data.

(g) Journals and News Papers: Journals and News Papers are very important and
powerful source of secondary data. Current and important materials on statistics and
socio-economic problems can be obtained from journals and newspapers like, Economic
Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of trade etc.

2. Unpublished Sources: Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished

sources like records maintained by various government and private offices, the theses
of the numerous research scholars in the universities or institutions etc.

Merits of Secondary Data

The secondary data is having the following advantages: :
a. Collection is less costly as data is already available
b. It is faster to collect and process as compared to primary data
c. It provides valuable inputs and contextual familiarity with the subject matter
d. It provides a base on which further information can be collected to update the
data and finally use the data for the purpose of research
Demerits of Secondary Data
a. Locating appropriate source and finally getting access to the data can be time
consuming.
b. The data available might be too vast arid a lot of efforts is required to execute it
empirically
a. c It is originally collected for some purposes which is specific and not known to
the researcher. In this case it may mislead while using the data.

Page 92 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 b. d The accuracy of the secondary data as well as its reliability would depend on
its sources and
c. It is not updated regularly and is not of much use in a dynamically changing
environment.

5.2 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION:

OBSERVATION
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort
of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and
the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For
instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking
the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch.

The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation
is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to
what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future
intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness
to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of
respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e.,
respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other.

However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive

method. Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly,
sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the
fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this
method to collect data effectively.

Page 93 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should
be observed? How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of
observation can be ensured? In case the observation is characterised by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But when
observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance,
the same is termed as unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered
appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study the observational
procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.

Characteristic of Observation Method

1. Observation is a Systematic Method:
Observation is not haphazard or unplanned. The length of the observation periods, the
interval between them, the number of observations, the area or situation of observation
and various techniques used for observation are carefully planned. Often there are
systematic managements for controlling the situation if special factors are to be studied,
for example study of honest behaviour, sportsman spirit, leadership qualities etc.
2. Observation is Specific:
It is not just looking around for general aspects of human behaviour. Rather it is directed
at those specific aspects of total situation which are assumed to be significant from the
stand point of the purpose of the study. The layman may frequently overlook what is
crucial while observing an event or phenomenon, but the scientific observer should look
for some definite things which suit his purpose of study so as to economies his time,
money and effort for observation.
3. Observation is Objective:
Observation should be objective and free from bias as far as possible. It should generally
be guided by a hypothesis. The observer must maintain ethical neutrality. He must
consider hypothesis as something to be tested. But at the same time he must maintain a
flexible attitude, so that he can deviate from his original plan when such deviation
appears inevitable.
4. Observation is Quantitative:

Page 94 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Although many important phenomena cannot be quantified, it becomes almost an
imperative to use some means for quantifying observations in order to increase their
precision and to facilitate their analysis. Even the quality should be converted into
quantity, because qualitative data is subjective and quantitative one is objective and can
further be interpreted in objective manner.
5. Observation is an Affair of Eyes:
Observation is a systematic and deliberate study through eye. An observer gathers the
data which he has seen in his own eyes. Collecting information through eyes is probably
the most trustworthy technique of data collection in social research.
6. Definite Aim:
Observation must have some definite aims and objectives. It should be clearly defined
before the beginning of the actual observation process. Without the proper aims and
objectives observation will be unsystematic and expensive.
7. The Record of Observation is Made Immediately:
During the observation period it is very difficult on the part of the observer to remember
each and every element of observation. He may forget much important information. If
we rely on memory the factor of forgetting will enter and affect the data of observation.
Therefore the observer should record all important information’s as soon as the
observation is completed.
8. Observation is Verifiable:
Observation result can be checked and verified. Observation must be verified with usual
criteria of reliability, validity and usability. It may be possible to check the findings of
the observation by comparing the results of different observers by repeating the study.

Merits of Observation Method

There are many positive aspects of the observational research approach.
a. More Flexible. -Observations are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be
structured around a hypothesis (remember a hypothesis is a statement about what the
researcher expects to observe).
b. Strongly Valid: In terms of validity, observational research findings are considered to
be strong. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the
researcher is able to collect the depth of information about a particular behaviour.

Page 95 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
c. Common Method: The method of observation is common to all the disciplines of
research.
d Realistic: Since observation is based on actual and first-hand experience, its data are
more realistic than the data of those techniques which use indirect and secondary source
of information.
e. Formulation of Hypothesis: In all the business operations, the method of observation is
used as the basis of formulating hypothesis, regarding business research problems.
f. Verification: For verification of hypothesis, the researchers have to depend on
observation. Therefore, it can be said that the problem presents itself and resolves itself
through observation.

Demerits of Observation Method

a. Problems of Reliability and Generalization: There are problems with reliability and
generalization. Reliability refers the extent that observations can be replicated.
Observing behaviours happening over and over again may be a time consuming task.
In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique population and, therefore,
cannot be generalized.
b. Some Observations Cannot be Treated as Objects of Observation: There are certain events
which are microscopic, indefinite and may not occupy any definite space or occur at a
definite time and cannot be noticed for observation purpose. For example, it is not
possible to observe emotions and sentimental factors, likes and dislikes, etc.
c Slowness of Investigation: The slowness of observation methods leads to disheartening,
disinterest among both observer and observed.
d. Expensive Methodology: Being a long drawn process, the technique of observation is
expensive.

INTERVIEW
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or
persons. (At times the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer

Page 96 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
responds to these, but usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the
information.) This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation
or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation, the
interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. He
has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.

This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain cases it
may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on
account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique
may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under
which the interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have
knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is
recorded.

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out
in a structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such
interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardised techniques of recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach
to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined
questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a non-structured
interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater
freedom while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others. But
this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another and
the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-
consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of structured
interviews. Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on
the part of the interviewer. Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central
technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or Formulative research
studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured

Page 97 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for generalization
and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting

respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays
important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits
of such a system are: 1. it is more flexible in comparison to mailing method. 2. It is faster
than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information. 3. It is cheaper than
personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low. 4. Recall is
easy; callbacks are simple and economical. 5. There is a higher rate of response
than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is generally very low. 6. Replies
can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents. 7. Interviewer can
explain requirements more easily. 8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who
otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other. 9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Characteristic of Interview Method

The following are the main characteristic of interview method:
a. Here the researcher is having close contact or interaction including dialogue between
two or more persons who are called as respondents
b. Here is a pre-determined and definite objective of interview such as knowing the ideas
and views of others, getting familiarity about their behaviour pattern, etc.

Merits of the Method:

a. Interviews are ideal for investigating personal, sensitive, or confidential information
which is unsuitable to cover in a group format.
b.. This is also the best method for advertising pre-testing, where, the researcher is
seeking individual interpretations and responses.
c. Interviews are also valuable for researching people with busy lifestyles who would
be unlikely to attend a focus group-te., senior businesspeople or doctors, or simply for
those who cannot practically I attend like the farmers or solo parents with young
children, etc.

Page 98 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
d. These techniques are used to determine individuals' perceptions and opinions, facts
and forecasts, and individuals’ reactions to initial findings and potential solutions.
e. Interviews may be used to determine the spectrum of insights and biases that exist
about a program, product, or service. This initial exploration also assists in formulating
the problem to be solved.
Demerits of the Method:
a. The respondent may feel like ‘a bug under a microscope' and be less willing to open
up than in the relaxed atmosphere of a group.
b.A skilled interviewer can overcome this to a large degree, through the establishment
of good rap tor and trust. Well-executed interviews are essentia for solving critical
market and social problems. Interviews contribute invaluable information to research
efforts.

QUESTIONNAIRE
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It
is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public
organisations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually
by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space
meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the
questions on their own.

WORDING QUESTIONS
Open-Ended versus Closed Ended Questions:
Open ended questions ask respondents to respond to a question in their own terms.
Closed ended questions are questions where the respondent is asked to place
themselves into one of a limited number of responses which are provided to them.
• Open-ended questions allow the greatest variety of responses, but are time
consuming to ask and require a lot of work to analyse.
• Closed ended questions, when well designed, ensure that respondents interpret
questions the same way.

Page 99 of 184
© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 • Respondents are more likely to skip an open-ended than closed-ended question
Rating Scales for Attitude Questions:
• Usually between five and seven points is best
• Generally, providing a middle category provides better data
• Points on the scale should be labeled with clear, unambiguous words
• Questions which use agree/disagree scales can be biased toward the “agree”
side, so it’s usually best to avoid this wording.
• Try to write questions so that both positive and negative items are scored “high”
and “low” on a scale.
• The order that response categories are presented to a respondent can also
influence their answer choices.
o Primacy Effect: Occurs in paper and internet surveys: respondents tend to
pick the first choice
o Recency Effect: Occurs when questions are read to a respondent.
Respondents tend to pick the choice they heard most recently
o Randomizing or rotating response options is usually a good idea
o In Internet surveys, radio buttons work better than drop-down menus.
General Rules for Wording Questions
The ideal question accomplishes three goals:
o It measures the underlying concept it is intended to tap
o It doesn’t measure other concepts
o It means the same thing to all respondents
The following rules help to accomplish this:
Avoid technical terms and jargon. Words used in surveys should be easily understood
by anyone taking the survey. Examples: “Do you support or oppose tort reform?”
“Should people held on terror related crimes have the right of habeas corpus?”
Avoid Vague or Imprecise Terms. Usually, it’s best to use terms that will have the same
specific meaning to all respondents. For example, it’s not clear what you get when you
ask “How important is it that a candidate shares your values?” You might get a more
consistent answer if you asked: “How important is it that a candidate shares your
religious values?”

Page 100 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Define Things Very Specifically: For example, don’t ask: “What is your income?” A
better question would be specific and might ask: “What was your total household
income before GST taxes in 2017?”
Avoid Complex Sentences. Sentences with too many clauses or unusual constructions
often confuse respondents. Scales that ask respondents to make complex calculations
can cause problems. How easy will it be for a typical person to answer: “Do you think
the increase in the rate of immigration, controlling for the economy, is higher or lower
than the increase in the rate of crime in your area?”
Provide Reference Frames: Make sure all respondents are answering questions about
the same time and place. For example, if you ask: “How often do you feel sad?” some
people might provide an answer about their life’s experience, while others might only
be thinking about today.
Usually, it’s better to provide a reference frame: “How often have you felt sad during
the past week?” Don’t ask: “How good is the economy these days” and assume
everyone is talking about the same economy. A better way might be to ask: “How good
is the national economy these days” or “How good is the economy in your community
these days”
Make Sure Scales Are Ordinal: If you are using a rating scale, each point should be
clearly higher or lower than the other for all people. For example, don’t ask “How many
jobs are available in your town: Many, a lot, some, or a few. “ It’s not clear to everyone
that “a lot” is less than “many.” A better scale might be: “A lot, some, only a few, or
none at all.”
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions. Questions should measure one thing. Double
barrelled questions try to measure two (or more!) things. For example: “Do you think
the president should lower taxes and spending.” Respondents who think the president
should do only one of these things might be confused.
Answer Choices Should Anticipate All Possibilities. If a respondent could have more
than one response to a question, it’s best to allow for multiple choices. If the categories
you provide don’t anticipate all possible choices, it’s often a good idea to include an
“Other-Specify” category.
If You Want a Single Answer, Make Sure Your Answer Choices Are Unique and Include
all Possible Responses If you are measuring something that falls on a continuum, word

Page 101 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
your categories as a range. For example, the following scale misses possible responses:
What punishment should this person receive: No punishment, Five years in prison, Ten
years in prison, Twenty years in prison, Life in prison, or the death penalty?” A better
scale might be worded: What punishment should this person receive: No punishment,
Punishment not including jail time, Up to five years in prison, From five years to ten
years in prison, From ten years to 20 years in prison, More than 20 years but less than
life in prison, Life in prison, or the death penalty?”
Avoid Questions Using Leading, Emotional, or Evocative Language. For example, “Do
you believe the US should immediately withdraw troops from the failed war in Iraq?”
“Do you support or oppose the death tax?.” Sometimes the associations can be more
subtle. For example, “Do you support or oppose PM Modi’s plan to require
standardized testing of all public school students?” Some people might support or
oppose this because it is sponsored by PM Modi, not because of their opinions toward
the merits of policy.

GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTING QUESTIONNAIRE/ SCHEDULE,

The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing an appropriate
and effective questionnaire or a schedule:
(1) The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the
starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule; He must be clear about the
various aspects of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research
project.
(2) Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the
sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide
whether to use closed or open-ended questions. Questions should be simple and must
be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out
tabulation plan. The units of enumeration should also be defined precisely so that they
can ensure accurate and full information.
(3) Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule is prepared, giving due thought to the
appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously
drafted (if available) may as well be looked into at this stage.

Page 102 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
(4) Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough
draft for a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed.
(5) Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The
questionnaire may be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
(6) Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the
respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.

CHOICE OF QUESTIONS
(1) The researcher should include only such questions as have a direct bearing on the
problem itself or on the evaluation of the methodology adopted for study.
(2) Questions whose answers can be secured more accurately easily and effectively from
other source may be excluded.
(3) The selection of questions should be done with an eye on the subsequent tabulation
plan.
(4) In drawing up the schedule or questionnaire, other studies or surveys on comparable
material should be kept in mind. As far as feasible, identical items, terms, definitions,
and quantitative units of measurement should be employed
(5) Care should be taken while asking personal questions or those which may embarrass
the respondent.
(6) Only such factual questions, to which most of the informants can reasonably be
expected to know, should be asked. Frequently, duration, vividness, interest,
meaningfulness and setting are some of the important factors that help securing the
required information.
(7) Questions that are likely to yield inaccurate responses should be avoided. People
often resort to a form of wishful thinking in answering questions on such matters as the
level of education they have had, the jobs they have had, the jobs they have held, etc.
(8) Questions which involve too much mental effort on the part of the informant should
be avoided, e.g., entailing mathematical calculations.

BEST QUESTIONS SEQUENCE FORMULATING QUESTIONNAIRE,

The order of questions, or the question sequence, may serve several functions for the
researcher. If the opening questions are interesting, simple to comprehend and easy to

Page 103 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
answer, respondents’ cooperation and involvement can be maintained throughout the
questionnaire. Asking easy-to answer questions teaches respondents their role and
builds their confidence.
A mail survey among department store buyers drew an extremely poor return rate. A
substantial improvement in response rate occurred, however, when researchers added
some introductory questions seeking opinions on pending legislation of great
importance to these buyers. Respondents continued on to complete all the questions,
not only those in the opening section.
In their attempt to “warm up” respondents toward the questionnaire, student
researchers frequently ask demographic or classification questions at the beginning of
the survey. This generally is not advisable, because asking for personal information such
as income level or education may embarrass or threaten respondents. Asking these
questions at the end of the questionnaire usually is better, after rapport has been
established between respondent and interviewer.
Order bias can result from a particular answer’s position in a set of answers or from the
sequencing of questions. In political elections in which candidates lack high visibility,
such as elections for county commissioners and judges, the first name listed on the ballot
often receives the highest percentage of votes. For this reason, many election boards
print several ballots so that each candidate’s name appears in every possible position on
the ballot.
Order bias can also distort survey results. For example, suppose a questionnaire’s
purpose is to measure levels of awareness of several charitable organizations. If Ambani
Foundations is always mentioned first, the Indian Red Cross second, and the Tata
Foundations third, Murthi Foundations fourth and Ambani Foundations may receive
an artificially high awareness rating because respondents are prone to yea-saying (by
indicating awareness of the first item in the list).
Asking specific questions before asking about broader issues is a common cause of order
bias. For example, people who are first asked, “Are you satisfied with your marriage?”
will respond differently to a follow-up question that asks, “Are you satisfied with your
life?” than if the questions are asked in the reverse order. Generally, researchers should
ask general questions before specific questions. This procedure, known as the funnel
technique, allows the researcher to understand the respondent’s frame of reference

Page 104 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
before asking more specific questions about the level of the respondent’s information
and the intensity of his or her opinions.
With attitude scales, there also may be an anchoring effect. The first concept measured
tends to become a comparison point from which subsequent evaluations are made.
Randomization of items on a questionnaire susceptible to the anchoring effect helps
minimize order bias.
A related problem is bias caused by the order of alternatives on closed questions. To
avoid this problem, the order of these choices should be rotated if producing alternative
forms of the questionnaire is possible. Unfortunately, business researchers rarely print
alternative questionnaires to eliminate problems resulting from order bias. With
Internet surveys, however, reducing order bias by having the computer randomly order
questions and/or response alternatives is quite easy. With complete randomization,
question order is random and respondents see response alternatives in different
positions.
Asking a question that does not apply to the respondent or that the respondent is not
qualified to answer may be irritating or cause a biased response because the respondent
wishes to please the interviewer or to avoid embarrassment. Including a filter question
minimizes the chance of asking questions that are inapplicable. Asking a human
resource manager “How would you rate the third party administrator (TPA) of your
employee health plan?” may elicit a response even though the organization does not
utilize a TPA. The respondent may wish to please the interviewer with an answer. A
filter question such as “Does your organization use a third party administrator (TPA)
for your employee health plan?” followed by “If you answered Yes to the previous
question, how would you rate your TPA on . . . ?” would screen out the people who are
not qualified to answer.
If embedded in the questionnaire, this would create the need for a skip question for those
that did not use a TPA as discussed below.
Another form of filter question, the pivot question, can be used to obtain income
information and other data that respondents may be reluctant to provide. For example,
“Is your total family income over or under ₹ 50,000?” IF UNDER, ASK, “Is it over or under
₹25,000?” IF OVER, ASK, “Is it over or under ₹ 75,000?”
Under ₹ 25,000 ₹ 50,001–₹ 75,000

Page 105 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 ₹ 25,001–₹ 50,000 Over ₹ 75,000

Merits of Questionnaire Method:

The questionnaire method has some merits in its favour among other methods of data
collection. They are:
1. Practical
2. Collection of planned data
3. It puts less pressure on the respondents to answer.
4. Takes less time than other methods for collection of data
5. Rechecking is possible in case of error
6. Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people
in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way
7. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited
affect to its validity and reliability
8. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified
by either a researcher or through the use of a software package
9. Can be analysed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of
research
10. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change

Demerits of the Questionnaire Method:

1. Possibility of poor response
2. Incomplete information
3. Problem arises in case of delay in getting replies
4. Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e.
changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
5. Lacks validity
6. There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
7. There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
8. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation

Page 106 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 9. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on
their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be
'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not
acknowledged

SCHEDULE
This method of data collection is very much like the questionnaire method, with little
difference which lies in the fact that schedules (Proforma containing a set of questions)
are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules go to respondents, put to them the questions
from the Proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the
space meant for the same in the Proforma. In certain situations, schedules may be
handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers
to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of
the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of
difficult terms.

This method requires the selection of enumerators (Assistants) for filling up schedules
or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very
carefully selected. The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the
nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that
they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule.
Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross examination
in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, and
hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.

This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly
reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations
conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census
all over the world is conducted through this method.

TYPES OF SCHEDULES
Schedules that are generally used in business research are classified as:

Page 107 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 b. Observation Schedule: Schedules that are used in observation research are
called as observation schedules. In these schedules observer records the
activities and responses of a worker or a group under specific conditions. The
main purpose of the observation schedule is to verify information.
c. Rating Schedules: In the field of business guidance, psychological research, and
social research, the rating schedules are used to assess the attributes, opinions,
preferences and other qualitative elements. As is evident from the term rating,
in these schedules the value and the trend of the above mentioned qualities is
measured on a rating scale.
d. Document Schedule: The schedules of this type are used to obtain data
regarding written evidence and case histories from autobiography, diary, case
histories of the companies or Government records, etc.
e. Interview Schedule: In an interview schedule an interviewer presents the
questions of the schedule to interviewee and records their responses.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCHEDULE AND QUESTIONNAIRE

It is a general concern that schedule is nothing but the sum of a number of
questionnaires. Hence, both are almost the same. Even though from the view of
objective both are the same, yet in reality from the view of methodology, reliability and
time, etc., there are much differences between the two methods of primary data
collection. Important differences between the two concepts are narrated below:

S.No Questionnaire Schedule

1. Questionnaire is generally sent through A schedule is generally filled by the
mail to informants to be answered as research worker or enumerator, who can
specified in a covering letter, but interpret the questions when necessary.
otherwise without further assistance
from the sender.
2. Data collection is cheap and economical Data collection is more expensive as
as the money is spent in preparation of money is spent on enumerators and in
questionnaire and in mailing the same to imparting trainings to them. Money is
respondents. also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non response is usually high as Non response is very low because this is
many people do not respond and many filled by enumerators who are able to
return the questionnaire without get answers to all questions. But even in
answering all questions. Bias due to non this their remains the danger of
response often remains indeterminate. interviewer bias and cheating.

Page 108 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 4. It is not clear that who replies. Identity of respondent is not known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be Information is collected well in time as
very slow since many respondents do not they are filled by enumerators.
return the questionnaire.
6. No personal contact is possible in case of Direct personal contact is established
questionnaire as the questionnaires are
sent to respondents by post who also in
turn returns the same by post.
7. This method can be used only when The information can be gathered even
respondents are literate and cooperative. when the respondents happen to be
illiterate.
8. Wider and more representative There remains the difficulty in sending
distribution of sample is possible. enumerators over a relatively wider
area.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong The information collected is generally
information is relatively more under the complete and accurate as enumerators
questionnaire method, when people are can remove difficulties if any faced by
unable to understand questions properly. respondents in correctly understanding
the questions. As a result the
information collected through schedule
is relatively more accurate than that
obtained through questionnaires.
10. The success of questionnaire methods It depends upon the honesty and
lies more on the quality of the competence of enumerators
questionnaire itself.
11. The physical appearance of questionnaire This may not be the case as schedules
must be quite attractive. are to be filled in by enumerators and
not by respondents.
12. It is a type of non-contact method for It is the direct method for information
information collection. collection.
13. This method is comparatively cheaper This method is expensive and less time
and more time consuming. consuming.
14. Embarrassing questions cannot be used. Embarrassing questions can be used.
15. Any kind of doubt can be created and it Any kind of doubt can be cleared on the
is difficult to resolve. spot.

Page 109 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [6]
6. Qualitative research:
6.1. Meaning, uses of qualitative research, Qualitative vs Quantitative research,
Orientations: Phenomenology, Ethnography, Grounded theory, Case studies.
6.2. Techniques in qualitative research: Focus groups, Depth interviews,
conversations, semi-structured interviews, Social Networking, Observations,
collages, Free Association technique, projective techniques.

Page 110 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
4.3 MEANING OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH-

Qualitative business research is research that addresses business objectives through

techniques that allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of market
phenomena without depending on numerical measurement. Its focus is on discovering
true inner meanings and new insights. Qualitative research is very widely applied in
practice. There are many research firms that specialize in qualitative research.
Qualitative research is less structured than most quantitative approaches. It does not
rely on self- response questionnaires containing structured response formats. Instead, it
is more researcher dependent in that the researcher must extract meaning from
unstructured responses, such as text from a recorded interview or a collage representing
die meaning of some experience, such as skateboarding. The researcher interprets the
data to extract its meaning and converts it to information.

USES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Mechanics can’t use a hammer to fix everything that is broken. Instead, the mechanic
has a toolbox from which a tool is matched to a problem. Business research is the same.
The researcher has many tools available and the research design should try to match the
best tool to the research objective. Also, just as a mechanic is probably not an expert with
every’ tool, each researcher usually has special expertise with a small number of tools.
Not every researcher has expertise with tools that would comprise qualitative research.
Generally, the less specific the research objective, the more likely that qualitative
research tools will be appropriate. Also, when the emphasis is on a deeper
understanding of motivations or on developing novel concepts, qualitative research is
very appropriate. The following list represents common situations that often call for
qualitative research:
1. When it is difficult to develop specific and actionable problem statements or
research objectives. For instance, if after several interviews with the research
client the researcher still can’t determine exactly what needs to be measured,
then qualitative research approaches may help with problem definition.
Qualitative research is often useful to gain further insight and crystallize die
research problem.

Page 111 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 2. When the research objective is to develop an understanding of some phenomena
in great detail and in much depth. Qualitative research tools are aimed at
discovering the primary themes indicating human motivations and the docu-
mentation of activities is usually very complete. Often qualitative research pro-
vides richer information than quantitative approaches.
3. When the research objective is to learn how a phenomenon occurs in its natural
setting or to learn how to express some concept in colloquial terms. For example,
how do consumers actually use a product? Or exactly how does the accounting
department process invoices? While a survey can probably ask many useful
questions, observing a product in use or watching the invoice process will
usually be more insightful. Qualitative research produces many product and
process improvement ideas.
4. When some behavior the researcher is studying is particularly context
dependent—meaning the reasons something is liked or some behavior is per-
formed depend very much on the particular situation surrounding the event.
Understanding why Vans are liked is probably difficult to determine correctly
outside the skating environment.
5. When a fresh approach to studying some problem is needed. This is particularly
the case when quantitative research has yielded less than satisfying results.
Qualitative tools can yield unique insights, many of which may lead the
organization in new directions.
Each of these describes a scenario that may require an exploratory orientation.
Previously, we defined exploratory research as appropriate in ambiguous situations or
when new insight is needed. We indicated that exploratory research approaches are
sometimes needed just to reach the appropriate problem statement and research
objectives. While equating qualitative research with exploratory research is an
oversimplification, the application of qualitative tools can help clear up ambiguity and
provide innovative ideas.

QUALITATIVE "VERSUS" QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

In social science, one can find many debates about the superiority of qualitative research
over quantitative research or vice versa. We’ll begin by saying that this is largely a
superfluous argument in either direction. The truth is that qualitative research can

Page 112 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
accomplish research objectives that quantitative research cannot. Similarly, truthful, but
no more so, quantitative research can accomplish objectives that qualitative research
cannot. The key to successfully using either is to match the right approach to the right
research context.
Many good research projects combine both qualitative and quantitative research. For
instance, developing valid survey measures requires first a deep understanding of die
concept to be measured and a description of the way these ideas arc expressed in
everyday language. Both of these are tasks best suited for qualitative research. However,
validating the measure formally to make sure it can reliably capture the intended
concept will likely require quantitative research. Also, qualitative research may be
needed to separate symptoms from problems and then quantitative research can follow
up to test relationships among relevant variables.

Quantitative business research can be defined as business research that addresses

research objectives through empirical assessments that involve numerical measurement
and analysis approaches. Qualitative research is more apt to stand on its own in the
sense that it requires less interpretation.
For example, quantitative research is quite appropriate when a research objective
involves a managerial action standard. For example, a salad dressing company
considered changing its recipe.'' The new recipe was tested with a sample of consumers.
Each consumer rated the product using numeric scales. Management established a rule
that a majority of consumers rating the new product higher than the old product would
have to be established with 90 percent confidence before replacing the old formula. A
project like this can involve both quantitative measurement in the form of numeric
rating scales and quantitative analysis in the form of applied statistical procedures.
Qualitative vs Quantitative research,
Research Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Aspect
Common Discover ideas. Used in Test Hypotheses or Specific
Purpose Exploratory Research with Research Questions
General Research Objects
Focus of Understand and interpret Describe, explain, and predict
research
Sample design Nonprobability; purposive Probability

Approach Observe and Interpret Measure and Test

Page 113 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 Data Collection Unstructured. Free-Form Structured Response
Approach Categories Provided
Researcher Researcher Is Intimately Researcher Uninvolved
Independence Involved. Results Are Subjective. Observer. Results Are
Objective.
Samples Small Samples—Often in Natural Large Samples to Produce
Settings Generalizable Results
(Results That Apply to Other
Situations)
Data analysis  Human analysis following  Computerized analysis—
computer or human coding; statistical and mathematical
primarily non-quantitative Methods dominate
 Forces researcher to see the  Analysis may be ongoing
contextual framework of the during the project
phenomenon being  Maintains clear distinction
measured—distinction between facts and
between facts and judgments judgments
less clear
 Always ongoing during the
project
Most Often Exploratory Research Designs Descriptive and Causal
Used Research Designs

ORIENTATIONS TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research can be performed in many ways using many techniques.
Orientations to qualitative research are very much influenced by the different fields of
study involved in research. These orientations are each associated with a category of
qualitative research. The major categories of qualitative research include
1. Phenomenology—originating in philosophy and psychology
2. Ethnography—originating in anthropology
3. Grounded theory—originating in sociology
4. Case studies—originating in psychology and in business research
Precise lines between these approaches arc difficult to draw and there are clearly links
among these orientations. In addition, a particular qualitative research study may
involve elements of two or more approaches. However, each category does reflect a
somewhat unique approach to human inquiry and approaches to discovering
knowledge.

PHENOMENOLOGY

Page 114 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Phenomenology represents a philosophical approach to studying human experiences
based on the idea that human experience itself is inherently subjective and determined
by the context in which people live. The phenomenological researcher focuses on how
a person’s behavior is shaped by the relationship he or she has with the physical
environment, objects, people, and situations. Phenomenological inquiry seeks to
describe, reflect upon, and interpret experiences.
Researchers with a phenomenological orientation rely largely on conversational
interview tools. When conversational interviews are face to face, they are recorded
either with video or audiotape and then interpreted by the researcher. The
phenomenological interviewer is careful to avoid asking direct questions when at all
possible. Instead, the research respondent is asked to tell a story about some experience.
In addition, the researcher must do everything possible to make sure a respondent is
comfortable telling his or her story. One way to accomplish this is to become a member
of the group. Another way may be to avoid having the person use his or her real name.
This might be particularly necessary in studying potentially sensitive topics such as
smoking, drug usage, shoplifting, or employee theft.
Therefore, a phenomenological approach to studying the meaning of Vans may require
considerable time. The researcher may first spend weeks or months fitting in with the
person or group of interest to establish a comfort level. During this time, careful notes
of conversations are made. If an interview is sought, the researcher would likely not
begin by asking a skateboarder to describe his or her shoes. Rather, asking for favorite
skateboard incidents or talking about what makes a skateboarder unique may generate
productive conversation. Generally, the approach is very unstructured as a way of
avoiding leading questions and to provide every opportunity for new insights.
Hermeneutics in Phenomenology
The term hermeneutics is important in phenomenology. Hermeneutics is an approach
to understanding phenomenology that relies on analysis of texts in which a person tells
a story about him or herself. Meaning is then drawn by connecting text passages to one
another or to themes expressed outside the story. These connections are usually
facilitated by coding the key meanings expressed in the story. While a full
understanding of hermeneutics is beyond the scope of this text, some of the terminology
is used when applying qualitative tools. For instance, a hermeneutic unit refers to a text

Page 115 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
passage from a respondent’s story that is linked with a key theme from within this story
or provided by the researcher.’ These passages are an important way in which data are
interpreted.
Computerized software exists to assist in coding and interpreting texts and images.
ATLAS is one such software package that adopts the term hermeneutic unit in referring
to groups of phrases that are linked with meaning. Hermeneutic units and
computerized software are also very appropriate in grounded theory approaches. One
useful component of computerized approaches is a word counter. The word counter
will return counts of how many times words were used in a story. Often, frequently
occurring words suggest a key theme.

ETHNOGRAPHY
Ethnography represents ways of studying cultures through methods that involve
becoming highly active within that culture. Participant-observation symbolizes an
ethnographic research approach.
Participant-observation means the researcher becomes immersed within the culture that
he or she is studying and draws data from his or her observations. A culture can be cither
a broad culture, like American culture, or a narrow culture, like urban gangs, Harley-
Davidson owners, or skateboarding enthusiasts.
Organizational culture would also be relevant for ethnographic study. At times,
researchers have actually become employees of an organization for an extended period
of time. In doing so. they become pan of the culture and over time other employees come
to act quite naturally around the researcher. The researcher may observe behaviors that
the employee would never reveal otherwise. For instance, a researcher investigating the
ethical behavior of salespeople may have difficulty getting a car salesperson to reveal
any potentially deceptive sales tactics in a traditional interview. However, ethnographic
techniques may result in the salesperson letting down his or her guard, resulting in more
valid discoveries about the car-selling culture.

Observation in Ethnography

Observation plays a key role in ethnography. Researchers today sometimes ask

households for permission to place video cameras in their home. In doing so. the

Page 116 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
ethnographer can study the consumer in a “natural habitat" and use the observations to
test new products, develop new product ideas, and develop strategies in general.

Ethnographic study can be particularly useful when a certain culture is comprised of

individuals who cannot or will not verbalize their thoughts and feelings. For instance,
ethnography has advantages for discovering insights among children since it does not
rely largely on their answers to questions. Instead, the researcher can simply become
part of the environment, allow the children to do what they do naturally, and record
their behavior.

The opening vignette describing a participant-observer approach to learning about

skateboarding culture represents an ethnographic approach. Here, the researcher would
draw insight from observations and personal experiences with the culture.

GROUNDED THEORY
Grounded theory is probably applied less often in business research than is either
phenomenology or ethnography.
Grounded theory represents an inductive investigation in which the researcher poses
questions about information provided by respondents or taken from historical records.
The researcher asks the questions to him or herself and repeatedly questions the
responses to derive deeper explanations. Grounded theory is particularly applicable in
highly dynamic situations involving rapid and significant change. Two key questions
asked by the grounded theory researcher are "What is happening here?” and “How is it
different?” The distinguishing characteristic of grounded theory is that it does not begin
with a theory but instead extracts one from whatever emerges from an area of inquiry.’

How Is Grounded Theory Used?

Consider a company that approaches a researcher to study whether or not its sales force
is as effective as it has been over the past five years. The researcher uses grounded
theory to discover a potential explanation. A theory is inductively developed based on
text analysis of dozens of sales meetings that had been recorded over the previous five
years. By questioning the events discussed in the sales interviews and analyzing
differences in the situations that may have led to the discussion, the researcher is able
to develop a theory. The theory suggests that with an increasing reliance on e-mail and

Page 117 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
other technological devices for communication, the salespeople do not communicate
with each other informally as much as they did five years previously. As a result, the
salespeople had failed to bond into a close-knit “community.”

CASE STUDIES
Case studies simply refer to the documented history of a particular person, group,
organization, or event. Typically, a case study may describe the events of a specific
company as it faces an important decision or situation, such as introducing a new
product or dealing with some management crisis. Textbook cases typify- this kind of
case study. Clinical interviews of managers, employees, or customers can represent a
case study.
The case studies can then be analyzed for important themes. Themes are identified by
the frequency with which the same term (or a synonym) arises in the narrative
description. The themes may be useful in discovering variables that are relevant to
potential explanations.
How are case studies used?
Case studies are commonly applied in business. For instance, case studies of brands
that sell "luxury" products helped provide insight into what makes up a prestigious
brand. A business researcher carefully conducted case (no pun intended) studies of
higher end wine labels (such as Penfolds Grange) including the methods of production
and distribution. This analysis suggested that a key ingredient to a prestige brand may
well be authenticity. When consumers know something is authentic, they attach more
esteem to that product or brand.
A primary advantage of the case study is that an entire organization or entity can be
investigated in depth with meticulous attention to detail. This highly focused attention
enables the researcher to carefully study the order of events as they occur or to
concentrate on identifying the relationships among functions, individuals, or entities.
Conducting a case study often requires the cooperation of the party' whose history is
being studied. This freedom to search for whatever data an investigator deems
important makes the success of any case study highly dependent on the alertness,
creativity, intelligence, and motivation of the individual performing the case analysis.

Page 118 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
TECHNIQUES USED IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative researchers apply a nearly endless number of techniques. These techniques
overlap more than one of the orientations previously discussed, although each category
may display a preference for certain techniques. Table 7 lists characteristics of some
common qualitative research techniques. Each is then described.

TABLE 7FOUR COMMON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TOOLS

Tool Description Type of Key Advantages Key

Approach Disadvantages
(Category)
Focus Group Small group Ethnograp  Can be done • Results
Interviews discussions led hy, case quickly dependent on
by a trained studies  Gain multiple moderator
moderator perspectives • Results do not
 Flexibility generalize to
larger
population
• Difficult to use
for sensitive
topics
• Expensive
Depth One-on-one. Ethnograp  Gain • Result
Interviews probing hy, considerable dependent on
interview grounded Insight from each researcher’s
between a theory, Individual interpretation
trained case  Good for • Results not
researcher and a studies understanding meant to
respondent unusual generalize
behaviors • Very expensive
Conversation Unstructured Phenomen  Gain unique • Easy to get off
s dialogue ology, insights from course
recorded by a grounded enthusiasts • interpretations
researcher theory  Can cover are very
sensitive topics researcher-
 Less expensive dependent
than depth
interviews or
focus groups
Semi- Open-ended Grounded  Can address • Lack the
Structured questions, often theory, more specific flexibility that
Interviews m writing, that ethnograp issues is likely to
ask for short hy  Results can be produce truly
essay-type easily Interpreted creative or
answers from  Cost advantages novel
respondents over focus explanations
groups and
depth interviews

Page 119 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 Word Records the first Grounded  Economical • Lack the
Association/ thoughts that theory,  Can be done flexibility that
Sentence come to a case quickly is likely to
Completion consumer in studies produce truly
response to creative or
some stimulus novel
explanations
Observation Recorded notes Ethnograp  Can be • Can be very
describing hy, unobtrusive expensive with
observed events grounded  Can yield actual participant-
theory, behavior patterns observer series
case
studies
Collages Respondents Phenomen  Flexible enough • Highly
assemble ology, to allow novel dependent on
pictures that grounded insights the researcher's
represent their theory interpretation
thoughts/feelin of the collage
gs
Thematic Researcher Phenomen  Projective, allows • Highly
Apperceptio provides an ology, to get at sensitive dependent on
n/ Cartoon ambiguous grounded issues the researcher's
Tests picture and theory  Flexible interpretation
respondent tells
about the story

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW?

The focus group interview is so widely used that many advertising and research
agencies do nothing but focus group interviews. In that sense, it is wrongly synonymous
with qualitative research. Nonetheless, focus groups are a very important qualitative
research technique and deserve considerable discussion.
A focus group interview is an unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group
of people, usually between six and ten. Focus groups are led by a trained moderator
who follows a flexible format encouraging dialogue among respondents. Common
focus group topics include employee programs, employee satisfaction, brand meanings,
problems with products, advertising themes, or new product concepts.
The group meets at a central location at a designated time. Participants may range from
consumers talking about hair coloring, petroleum engineers talking about problems in
the “oil patch." children talking about toys, or employees talking about their jobs. A
moderator begins by providing some opening statement to broadly steer discussion in
the intended direction. Ideally, discussion topics emerge at the group’s initiative, not

Page 120 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
the moderator’s. Consistent with phenomenological approaches, moderators should
avoid direct questioning unless absolutely necessary.

ADVANTAGES OF FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS

Focus groups allow people to discuss their true feelings, anxieties, and frustrations, as
well as the depth of their convictions, in their own words. While other approaches may
also do much the same, focus groups offer several advantages:

1. Relatively fast
2. Easy to execute
3. Allow respondents to piggyback off each other’s ideas
4. Provide multiple perspectives
5. Flexibility to allow more detailed descriptions
6. High degree of scrutiny

Speed and Ease

In an emergency situation. three or four group sessions can be conducted, analyzed, and
reported in a week or so. The large number of research firms that conduct focus group
interviews makes it easy to find someone to host and conduct the research. Practically
every state in the United States contains multiple research firms that have their own
focus group facilities. Companies with large research departments likely have at least
one qualified focus group moderator so that they need not outsource the focus group.
Piggybacking and Multiple Perspectives
Furthermore, the group approach may produce thoughts that would not be produced
otherwise. The interplay between respondents allows them to piggyback off each
other’s ideas. In other words, one respondent stimulates thought among the others and.
as this process continues, increasingly creative insights are possible. A comment by one
individual often triggers a chain of responses from the other participants. The social
nature of the focus group also helps bring out multiple views as each person shares a
particular perspective.
Flexibility
The flexibility of focus group interviews is advantageous, especially when compared
with the more structured and rigid survey format. Numerous topics can be discussed

Page 121 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
and many insights can be gained, particularly with regard to the variations in consumer
behavior in different situations. Responses that would be unlikely to emerge in a survey
often come out in group interviews: “if the day is hot and I have to serve the whole
neighborhood. I make Kool-Aid; otherwise, I give them Dr Pepper or Coke’’ or “Usually
1 work on my projects at home in the evenings, but when it is a team project we set aside
time on Monday morning and all meet in the conference room."
If a researcher is investigating a target group to determine who consumes a particular
beverage or why a consumer purchases a certain brand, situational factors must be
included in any interpretations of respondent comments. For instance, in the preceding
situation, the fact that a particular beverage is consumed must be noted. It would be
inappropriate to say that Kool-Aid is preferred in general. The proper interpretation is
situation specific. On a hot day the whole neighborhood gets Kool-Aid. When the
weather isn’t hot. the kids may get nothing, or if only a few kids arc around, they may
get lucky and get Dr Pepper. Thus. Kool-Aid can be interpreted as appropriate for
satisfying large numbers of kids on a hot day while Dr Pepper is a treat for a select few.
Similarly. individual assignments are worked on at home in the evenings, while team
projects in the morning in the conference room.

Scrutiny A focus group interview allows closer scrutiny in several ways. First, the
session can be observed by several people, as it is usually conducted in a room
containing a two-way mirror. The respondents and moderator arc on one side, and an
invited audience that may include both researchers and decision makers is on the other.
If the decision makers are located in another city or country, the session may be shown
via a live video hookup. Either through live video or a two-way mirror, some check on
the eventual interpretations is provided through the ability- to actually watch the
research being conducted. If the observers have questions that arc not being asked or
want the moderator to probe on an issue, they can send a quick text message with
instructions to the moderator.
Second, focus group sessions are generally recorded on audio or videotape. Later,
detailed examination of the recorded session can offer additional insight and help clear
up disagreements about what happened.
Focus Group Illustration

Page 122 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Focus groups often are used for concept screening and concept refinement. The concept
may be continually modified, refined, and retested until management believes it is
acceptable. While RJR’s initial attempts at smokeless cigarettes failed in the United
States. Philip Morris is developing a smokeless cigarette for the U.K. market. Focus
groups are being used to help understand how the product will be received and how it
might be improved. The voluntary focus group respondents arc presented with samples
of the product and then they discuss it among themselves. The interview results suggest
that the key product features that must be conveyed are the fact that it produces no
ashes, no side smoke, and very little odor. These beliefs are expected to lead to a positive
attitude. Focus group respondents show little concern about how the cigarette actually
functioned. Smokers believe they will use the product if non-smokers are not irritated
by being near someone using the "electronic cigarette.” Thus, the focus groups are useful
in refining the product and developing a theory of how' it should be marketed.
The ideal size of the focus group is six to ten people. If the group is too small, one or two
members may intimidate the others. Groups that arc too large may not allow for
adequate participation by each group member.
Homogeneous groups seem to work best because they allow researchers to concentrate
on consumers with similar lifestyles. experiences, and communication skills. The
session does not become rife with too many arguments and different viewpoints
stemming from diverse backgrounds. Also, from an ethnographic perspective. the
respondents should all be members of a unique and identifiable culture. Vans may
benefit from a focus group interview comprised only of skateboard enthusiasts. Perhaps
participants can be recruited from a local skate park. However, additional group(s) of
participants that are not boarders might be useful in gaining a different perspective.

When the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention tested public service
announcements about AIDS through focus groups, it discovered that single-race groups
and racially diverse groups reacted differently. By conducting separate focus groups,
the organization was able to gam important insights about which creative strategies
were most appropriate for targeted versus broad audiences.
For example, for focus groups regarding employee satisfaction, we might want to recruit
homogeneous groups based on position in the organization. The researcher may find
that entry-level employees have very different perspectives and concerns than those of

Page 123 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
middle or upper-level management. Also, it is hilly understandable that employees
might be hesitant to criticize their supervisors. Therefore. researchers may consider
interviewing different levels of employees in separate groups.
Researchers who wish to collect information from different types of people should
conduct several focus groups. A diverse overall sample may be obtained by using
different groups even though each group is homogeneous. For instance, in discussing
household chores, four groups might be used:
1. Married men
2. Married women
3. Single men
4. Single women
Although each group is homogeneous, by using four groups, researchers obtain
opinions from a wide degree of respondents.

DEPTH INTERVIEWS
An alternative to a focus group is a depth interview. A depth interview is a one-on-one
interview between a professional researcher and a research respondent. Depth
interviews arc much the same as a psychological, clinical interview, but with a different
purpose. The researcher asks many questions and follows up each answer with probes
for additional elaboration. Like focus group moderators, the interviewer’s role is critical
in a depth interview. He or she must be a highly skilled individual who can encourage
the respondent to talk freely without influencing the direction of the conversation.
Probing questions are critical.
Laddering is a term used for a particular approach to probing, asking respondents to
compare differences between brands at different levels. What usually results is that the
first distinctions arc attribute-level distinctions, the second arc benefit-level distinctions,
and the third are at the value or motivation level. Laddering can then distinguish two
brands of skateboarding shoes based on a) the materials they are made of, b) the comfort
they provide, and c) the excitement they create.

Each depth interview may last more than an hour. Thus, it is a time-consuming process
if" multiple interviews are conducted. Not only does the interview have to be
conducted, but each interview produces about the same amount of text as does a focus

Page 124 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
group interview. This has to be analyzed and interpreted by the researcher. A third
major issue stems from the necessity of recording both surface reactions and
subconscious motivations of the respondent. Analysis and interpretation of such data
are highly subjective, and it is difficult to settle on a true interpretation.
Depth interviews provide more insight into a particular individual than do focus
groups. In addition, since the setting isn’t really social, respondents are more likely to
discuss sensitive topics than arc those in a focus group. Depth interviews are
particularly advantageous when some unique or unusual behavior is being studied. For
instance, depth interviews have been usefully applied to reveal characteristics of
adolescent behavior, ranging from the ways they get what they want from their parents
to shopping, smoking, and shoplifting.
Depth interviews are similar to focus groups in many ways. The costs are similar if only
a few interviews are conducted. However, if a dozen or more interviews are included
in a report, the costs are higher than focus group interviews due to the increased
interviewing and analysis time.
Characteristics of Depth Interviews
Depth interviews are unstructured and interactive way of collecting information for a
particular research. While in focus group interview, the number of participants ranges
between 8 and 12. depth interviews are conducted by the interviewer with one
respondent at a time. It is about a particular product, brand, idea. etc. A depth interview
usually lasts from 30 minutes to 2 hours. For a high-end product like automobile
purchase where it is not possible to assemble several prospective buyers at one place at
one particular time, depth interviews seem to be extremely useful. Depth interviews are
also useful for personal products like contraceptives, AIDS vaccine, sanitary napkins,
etc. Discussions of sensitive and confidential topics can easily be done through depth
interview which otherwise is not possible in focus group interviews.
While the interviewer catalogue is a broad guideline of the interview, often a specific
discussion depends upon perception and feelings of the interviewee and his responses
during the time of the interview.
Depth interview has several advantages over focus group interview, since due to its
individualistic nature of interviewee-interviewer interaction several important
information of consumer buying behavior can be obtained. Depth interview encourages

Page 125 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
free extent of information between interviewer and interviewee which otherwise is not
possible when the discussion happens in a group.
While depth interview has several advantages over focus group interview, it does have
several drawbacks as well. The quality and sufficiency of information from a depth
interview largely depends on the ability and expertise of the interviewer. Skilled
interviewers are of high demand and quite expensive. At the same time, discussions
resulted from group dynamics are absent in depth interview'. Depth interviews are also
not effective when marketers want to know the features of the new product that they
want to develop.

CONVERSATIONS
Holding conversations in qualitative research is an informal data-gathering approach in
which the researcher engages a respondent in a discussion of the relevant subject matter.
This approach is almost completely unstructured and the researcher enters the
conversation with few expectations. The goal is to have the respondent produce a
dialogue about his or her lived experiences. Meaning will be extracted from the
resulting dialogue.
A conversational approach to qualitative research is particularly appropriate in
phenomenological research and for developing grounded theory. In our Vans
experience, the researcher may simply tape-record a conversation about becoming a
“skater." The resulting dialogue can then be analyzed for themes and plots. The result
may be some interesting and novel insight into the consumption patterns of skaters, for
example, if the respondent said.
"I knew I was a real skater when I just had to have Vans, not just for boarding, but for
wearing."
This theme may connect to a right — of — passage plot and show how Vans play a role
in this process.
Technology is also influencing conversational research. Online communications such as
the reviews posted about book purchases at https://flipkart.com, https://amazon.com can
be treated as a conversation. Companies may discover product problems and ideas for
overcoming them by analyzing these computer-based consumer dialogues.”
A conversational approach is advantageous because each interview is usually
inexpensive to conduct. Respondents often need not be paid. They are relatively

Page 126 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
effective at getting at sensitive issues once the researcher establishes a rapport with
them. Conversational approaches, however, are prone to produce little relevant
information since little effort is made to steer the conversation. Additionally, the data
analysis is very much researcher-dependent.

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Semi-structured interviews usually come in written form and ask respondents for short
essay responses to specific open-ended questions. Respondents are free to write as much
or as little as they want. The questions would be divided into sections, typically, and
within each section, the opening question would be followed by some probing
questions. When these are performed face to face, there is room for less structured
follow-ups.
The advantages to this approach include an ability to address more specific issues.
Responses are usually easier to interpret than other qualitative approaches. Since the
researcher can simply prepare the questions in writing ahead of time, and if in writing,
the questions are administered without the presence of an interviewer, semi-structured
interview's can be relatively cost- effective.
Some researchers interested in studying car salesperson stereotypes used qualitative
semi- structured interviews to map consumers’ cognitions (memory). The semi-
structured interview began with a free-association task:
List the first five things that come into your mind when you think of a "car salesman."
This was followed up with a probing question:
Describe the way a typical “car salesman " looks.
This was followed with questions about how the car salesperson acts and how the
respondent feels in the presence of a car salesperson. The results led to research showing
how the information that consumers process differs in the presence of a typical car
salesperson, as opposed to a less typical car salesperson.

SOCIAL NETWORKING
Social networking is one of the most impactful trends in recent times. For many
consumers, particularly younger generations, social networking sites like Facebook,
MySpace, Second Life, Whatsapp, Instagram and others have become the primary tool
for communicating with friends both far and near and known and unknown. Social
networking has replaced large volumes of e-mail and, many would say, face- to-face

Page 127 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
communications as well. While the impact that social networking will eventually have
on society is an interesting question, what is most relevant to marketing research is the
large portion of this information that discusses marketing and consumer related
information.
Companies can assign research assistants to monitor these sites for information related
to their particular brands. The information can be coded as either positive or negative.
When too much negative information is being spread, the company can try to react to
change the opinions. In addition, many companies like ‘P&G’ and ‘Ford’ maintain their
own social networking sites for the purpose of gathering research data. In a way, these
social networking sites are a way that companies can spy on consumer conversations
and discover key information about their products. The textual data that consumers
willingly put up becomes like a conversation. When researchers get the opportunity to
react with consumers or employees through a social network site, they can function
much like an online focus group or interview.

FREE-ASSOCIATION/SENTENCE COMPLETION METHOD

Free-association techniques simply record a respondent’s first cognitive reactions (top-
of-mind) to some stimulus. The Rorschach or inkblot test typifies the fire-association
method. Respondents view an ambiguous figure and are asked to say the first thing that
comes to their mind. Free- association techniques allow researchers to map a
respondent’s thoughts or memory.
The sentence completion method is based on free-association principles. Respondents
simply are required to complete a few partial sentences with the first word or phrase
that comes to mind. For example:
People who drink beer are______________________________
A man who drinks a dark beer is _______________________
Imported beer is most liked by___________________________
The woman drinking beer in the commercial_______________
Answers to sentence-completion questions tend to be more extensive than responses to
word- association tests. Although the responses lack the ability to probe for meaning as
in other qualitative techniques, they are very effective in finding out what is on a
respondent’s mind. They can also do so in a quick and very cost-effective manner. Free-
association and sentence-completion tasks are sometimes used in conjunction with

Page 128 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
other approaches. For instance, they can sometimes be used as effective icebreakers in
focus group interviews.

OBSERVATION
Observation can be a very important qualitative tool. The participant-observer approach
typifies how observation can be used to explore various issues. Meaning is extracted
from field notes. Field notes are the researchers’ descriptions of what actually happens
in the field. These notes then become the text from which meaning is extracted.
Observation may also take place in visual form. Researchers may observe employees in
their workplace, consumers in their home, or try to gam knowledge from photographic
records of one type or another. Observation can either be very inexpensive, such as
when a research associate sits and simply observes behavior, or it can be very expensive,
as in most participant-observer studies. Observational research is keenly advantageous
for gaining insight into things that respondents cannot or will not verbalize.
Observation research is a common method of primary data collection.

COLLAGES
Business researchers sometimes have respondents prepare a collage to represent their
experiences. The collages are then analyzed for meaning much in the same manner as
text dialogues are analyzed. Computer software can even be applied to help develop
potential grounded theories from the visual representations.
Harley-Davidson commissioned research in which collages depicting feelings about
Harley-Davidson were compared based on whether the respondent was a Harley owner
or an owner of a competitor’s brand. The collages of “Hog” owners revealed themes of
artwork and the freedom of the great outdoors. These themes did not emerge in the non-
Hog groups. This led to confirmatory research which helped Harley continue its
growth, appealing more specifically to its diverse- market segments.
Like sentence completion and word association, collages are often used within some
other approach, such as a focus group or a depth interview. Collages offer the advantage
of flexibility but are also very much subject to the researcher’s interpretations.

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES.

Page 129 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Researchers are often looking for hidden or suppressed meanings, projective techniques
can be used within the interview structures. Indirect interviewing techniques also called
as Projective techniques for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists
to use projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or
intentions which are such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable
to figure out himself. In projective techniques the respondent in supplying information
tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study.
Projective techniques play an important role in motivational researches or in attitude
surveys. Table 8 displays some of projective techniques.
The use of these techniques requires intensive specialized training. In such techniques,
the individual’s responses to the stimulus-situation are not taken at their face value. The
stimuli may arouse many different kinds of reactions. The nature of the stimuli and the
way in which they are presented under these techniques do not clearly indicate the way
in which the response is to be interpreted. The stimulus may be a photograph, a picture,
an inkblot and so on. Responses to these stimuli are interpreted as indicating the
individual’s own view, his personality structure, his needs, tensions, etc. in the context
of some pre-established psychological conceptualization of what the individual’s
responses to the stimulus mean.
C.R. Kothari described some of the projective techniques as below-
(I) WORD ASSOCIATION TESTS: These tests are used to extract information regarding such words
which have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to mention the
first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as the interviewer reads out each
word from a list. If the interviewer says cold, the respondent may say hot and the like ones.
The general technique is to use a list of as many as 50 to 100 words. Analysis of the matching
words supplied by the respondents indicates whether the given word should be used for
the contemplated purpose. The same idea is exploited in marketing research to find out the
quality that is mostly associated to a brand of a product. A number of qualities of a product
may be listed and informants may be asked to write brand names possessing one or more
of these. This technique is quick and easy to use, but yields reliable results when applied to
words that are widely known and which possess essentially one type of meaning. This
technique is frequently used in advertising research.
(II) SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of
word association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a sentence (such as:

Page 130 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
persons who wear Khadi are...) to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality
characteristics. Several sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same
subject. Analysis of replies from the same informant reveals his attitude toward that subject,
and the combination of these attitudes of all the sample members is then taken to reflect the
views of the population. This technique permits the testing not only of words (as in case of
word association tests), but of ideas as well and thus, helps in developing hypotheses and
in the construction of questionnaires. This technique is also quick and easy to use, but it
often leads to analytical problems, particularly when the response happens to be
multidimensional.
(III) STORY COMPLETION TESTS: Such tests are a step further wherein the researcher may contrive
stories instead of sentences and ask the informants to complete them. The respondent is
given just enough of story to focus his attention on a given subject and he is asked to supply
a conclusion to the story.
(IV) VERBAL PROJECTION TESTS: These are the tests wherein the respondent is asked to comment
on or to explain what other people do. For example, why do people smoke? Answers may
reveal the respondent’s own motivations.
(V) PICTORIAL TECHNIQUES : There are several pictorial techniques. The important ones are as
follows:
(a) Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.): The TAT consists of a set of pictures (some of
the pictures deal with the ordinary day-to-day events while others may be
ambiguous pictures of unusual situations) that are shown to respondents who are
asked to describe what they think the pictures represent. The replies of respondents

Page 131 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 constitute the basis for the investigator to draw inferences about their personality
structure, attitudes, etc.

(b) Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of
cartoons with words inserted in ‘balloons’ above. The respondent is asked to put his
own words in an empty balloon space provided for the purpose in the picture. From
what the respondents write in this fashion, the study of their attitudes can be made.

(c) Rorschach test: This test consists of ten cards having prints of inkblots. The design
happens to be symmetrical but meaningless. The respondents are asked to describe
what they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the responses are interpreted

Page 132 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 on the basis of some pre-determined psychological framework. This test is
frequently used but the problem of validity still remains a major problem of this test.

(d) Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test from W.H. Holtzman is a modification of
the Rorschach Test explained above. This test consists of 45 inkblot cards (and not
10 inkblots as we find in case of Rorschach Test) which are based on colour,
movement, shading and other factors involved in inkblot perception. Only one
response per card is obtained from the subject (or the respondent) and the responses
of a subject are interpreted at three levels of form appropriateness. Form responses
are interpreted for knowing the accuracy (F) or inaccuracy (F–) of respondent’s
percepts; shading and colour for ascertaining his affectional and emotional needs; and
movement responses for assessing the dynamic aspects of his life.
(VI) PLAY TECHNIQUES : Under play techniques subjects are asked to improvise or act out a
situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such
traits as hostility, dominance, sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. These
techniques have been used for knowing the attitudes of younger ones through manipulation
of dolls. Dolls representing different racial groups are usually given to children who are
allowed to play with them freely. The manner in which children organise dolls would
indicate their attitude towards the class of persons represented by dolls. This is also known
as doll-play test, and is used frequently in studies pertaining to sociology.
The choice of colour, form, words, the sense of orderliness and other reactions may provide
opportunities to infer deep-seated feelings.

Page 133 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
(VII) QUIZZES, TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS: This is also a technique of extracting information
regarding specific ability of candidates indirectly. In this procedure both long and short questions
are framed to test through them the memorising and analytical ability of candidates.
TABLE 8 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

Word or Participants are asked to match images, experiences, emotions,

picture products and services, even people and places, to whatever is
association being studied. “Tell me what you think of when you think of Kellogg’s
Special K cereal.”
Sentence Participants are asked to complete a sentence. “Complete this
completion sentence: People who buy over the Internet . . .”
Cartoons or Participants are asked to write the dialog for a cartoonlike picture.
empty balloons “What will the customer comment when she sees the salesperson
approaching her in the new-car showroom.”
Thematic Participants are confronted with a picture (usually a photograph
Apperception or drawing) and asked to describe how the person in the picture
Test feels and thinks.
Component Participants are presented with fl ash cards containing component
sorts features and asked to create new combinations.
Sensory sorts Participants are presented with scents, textures, and sounds,
usually verbalized on cards, and asked to arrange them by one or
more criteria
Laddering or Participants are asked to link functional features to their physical
benefit chain and psychological benefits, both real and ideal
Imagination Participants are asked to relate the properties of one
exercises thing/person/ brand to another. “If Patanjali toothpaste were a
college, what type of college would it be?”
Imaginary Participants are asked to assume that the brand and its users
universe populate an entire universe; they then describe the features of this
new world.
Visitor from Participants are asked to assume that they are aliens and are
another planet confronting, the product for the first time; they then describe
their, reactions, questions, and attitudes about purchase or retrial.
Personification Participants are asked to imagine inanimate objects with the
traits, characteristics and features, and personalities of humans.
“If brand X were a person, what type of person would brand X be?”
Authority Participants are asked to imagine that the brand or product is an
figure authority figure and to describe the attributes of the figure.
Ambiguities Participants are asked to imagine a brand as something else (e.g.,
and paradoxes a Tide dog food or Marlboro cereal), describing its attributes and
position.

Page 134 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 135 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [7]
Testing of Hypotheses

7.1. Basic Concept Concerning Testing of Hypotheses

7.2. Procedure for Hypotheses Testing
7.3. Advanced Tools for Hypothesis Testing Using SPSS
7.3.1. Introduction to SPSS package, creating data files
7.3.2. Multiple Response sets, Recoding, visual binning etc.
7.3.3. Frequencies, Descriptive statistics, Chi square analysis & Cross Tabulation
7.3.4. One sample t- test, Independent sample t-test, Linear Correlation &
Regression
7.3.5. One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
7.3.6. Multivariate Data Analysis: Factor Analysis, Cluster analysis

Page 136 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
HYPOTHESES

Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition
or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified
group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often
a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example,
consider statements like the following ones:

“Students who receive counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counselling” Or “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”

These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may
conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which
can be put to a test to determine its validity.

5.1 BASIC CONCEPT CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

1) Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis:

In the context of statistical analysis, hypothesis is of two types, viz., null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. When two methods A and B are compared on their relative
superiority, and it is assumed that both the methods are equally good, then such a
statement is called as the null hypothesis. On the other hand, if method A is considered
relatively superior to method B, or vice-versa, then such a statement is known as an
alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is expressed as H0, while the alternative
hypothesis is expressed as Ha. For example, if a researcher wants to test the hypothesis
that the population mean (µ) is equal to the hypothesized mean (H0) = 100, then the null
hypothesis should be stated as the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean
100. Symbolically it may be written as:-

H0: = µ =µH0 = 100

Page 137 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should be concluded that
something else is true. The conclusion of rejecting the null hypothesis is called as
alternative hypothesis. To put it in simple words, the set of alternatives to the null
hypothesis is termed as the alternative hypothesis. If H0 is accepted, then it implies that
Ha is being rejected. On the other hand, if H0 is rejected, it means that Ha is being
accepted. For H0: = µ = µH0 = 100, the following three possible alternative hypotheses
may be considered.

Alternative hypothesis to be read as follows

Ha:µ≠µH0 the alternative hypothesis is that the

population mean is not equal to 100, i.e., it
could greater than or less than 100

Ha: µ ˃ µH0 the alternative hypothesis is that the

population mean is greater than 100

Ha: µ ˂ µH0 the alternative hypothesis is that the

population mean is less than 100

Before the sample is drawn, the researcher has to state the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis. While formulating the null hypothesis, the following aspects
need to be considered:

1. Alternative hypothesis is usually the one which a researcher wishes to prove,

whereas the null hypothesis is the one which he/she wishes to disprove. Thus,
a null hypothesis is usually the one which a researcher tries to reject, while an
alternative hypothesis is the one that represents all other possibilities.
2. The rejection of a hypothesis when it is actually true involves great risk, as it
indicates that it is a null hypothesis because then the probability of rejecting it
when it is true is a (i.e., the level of significance) which is chosen very small.
3. Null hypothesis should always be specific hypothesis i.e., it should not state
about or approximately a certain value.

2) The level of significance:

Page 138 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
In the context of hypothesis testing, the level of significance is a very important concept.
It is a certain percentage that should be chosen with great care, reason and thought. If
for instance, the significance level is taken at 5 per cent, then it means that H0 would be
rejected when the sampling result has a less than 0.05 probability of occurrence when
H0 is true. In other words, the five per cent level of significance implies that the
researcher is willing to take a risk of five per cent of rejecting the null hypothesis, when
(H0) is actually true. In sum, the significance level reflects the maximum value of the
probability of rejecting H0 when it is actually true, and which is usually determined
prior to testing the hypothesis.

The significance level is usually denoted by the Greek symbol α (lowercase alpha).
Popular levels of significance are 10% (0.1), 5% (0.05), 1% (0.01) and 0.1% (0.001). If a test
of significance gives a p-value lower than the α-level, the null hypothesis is thus
rejected. Such results are informally referred to as 'statistically significant'.

3) Test of hypothesis or decision rule

Suppose that the given hypothesis is H0 and the alternative hypothesis Ha, and then the
researcher has to make a rule known as the decision rule. According to the decision rule,
the researcher accepts or rejects H0. For example, if the H0 is that certain students are
good against the Ha that all the students are good, then the researcher should decide
the number of items to be tested and the criteria on the basis of which to accept or reject
the hypothesis.

4) Type I and Type II errors

As regards the testing of hypotheses, a research can make basically two types of errors.
He/she may reject H0 when it is true, or accept H0 when it is not true. The former is
called as Type I error and the latter is known as Type II error. In other words, Type I
error implies the rejection of a hypothesis when it must have been accepted, while Type
II error implies the acceptance of a hypothesis which must have been rejected. Type I
error is denoted by α (alpha) and is known as error, while Type II error is usually
denoted by β (beta) and is known as β error.

5) One-tailed and two-tailed tests

Page 139 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
These two types of tests are very important in the context of hypothesis testing. A two-
tailed test rejects the null hypothesis, when the sample mean is significantly greater or
lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is suitable
when the null hypothesis is some specified value; the alternative hypothesis is a value
that is not equal to the specified value of the null hypothesis.

5.2 PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESES TESTING

Testing a hypothesis refers to verifying whether the hypothesis is valid or not.
Hypothesis testing attempts to check whether to accept or not to accept the null
hypothesis. The procedure of hypothesis testing includes all the steps that a researcher
undertakes for making a choice between the two alternative actions of rejecting or
accepting a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are as
follows: -

(i) Making a formal statement: This step involves making a formal statement of the null
hypothesis (H0) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This implies that the hypotheses
should be clearly stated within the purview of the research problem. For example,
suppose that a school teacher wants to test the understanding capacity of the students
which must be rated more than 90 per cent in terms of marks. In this case, the hypotheses
may be stated as follows: -

Null Hypothesis H0: =100

Alternative Hypothesis Ha: > 100

(ii) Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses should be tested on a pre-determined

level of significance, which should be specified. Usually, either 5% level or 1% level is
considered for the purpose. The factors that determine the levels of significance are: (a)
the magnitude of difference between the sample means; (b) the sample size: (c) the
variability of measurements within samples; and (d) whether the hypothesis is
directional or non-directional. In sum, the level of significance should be sufficient in
the context of the nature and purpose of enquiry.

(iii) Deciding the distribution to use: After making decision on the level of significance
for hypothesis testing, the research has to next determine the appropriate sampling
distribution. The choice to be made generally relates to normal distribution and the t-

Page 140 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
distribution. The rules governing the selection of the correct distribution are similar to
the ones already discussed with respect to estimation.

(iv) Selection of a random sample and computing an appropriate value:

Another step involved in hypothesis testing is the selection of a random sample and
then computing a suitable value from the sample data relating to test statistic by using
the appropriate distribution. In other words, it invokes drawing a sample for furnishing
empirical data.

(v) Calculation of the probability: The next step for the researcher is to calculate the
probability that the sample result would diverge as far as it can from expectations, under
the situation when the null hypothesis is actually true.

(vi) Comparing the probability: Another step involved consists of making a

comparison of the probability calculated with the specified value for a, the significance
level. If the calculated probability works out to be equal to or smaller than a value in
case of one-tailed test, then the null hypothesis is to be rejected. On the other hand, if
the calculated probability is greater, then the null hypothesis is to be accepted. In case
the null hypothesis H0 is rejected, the researcher runs the risk of committing the Type I
error. But, if the null hypothesis H0 is accepted, then it involves some risk (which cannot
be specified in size as long as H0 is vague and not specific) of committing the Type II
error.

Page 141 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3 ADVANCED TOOLS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING USING SPSS

INTRODUCTION TO SPSS PACKAGE

SPSS is a comprehensive and flexible statistical analysis and data management solution.
SPSS can take data from almost any type of file and use them to generate tabulated reports,
charts, and plots of distributions and trends, descriptive statistics, and conduct complex
statistical analyses. SPSS is available from several platforms; Windows, Macintosh, and the
UNIX systems. SPSS is required in every industry, including telecommunications, banking,
finance, insurance, healthcare, manufacturing, retail, consumer packaged goods, higher
education, government, and market research.

For the testing of hypothesis & analysis of data the different statistical tests can be conducted
by IBM PASW SPSS statistics, procedure for some of them are as explained below.

When we run SPSS, it always opens a window with a red icon in its left top corner. This
window is referred to as SPSS Data Editor Window. This can be seen to the right of its icon, just

after the name of the data file that's open and the dataset name.

The name “Data Editor” is somewhat misleading. Although we can edit data (as well as
the dictionary) here, SPSS doesn't keep track of such editing. Not keeping track of what
you're doing in SPSS often ends in tragedy. With regard to our workflow, we mainly use the Data
Editor window for visual inspection of the data, especially its contents and structure. After
each time we edit the data, we usually inspect the results of such edits in the Data editor as well.

SPSS DATA EDITOR - DATA VIEW VERSUS VARIABLE VIEW

SPSS' Data Editor window provides two complementary ways for inspecting data. They
are referred to as data view and variable view. By default, the data view is shown after
starting SPSS.
After putting data , the data editor will look like the screenshot below. Its major
components are.
SPSS DATA VIEW

Page 142 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 SPSS toolbars contain some handy tools. Some of their limitations can be circumvented
by building your own toolbars andtoolbar tools. Doings so is utterly simple and speeds up
a lot of work.

Columns of cells are called variables. Variable names (“gender”) are shown in the
column headers.

Rows of cells are called cases. The numbers in the left margin (“4”) constitute a special
kind of variable (known as $casenum) which turns out handy in some situations.

Data cell contents are called values.

You can drag the three dots in the right margin leftwards in order to freeze columns.

In a similar vein, freeze rows is accomplished by dragging in the lower margin

upwards. Like so, you can freeze rows or columns for viewing distant cases or variables
simultaneously.

You can switch between data view and variable view by clicking the tabs in the left
lower corner. Alternatively, using the theCtrl + t shortkey.

The status bar may provide useful information on the data such as whether
a WEIGHT, FILTER, SPLIT FILE or Unicode mode is in effect.
These are the main elements under data view.

We now switch to variable view as described under . After doing so, the data editor
window should look somewhat like the screenshot below.

SPSS VARIABLE VIEW

Page 143 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 Under variable view, rows represent variables instead of cases as under data view. Note
that we're not seeing our actual data values under variable view but instead a lot of
information about our variables.

Columns represent variable properties such as label, name and type. Note that the
variable names (first column) are shown as column headers under data view.
Under “values” we find the value labels: descriptions of what the data values (which we
saw under data view) actually mean. Try and click the “values” column for
“education_type”. You'll see the value labels for this variable.

Value Labels for “education_type” Cell contents contain property values. For example,

the width (variable property) of the fourth variable (“last_name”) is 8 (property value).

VALUE LABELS IN DATA VIEW

We now switch back to data view. As we mentioned, we see the variable names here as
column headers. Another part of the dictionary we can see here are the value labels. Try

Page 144 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
clicking the value labels icon in the toolbar area. It toggles between data values and their
corresponding value labels.
SPSS OUTPUT VIEWER WINDOW - EXAMPLE
If we do any kind operation in SPSS it is reflected in Output window. At this point, you'll
probably have two SPSS windows open: the Data Editor and Output.

The Output Viewer window has two sections: the left pane shows the output outline and
the right pane shows the actual output. The outline shows that the output items such as
headings and tables are organized according to a tree structure.
Ouput items can be selected in both panes. For selecting multiple items,
press shift or ctrl while clicking on the items. In the outline pane, all items under a branch

can be selected at once by clicking the book icon of this branch.

All items under a branch can be hidden by clicking the minus icon shown in the outline.
For deleting items, select them and press the delete button on your keyboard.
SPSS - TYPICAL PROJECT WORKFLOW
Despite the wide variety in project workflows, they typically have some main steps in
common. The figure below outlines a typical workflow for a small and basic research project.
Before discussinghow to get things done, we now have a rough guideline for whatto get
done.

Page 145 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 SPSS VARIABLE TYPES
SPSS has two variable types: string and numeric. Numeric variables may contain only
numbers. String variables may contain letters, numbers and other characters. The distinction
between numeric and string variables is important because the variable type dictates what
you can or cannot do with a variable.
 You can do calculations with numeric variables but not with string variables.
 You can use string functions such as taking substrings or concatenating with string
variables but not with numeric variables.
There are no other variable types in SPSS than string and numeric. However, numeric
variables have several different formats that are often confused with variable types.

Page 146 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 DETERMINING SPSS VARIABLE TYPES
Before doing anything whatsoever with a variable, we always want to know whether it's a
string or numeric variable. Don't rely on a visual inspection of your data view for
determining variable types; it may be hard, sometimes impossible to see the difference
between the two variable types. Instead, inspect your variable view and use the following
rule:
 if “Type” is “String”, you're dealing with a string variable;
 if “Type” is anything else than “String”, you're dealing with a numeric variable.

SPSS suggests that “Date” and “Dollar” are variable types as well. However, these
are formats, not types. The way they are shown here among the actual variable types
(string and numeric) is one of SPSS' most confusing features.

SPSS VARIABLE FORMATS - INTRODUCTION

Page 147 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 Now have a look at the data under data view as shown the screenshot below. The kinds
of variables are.

The first variable holds words;

The second variable holds numbers with two decimal places;
The third variable holds dates;
The fourth variable holds times;
The fifth variable holds dates and times;
The sixth variable holds percentages;
The seventh variable holds numbers of dollars with two decimal places.

Regarding these data, we concluded earlier that is a string variable and variables
through are numeric. Remember that numeric variables can contain only numbers.
However, SPSS can display these numbers in very different ways. At this point we see that
numeric values have two components:
 first there's the actual values as SPSS stores them internally. These consist of nothing but
numbers.
 Second, the actual values can be displayed and treated in a myriad of different ways. Like
so, numeric variables may seem to contain letters of months or dollar signs.
These different ways of displaying and treating the actual values are referred to as variable
formats.

Page 148 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 MULTIPLE RESPONSE SETS,

Goto Analyse-Multiple Response – Define Variable Sets

Select variable sets in multiple responses and drag to “Variable in Sets”
Click on Dichotomies and write counted value as “1”;
Write Variable name and label and press Close. The variable is defined now.

Page 149 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 RECODING,

To recode into same variables click Transform – Recode into same variable
In the window select the variable to recode;
Press Old and New Values;
Insert new and old values to be changed
press continue;
Press ok – The output window will show the changes made

Page 150 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 VISUAL BINNING

click Transform – Visual Binning

Select Variables to Bin – Press Continue;
Press Make Cutpoints - Enter first cutpoint location- Number of Cutpoints & Width;
Press Apply
press Make Lables;
Enter Binned variable name and label
Press Ok- A new variable is created at the end.

Page 151 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 FREQUENCIES,

The frequency table can be generated from the menus as:

Analyse >Descriptive Statistics>Frequencies…

Choose different variables as per the need & press Ok. You will get Output in OUTPUT
window.

Page 152 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS,

The Descriptive Statistics can be generated from the menus as:

Analyse >Descriptive Statistics>Descriptives…

A window of Descriptives will appear

Choose different Descriptives options as per the need & press Continue.

Then Press ok….. You will get Output in OUTPUT window.

Page 153 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.3 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS & CROSS TABULATION

Chi Square Analysis gives a procedure for comparing observed frequencies of another
group. The bivariate chi square examines the statistical significance of relationship
between two less-than interval variables.

To run the Chi Square test from the menu choose:

Analyse >Descriptive Statistics>Crosstabs…

A window of crosstabs will appear, Choose Variables at Row & Column… & Press
Statistics

From Crosstabs: Statistics… on Chi-square options & press Continue.

Then Press ok….. You will get the Chi-square tables in OUTPUT window.

Page 154 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.4 ONE SAMPLE T- TEST
SPSS one-sample t-test is used for testing whether the mean of one metric variable is equal
to some hypothesized population value. The figure illustrates the basic idea

To run a t-test , from the menus choose:

Analyse > Compare Means > One Sample T Test

Choose Test Variable and Test Value…..

Then press Ok….

Output Window will show the t statistics…

Page 155 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.4 INDEPENDENT (TWO) SAMPLE T- TEST
SPSS Independent sample t-test is used for testing whether or not the difference between
two means is zero. It tests the differences between means taken from to independent
samples or groups. The figure illustrates the basic idea

To run a Independent sample t-test, from the menus choose:

Analyse > Compare Means > Independent sample t-test

Choose Test Variable and Grouping Variable then Define Groups

Press Continue

Then press Ok….

Output Window will show the Independent sample t statistics…

Page 156 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.4 LINEAR CORRELATION

To run a Linear Correlation, from the menus choose:

Analyse > Correlate> Bivariate…
Choose variables…

Choose proper Correlation Coefficients

Choose Test of Significance…. Press OK….

You will get correlation table in OUTPUT window.

Page 157 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.4 LINEAR REGRESSION

To run a Linear Regression, from the menus choose:

Analyse > Regression > Linear…

Choose Dependent variable as well as Independent variable…

Press OK….
The Regression tables will appear in output window…

Page 158 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.5 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) :
The One-Way ANOVA procedure produces a one-way analysis of variance for a
quantitative dependent variable by a single factor (independent) variable. Analysis of
variance is used to test the hypothesis that several means are equal. This technique is an
extension of the two-sample t test.

In addition to determining that differences exist among the means, you may want to know
which means differ. There are two types of tests for comparing means: a priori contrasts and
post hoc tests. Contrasts are tests set up before running the experiment and post hoc tests are
run after the experiment has been conducted. You can also test for trends across categories.

To run a one-way ANOVA, from the menus choose:

Analyse > Compare Means > One-way ANOVA
Choose Dependent Variable and Independent variable(s) as per the need
Click on Options … and under Display, select Descriptive and Homogeneity tests. Press
continue… then press Ok
Results will appeared in Output Window…

Page 159 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.3.6 MULTIVARIATE DATA ANALYSIS:

To run Multivariate Data Analysis, from the menus choose:

Analyse >General Linear Model>Multivariate…
Choose different parameters as per the need & press Ok. You will get Output in
OUTPUT window.

5.3.6 FACTOR ANALYSIS:

To run Factor Analysis, from the menus choose:

Analyse >Dimension Reduction>Factor…
Choose different parameters as per the need & press Ok. You will get Output in
OUTPUT window.

Page 160 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
5.4.3 CLUSTER ANALYSIS:

To run Cluster Analysis, from the menus choose:

Analyse >Classify>Two-step Cluster
Choose different parameters as per the need & press Ok. You will get Output in
OUTPUT window.

Page 161 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 162 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 [8]
Interpretation & Report Writing
8.1. Interpretation: Meaning, Techniques, Precautions
8.2. Effective use of graphic aid: Tables, charts, pie charts, line graphs, bar charts
8.3. Organization of the written report

Page 163 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
INTERPRETATION & REPORT WRITING
MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of
research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to
establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those
of another, and (ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense,
interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to
include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”1 Thus, interpretation is the
device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by
researcher in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further researches

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
The task of interpretation is not an easy job; rather it requires a great skill and dexterity
on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and
experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for
accomplishing the task of interpretation.

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and
must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should
be done and concepts be formulated.

(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.

Page 164 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point
out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in
correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.

(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no
hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all
right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
One should always remember that even if the data are properly collected and analysed,
wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions. It is, therefore, absolutely
essential that the task of interpretation be accomplished with patience in an impartial
manner and also in correct perspective.

Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:

(i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good
homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.

(ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due
to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings
beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the
like. Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on
the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the positive test results
accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in accord” with the hypothesis,
rather than as “confirming the validity of the hypothesis”. The researcher must remain
vigilant about all such things so that false generalization may not take place. He should
be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for
drawing inferences concerning his study.

(iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much
intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the
task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those

Page 165 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz.,
precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and
comparison of results.

(iv) He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that
are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on
proper lines. Broad generalisation should be avoided as most research is not amenable
to it because the coverage may be restricted to a particular time, a particular area and
particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any, must invariably be specified and the
results must be framed within their limits.

(v) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie.” He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.

ORGANISATION REPORT WRITING

A research study culminates in the writing of a report, which is a tool for communicating
the various aspects of the study, viz., the problem or topic investigated, the method
employed to investigate, the objective, scope and limitations. However, prior to writing
the report, its proper planning is essential. Report planning should take into account
such details as defining the problem, the purpose of the report, tracking of the material
collected, identifying the utility of the report, etc. The ability to write effective reports is
one of the most useful skills a researcher can acquire. In this connection, Briwn observes:
"We say it as simply as we possibly can, and this that is, that a report is a communication
from someone to another who wants to use that information. The report may be
elaborately formal, it may be a letter, a in a great many organisations, it is simply
memorandum; but it is always planned for use."

The usefulness of a report is the chief aspect of any report writing. For example, a study
dealing with the market segmentation of a company should be in a position to report on

Page 166 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
the exact distinction between customer groups and needs for the purpose of sub-
dividing its market into specific subsets of customers. Customers are likely to differ in
various respects. A study of the market segmentation of toilet soaps of Hindustan
Unilever should be in a position to specifically report the exact segment of customers
for the transparent glycerine soap (Pears), for a Luxury soap (Supreme), for a Jemon
soap (Liril), for a low priced toilet soap (Rexona), for an economic health soap
(Lifebuoy), and so on. While the report is expected to convey all the aspects of the result
of the study in all its detail to the interested parties, it should highlight the actual utility
areas as well.

The report identifies areas for further research, if any, and for fresh hypotheses. Analysis
and inferences, suggestions and observations, footnotes and appendices, etc. should
also find a place in the report. It should include specific recommendations for a course
of action. While all the necessary information materials should be presented in the most
appropriate manner. It should be purposeful and should take into account the reader
and his tastes and preferences when it is written. In the normal course, the report writer
should consider such questions as: Who will read the report? In what way is the report
going to be useful? What are the questions the report should answer? How much
information is needed? What is the best way of presenting the information? and so on.
An effective report stimulates the interpersonal relationships in the organisation. In this
connection, Arthur D. Little observes: "In short, remember that the reader is a human
being not a corporation. He is not omniscient: if he were, he wouldn't have asked for
your help. Remember also that he doesn't want to devote his whole career to
deciphering what you have to say. The project you're reporting on is undoubtedly only
one of many that require his attention. Your report should provide answers, not create
more problems.

PURPOSE OF A REPORT
Dr. Sarangi summarized that through purpose of report one can get the answers of
following questions:
a. Why I am writing this report?

Page 167 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
 b. To whom I will present this report? (Decision regarding who are the readers, i.e.,
whether they are academicians, common civilians of a region, technical
professionals, management professionals, industrial experts, etc.)
c. What the readers want to know? Are any of them aware of some facts about the
matter?
d. What sources do I have to present as the findings or research? What is the time
and budget limit that I am having? Do I have enough skilled personnel to carry
over the draft of the report?
e. What should be my contents and subject matter that I want to mention in the
report?
f. The American Marketing Association defines the purpose of report as 'its
purpose is to convert to interested persons the entire results of survey in
sufficient details and to arrange as to enable each reader to comprehend the data
and to determine himself the validity of the conclusions'. Following are some
important purposes of a research report:
(i) Dissemination: Like all forms of knowledge resource, the purpose of the
research report is to disseminate among people, the knowledge that has
been acquired through study of the problem of research. If the knowledge
is not dispersed, the purpose of the study and the resources spent on it shall
have no utility.
(ii) Presentation of Valid Conclusions to Facilitate Decision-making: The
investigator has to submit the report to the agency that sponsored the
research study. Sometimes on the basis of the research some rules are
framed or decision is taken.
(iii) To Validate the Generalizations: Unless the research report is submitted, it
shall not be possible to check the validity and the authenticity of the
conclusions drawn. On the basis of the report, it is possible to validate
whether the generalizations are practical and real.
(iv) Guidance to Future Research: The research report guides the readers to go
in for further research on the same or allied problems.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD REPORT

Page 168 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Researcher's ability is revealed through the quality of the study. It depends on how well
the researcher could make the presentation valid, reliable, clear and acceptable. The
utility of the report is considerably increased, if it is compiled in conformity with the
accepted norms and standards.
A good report must have the following qualities:
1. Precision: In a good report, the report writer is very clear about the exact and definite
purpose of writing the report. His investigation, analysis, recommendations and others
are directed by this central purpose. Precision of a report provides the unity to the report
and makes it a valuable document for best usage.
2. Accuracy of Facts: Information contained in a report must be based on accurate fact.
Since decisions are taken on the basis of report information, any inaccurate information
or statistics will lead to wrong decision. It will hamper to achieve the organizational
goal.
3. Relevancy :The facts presented in a report should not be only accurate but also be
relevant. Irrelevant facts make a report confusing and likely to be misleading to make
proper decision.
4. Reader-Orientation: While drafting any report, it is necessary to keep in mind about
the person who is going to read it. That's why a good report is always reader oriented.
Readers’ knowledge and level of understanding should be considered by the writer of
report. Well reader-oriented information qualify a report to be a good one.
5. Simple Language: This is just another essential features of a good report. A good
report is written in a simple language avoiding vague and unclear words. The language
of the report should not be influenced by the writer's emotion or goal. The message of a
good report should be self-explanatory.
6. Conciseness: A good report should be concise but it does not mean that a report can
never be long. Rather it means that a good report or a business report is one that
transmits maximum information with minimum words. It avoids unnecessary detail
and includes everything which are significant and necessary to present proper
information.
7. Grammatical Accuracy: A good report is free from errors. Any faulty construction of
a sentence may make its meaning different to the reader's mind. And sometimes it may
become confusing or ambiguous.

Page 169 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
8. Unbiased Recommendation: Recommendation on report usually make effect on the
reader mind. So if recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be
impartial and objective. They should come as logical conclusion for investigation and
analysis.
9. Clarity: Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. A good report is absolutely
clear. Reporter should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings and
finally make necessary recommendation. To be an effective communication through
report, a report must be clear to understand for making communication success.
10. Attractive Presentation: Presentation of a report is also a factor which should be
consider for a good report. A good report provides a catchy and smart look and creates
attention of the reader. Structure, content, language, typing and presentation style of a
good report should be attractive to make a clear impression in the mind of its reader.
11. Writing Correctly: Another requirement of a good research report is that it should
be written correctly. Correct writing brings clarity. Incorrect writing may be misleading
and brings difficulty in understanding.
12. Readability: Readability is another requirement of a good report. Christine
Browning derived seven ways of defining readability. They are: (i) the absence of jargon
and slang, (ii) never having to read twice, (Hi) consistent terminology, (iv) short
paragraph, (v) short sentences, (vi) continuity and (vii) clarity.
13. Effective Arrangements: Proper organization of the research process in a report
format is the important ingredient in the whole process. A poorly constructed sentence
can be repaired by a literary editor; a technically inaccurate statement can be corrected
by a technical editor.

STEPS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Many, researchers find it difficult to make their research reports meaningful, though
they toil and moil to complete the project successfully. Many a time they lose heart when
they start writing their reports, because they realize that their effort is not up to the
mark. They have the desire, but not the necessary skill, nor have they the will to humble
themselves and to pick up; they pose too much. They are like a school boy who starts
writing his home work with great enthusiasm. Though he is ignorant of what he is
doing, he poses as an expert; and hence he has the delicacy to learn it from somebody.

Page 170 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
It ultimately motivates him to be a copy-master, and ruin himself. This is the
background against which many so-called researchers turn themselves into copy-
masters and compilers. Some wish to have a bed of roses in research and report writing.
They may be task-masters, but they fail to complete their task. Some may be good
researchers, who may be painstaking but easy-going. They may keep on waiting until
the eleventh hour. In the process, their overconfidence may be fatal to the whole
mission. At last they are forced to complete a hotchpotch report.
Taking into account all these realities, a few steps may be suggested, which would
enable the researcher to complete his task of writing a report clearly and cogently. These
steps are:
Plan the project well in advance, fix the target and the final date of completing the
report.
The time for completing data collection and data processing should be well planned,
and implemented (ensure that adequate data are kept ready).
(iii) The time for report writing should be planned, and the task of report writing should
not be put off till the last minute. At least one-third of the total project time should be
earmarked for this purpose.
(iv) Select a structure for the report, arrange in groups the data, documents,
bibliography, etc. in conformity with the structure of the research report.
(v) Prepare an outline based on the structure, which should cover the main points and
sub-points in detail.
(vi) Prepare a rough point-by-point skeleton for each chapter theme, and Crystallize
the report in a mental exercise. Do not hesitate to discuss the skeleton with somebody
who is well-versed in research and writing, and who can be taken into confidence.
(vii) In the event of any doubt, get it cleared by reading, thinking, recollecting and
discussing, before going farther. Put everything in a logical sequence.
(viii) It is always good to get the benefit of the guidance of a good guide at all stages.
(ix) Avoid easy-going and short-cut methods and don't hesitate to write an entire first
draft. Even when the whole report is in black and white, be aware that it is not all perfect,
and therefore, calls for much improvement.

Page 171 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
(x) Put the completed rough draft away for several days until you can bring a fresh
mind to bear upon it. The researcher is then in a position to view it afresh and make
substantial changes.
(xi) Revise the draft thoroughly before the report is typed. Do not hesitate to eliminate
any irrelevant and inappropriate portion.

TYPES OF RESEARCH REPORTS

For the purpose of convenience, reports may be classified on the basis of approach under
the following titles:
 Business report and memorandum;
 Project report;
 Dissertation;
 Commission's enquiry report; and
 Thesis.
On the basis of presentation, reports may be classified as:
 Inductive reports;
 Deductive reports;
 Step-by-step reports;
 Time-sequence reports.
A business report or memorandum may be defined as a simple business communication
from one departmental head to another, one functional area to another, or from top to
bottom in the organisational structure on any specific aspect of day-to-day business
activity.
A project report is the report of a project undertaken by an individual or a group of
individuals or any functional area or any aspect or segment of any functional area of the
business, industry, or society.
A dissertation is a detailed discourse or report on the subject of the study that was
undertaken. This usually used as a document to be submitted for the acquisition of a
higher degree from a university. A thesis, too, is a detailed dissertation, which maintains
a valuable proposition or hypothesis, written on the basis of a detailed research. This
too, is used for academic purposes, as a dissertation is. A commission's enquiry report

Page 172 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
is detailed report prepared by a commission appointed for the specific purpose of
conducting a detailed study of any matter of dispute or of anything which requires a
greater insight so that it may facilitate a future course of action. It is an expert opinion.
Business reports and memoranda are brief observational reports that assist one in
arriving at business decisions, while project reports are detailed reports which are
written with a specific purpose in mind, though they too may have implications for
business decisions.
The inductive patterns of report writing is one of the oldest patterns of presenting one's
thoughts. Aristotle had pointed out long ago: "A whole is that which has a beginning, a
middle, and an end." This type of report goes from the specifics—facts, figures, materials
of research—to general conclusions, summary, recommendations, etc. Such reports use
the well-tested method of starting with introductory material and progressing through
factual support to conclusions. The reader who likes to examine all the evidences, who
wants to look at the whole situation carefully before he makes up his mind, usually
welcomes reports of this kind. Generally, they arouse less antagonism that if he were
confronted with what he considers disagreeable, unusual, or "unfounded" conclusions
and recommendations.
The deductive pattern of report writing is the most accepted type of report writing in
the business world. It is obviously known as the executive report, the management
report, or the action-getting report. This is the pattern of presentation that goes from the
general to the specific, i.e., from the more important to the less important. It tends to
become more detailed or more specialised in its last pages because it is designed for a
reader whose fundamental question is: "What do I need to know to act or to decide?"
He wants me answer at the very outset. The writer has a special obligation to think his
way through to the central issue or to the main point. It is almost like a newspaper
report. One who goes through the title or initial introduction would be able to get a
general idea; and when one goes on reading, the specific areas are unveiled. The writer
has to start on common ground with the reader in the deductive pattern of report
writing.
A step-by-step presentation doesn't follow any hard and fast rule, it simply presents
material blow-by-blow. It is a way of presenting the events or steps in an operation
frequently following one another in a point of time. But the steps need not necessarily

Page 173 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
come to a conclusion or an end. A step-by-step pattern is well adapted to reports on
manufacturing operations, where a step-by-step analysis is essential. PERT/CPM is well
known, which systematically operates on a step-by-step basis. Sometimes, this pattern
is well suited to progress reports which cover only a short period of time.
The time-sequence pattern of report writing is almost like that of the step-by-step
presentation; but it lays greater emphasis on the time element. It is an easy way of
writing a report by merely following the pattern the research material itself offers in a
sequence of time. Some readers prefer analysis based upon a sequence of time of events.
They foster a notion that such pattern is the best way of presenting all the background
information to those who never like the report to be summarised or condensed.

EFFECTIVE USE OF GRAPHIC AID: TABLES, CHARTS, PIE CHARTS, LINE

GRAPHS, BAR CHARTS

Sometimes words aren't the most effective way to communicate. Using graphs,
diagrams and charts can help your reader to get a clearer picture of your research
findings and how they compare with other data.

All graphs, charts, drawings, diagrams and photographs should be numbered

consecutively as Figures according to where they come in the text (e.g. Figure 1,
Figure 2, Figure 3 etc). All tables should be numbered using a separate sequence (e.g.
Table 1, Table 2 etc).
Make sure all your images are large enough, and of a high enough quality, to be read
easily and that they are labelled clearly to explain what they show.

Remember: You will need to reference any diagrams and photos you use if they are not your
own work.

TABLES are useful when you need to present a quantity of numerical data in an
accessible format and you need to show exact numbers.

Page 174 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
LINE GRAPHS are especially effective at showing trends (how data changes over
time) and relationships (how two variables interact).

BAR CHARTS/GRAPHS are good when you want to compare discrete items. The
bars can be vertical or horizontal. Making them different colours can help the reader
to differentiate each result..

Page 175 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
PIE CHARTS show the proportion of the whole that is taken by various parts.

Drawings and diagrams can be used to reinforce or supplement textual information, or

where something is more clearly shown in diagrammatic form. hhhBy Eric Pierce

Page 176 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Photographs can be useful as illustrations that help to explain what is being discussed in
the text.

ORGANIZATION OF THE WRITTEN REPORT

After conducting any research, the researcher needs to draft the work. Drafting is a
scientific procedure and needs a systematic and careful articulation. When the
organization for which the researcher is conducting the research has provided
guidelines to prepare the research report, one has to follow them. However, if there is
no guideline available from the sponsoring organization, then the researcher can follow
a reasonable pattern of presenting a written research report. In fact, there is no single
universally acceptable guideline available for organization of a written report. In fact,
the organization of the written report depends on the type of the target group that it
addresses. However, following is the format for a written report organization. Although
this format presents a broad guideline for report organization, in real sense, the
researcher enjoys flexibility to cither include the required items or exclude the items
from the list.

Page 177 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
1. Title page
2. Letter of transmittal
3. Letter of authorization
4. Table of contents (including list of figures and tables)
5. Executive summary
5.1 Objective
5.1 Concise statement of the methodology
5.1 Results
5.1 Conclusions
5.1 Recommendations
6. Body
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Research objective
6.3 Research methodology (sample, sample size, sample profile, sampling
techniques, scaling techniques, questionnaire, test statistic, and fieldwork)
6.4 Results and findings
6.5 Conclusions and recommendations
6.6 Limitations of the research
7. Appendix
7.1 Copies of data collection forms
7.2 Statistical output details
7.3 General tables that arc not included in the body
7.4 Bibliography
7.5 Other required support material

Page 178 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
SUMMER PROJECT REPORTS

STRUCTURE OF THE SUMMER PROJECT:

The summer project has to be presented in a number of chapters. Each of the other
chapters will have precise title reflecting the contents of the chapter. A chapter can be
subdivided into sections, sub-sections and sub-sub-section so as to present the
content discretely and with due emphasis.

The following is the SUGGESTED structure of the study project-

 Preliminary Pages
 Title of the Study Project (Cover page)
 Student Declaration
 Certificate from Organisation/Industry
 Certificate from the Institute
 Acknowledgement
 Executive Summary,
 Table of Contents
 Main Body (Chapters)
1. Company Profile,
2. Introduction,
3. Research Methodology ,
4. Literature Review
5. Analysis & Interpretation of Data,
6. Conclusions
7. Suggestions/ Recommendations
 End Matters
 Bibliography/References
 Annexures / Appendixes
CHAPTER I: Profile of the Organisation
The objective is to describe the organization in brief to form the frame of reference and
scope of study. Points like formation, employees, structure, turnover, milestones,

Page 179 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
products and services offered etc., SWOT analysis of the organization should be
covered.
CHAPTER II: Introduction
The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should
contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should
be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth
investigating by the researcher. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be
stated so that the present study can be seen in that context.
Apart from these a detailed theoretical framework related to the chosen subject should
be included in the same Chapter only.
CHAPTER III: Research Methodology
The Methodology adopted in conducting the Research/study must be fully explained.
How was the study carried out? What was its basic design? If the data were collected
by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked..? If
measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the
observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who were
the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? The statistical analysis
adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of study should be
stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the
research project was completed, must also be narrated.
In this section you are required to furnish:
 Objective of the study,
 Hypothesis
 Scope of the study
 Managerial usefulness of study
 Research Design, Population, Sample, Primary and Secondary Data
 Use of Statistical techniques for data analysis
 Limitations
CHAPTER IV: Literature Review
This shall normally present a critical appraisal of the previous work published in the
literature pertaining to the topic of the investigation. The extent and emphasis of the
chapter depends on the nature of the investigation/research design of the subject

Page 180 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
matter. A Brief theoretical backdrop & literature review about the project is required to
be given referring to some standard textbooks, Journals, Magazines, & news papers etc.
Attempts should be made to collect latest information by scanning articles published in
periodicals, journals etc. Please note that latest authentic data adds to the quality of the
project and gives good impression to viva- voce committee.
CHAPTER V: Analysis & Interpretation of Data
A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the
main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending
over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical
summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should
be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All
relevant results must find a place in the report. But one is to decide about what is
relevant in the basic question.
Statistical tools are to be used for analysing the data, which is mandatory.
CHAPTER VI Conclusion
On the Basis of various inferences Based on data analysis presented in earlier chapter
relevant conclusions is to be made here.
CHAPTER VI Suggestions and Recommendations
A statement of Suggestions is required to be in non-technical language so that all
concerned can understand it. Based on data analysis presented in earlier chapter
relevant observations/inference is to be made & practical recommendations are
expected to be given to the organization.
 Bibliography
Reference Books, Journals, Newspapers, Web Sites, Reports, etc are to be listed,
out here.
The References should be listed in APA Style (www.apa.org)
 Annexures
It should be indexed. Attach those annexures which have its reference in the
main text of the report. Here sample Questionnaires and any other relevant
documents may be included.

Page 181 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
This page is intentionally kept blank

Page 182 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
REFERENCES

Bajpai, N. (2011). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Pearson.

Beri, G. (2010). Marketing Research. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Bhattacharyya, D. K. (2006). Research Methodology. New Delhi: Excel Books.

Bhojana, & Murthy. (2009). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: Excel Books.

Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Carver, R., & Nash, J. (2008). Doing Data Analysis with SPSS. New Delhi: Cengage Learning
India Pvt. Ltd.

Chawala, & Sondhi. (2011). Reserch Methodology: Concepts and Cases. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Pvt Ltd.

Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2012). Business Research Methods. New Delhi: The
McGraw-Hill.

Field, Andy. (2009). Discovering Statistics using SPSS. New Delhi: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Ghosh, B. (1982). Scientific Methods and Social Research. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers
Pvt. Ltd.

Kothari C, R. (2004). Research Methodology (Methods & Techniques) (2nd ed.). New Delhi:
Wishwa Publications.

Krishnaswamy, Sivakumar, & Mathirajan. (2008). Management Research Methodology.

New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Kumar, R. (2006). Research Methodology: A step by Step guide for Beginners. New Delhi:
Pearson Education.

Lattin, J., Carroll, J., & Green, P. (2009). Analyzing Multivariate Data. New Delhi: Cengage
Learning India Pvt. Ltd.

Micheal, V. (2008). Research Methodology. Mumbai: Himalaya Publshing House.

Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.

Harlow: Pearson.

Rao, A. (2008). Research Methodology. New Delhi: Excel Books.

Sachdeva, J. K. (2008). Business Research Methodology. Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing

House.

Shrivastava, T. N., & Rego, S. (2011). Business Research Methodology. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw Hill.

Page 183 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede
Tandon, B. (1995). Research Methodology in Social Sciences. Allahabad: Chaitanya
Publishing House.

Tripathi, P. C. (2006). Research Methodology in Social Sciences (6th ed.). New Delhi: Sultan
Chand and Sons.

Upagade, V., & Shende, A. (2010). Research Methodology. New Delhi: S.Chand & Company
Ltd.

Walliman, N. (2011). Research methods: the basics. New York: Routledge.

Wikipedia. (2005). Research Methodology. Retrieved Nov 12, 2009, from Wikipedia:
www.wikipedia.org\research=methodology.htm

Wilkinson, T., & Bhandarkar, P. (2009). Methodology and Techniques of Social Research,.
Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.

Zikmund, Babin, Carr, Adhikari, & Griffin. (2014). Business Research Methods: A south
Asian Perspective (8 ed.). New Delhi: CENGAGE Learning.

Zikmund, W. G. (2007). Business Research Methods (7th ed.). New Delhi: Cengage Learning

Page 184 of 184

© Dr. Parag Narkhede