MOVING CHARGES AND

MAGNETISM

Discovery of Electromagnetism
➔ In 1820, Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire
caused a noticeable deflection in a nearby magnetic compass needle.
➔ The alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle which has the straight

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wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the wire.
➔ It is noticeable when the current is large and the needle sufficiently close to the wire so

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that the earth’s magnetic field may be ignored.
➔ Reversing the direction of the current reverses the orientation of the needle.

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➔ The deflection increases on increasing the current or bringing needle closer to the wire
➔ Iron filings sprinkled around the wire arrange themselves in concentric circles with the

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wire as the centre
➔ Oersted concluded: K
“moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field in the surrounding space.”
➔ In 1864, the laws obeyed by electricity and magnetism were unified and formulated by
James Maxwell who then realised that light was electromagnetic waves.
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➔ Radio waves were discovered by Hertz, and produced by J.C.Bose and G. Marconi.
➔ Electromagnetism leads to the invention of devices for production, amplification,
transmission and detection of electromagnetic waves.
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MAGNETIC FORCE
➔ Magnetic Field
→ →
◆ Moving charges (or current) produce electric fields 𝐸 and magnetic fields 𝐵.
→ →
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◆ Electric field denoted by 𝐸 or E(r), and Magnetic field denoted by 𝐵 or B(r).

◆ It is a vector quantity which means having magnitude plus direction.
◆ It obeys the principle of superposition i.e. the magnetic field of several sources
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is the vector addition of the magnetic field of each individual source.

◆ It is defined at each point in space.
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◆ It depends on time but we assume that fields do not change with time.
➔ Lorentz Force
◆ A charge q moving with velocity v, at position r at time t in the presence of both
electric field and magnetic field, the force on the electric charge q will be
→ → → → → →
[
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) = 𝑞 𝐸 + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ]
This force is called the Lorentz force.
→ → →
◆ When 𝑣, 𝐸 and 𝐵 all the three are collinear (parallel), magnetic force will be
→ → →
zero and only electric field will act, and hence force, 𝐹 = 𝑞 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑎
 → → →
◆ When 𝑣, 𝐸 and 𝐵 all are mutually perpendicular, and total force on the charge
→ → → → →
is zero i.e. 𝐹 = 𝐹e + 𝐹m = 0 ⇒ ||| 𝐹𝑒 ||| = ||| 𝐹𝑚 ||| ⇒ qE = qvB ⇒ v = 𝐵
𝐸

→ → → ^
➔ Magnetic force on a moving charge, 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) = 𝑞 𝑣 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑛
◆ Magnetic force depends on q, v and B (charge of the particle, velocity and
magnetic field).
◆ Force on -ve charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.
→ →
◆ The magnetic force 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵) includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic
field. This makes force due to magnetic field vanish (become zero) if velocity and
magnetic field are parallel or antiparallel.

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◆ The force acts in a direction perpendicular to both velocity and magnetic field. Its
direction is given by the screw rule or right hand rule.

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◆ The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |v|= 0). Only a moving
charge feels the magnetic force.

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𝐹
◆ The SI unit of Magnetic Field, B(r) is NsC-1m-1 or tesla (T) . (as 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣
)
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◆ Tesla is large unit, a smaller unit (non-SI) called gauss (= 10 tesla) is often used

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◆ The earth’s magnetic field is about 3.6 x 10-5 T.
➔ Magnetic Force on a current carrying conductor K
◆ Total number of electrons (mobile charge carriers) in a conductor of cross-section
area A and length 𝑙 = number density (no. of e’s per unit volume) x A𝑙 = n A𝑙
For a steady current 𝐼 , average velocity of electrons = drift velocity = vd
ER

→
Force on electrons in presence of external 𝐵,
→ → → → → → →
𝐹 = ( 𝑛𝐴𝑙 ) 𝑞 𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵 = 𝑗𝐴 𝑙 × 𝐵 = 𝐼 𝑙 × 𝐵 = 𝐼𝑙𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛θ (for straight wire)
→ → →
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𝐹 = (
∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
) (for non uniformity)
→
If 𝐵 is constant, force = Current ✕ Length of wire ✕ Magnetic field ✕ sin(θ)
◆ Direction of force can be found by thumb rule or Fleming's left hand rule or right
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hand palm rule.

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MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD (External B)

➔ A force on a particle does work if the force has a component along (or opposite to) the
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direction of motion of the particle.

➔ In the case of motion of a charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is perpendicular
to the velocity of the particle. So no work is done and no change in the magnitude of
→
the velocity is produced (though the direction of momentum may be changed). The 𝐹𝑒
can have a component along motion, ⇒ transfer energy plus momentum to the particle.
➔ Straight Line Path
→ → →
◆ When 𝑣 is parallel or antiparallel to 𝐵 i.e. θ = 0 or 1800, ⇒ 𝐹=0
→
◆ Charge will continue to move in a straight line with velocity 𝑣 .
 ➔ Circular Path
→ → →
◆ When 𝑣 is perpendicular to 𝐵 i.e. θ = 900, ⇒ 𝐹 = maximum = qvB
◆ Magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to the motion of charged particle.
Hence the trajectory of the particle is a circle.
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𝑚𝑣
◆ Magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force i.e. 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 2𝑚𝐾 2𝑚𝑞𝑉 1 2𝑚𝑉
Radius of path, 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
= 𝑞𝐵
= 𝑞𝐵
= 𝑞𝐵
= 𝐵 𝑞
p = momentum of charged particle
K = kinetic energy of charged particle
V = potential difference applied for acceleration of charged particle

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2π𝑚
◆ Time period (or frequency) of the particle, 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵
is independent of speed.
2π 𝑞𝐵

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◆ Angular frequency, ω = 2 π ν = 𝑇
= 𝑚
➔ Helical Path

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→ →
◆ When 𝑣 makes an angle θ (other than 0, 90 or 180) with 𝐵 , ⇒ helical path
𝑚 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
Radius of the helical path, 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵

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2π𝑚 1 𝑞𝐵
◆ Time period & frequency do not depend on v, 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵
and ν = 𝑇
= 2π𝑚

𝑝 = 𝑇 𝑣|| = 𝑇 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ = 2 π
K
◆ The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p.
𝑚
𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑞𝐵
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MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT ELEMENT

Biot-Savart Law
➔ Relation between current and magnetic field it produces.
→
VE

➔ Magnetic field at distance r due to the current element 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 in vacuum,

→ ^ → →
→ µ0 µ0 µ0
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑘
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ ^
𝑛 =
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ ^
𝑛 =
𝐼 ( 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 ) = 𝐼 ( 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 )
2 4π 2 4π 2 4π 3
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Magnitude of magnetic field in vacuum,
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𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑘 2 = 4π 2
𝑟 𝑟
µ0
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k= 4π
= 10-7 Tm/A , µ0 is permeability of free space (or vacuum) = 4π x 10-7 Tm/A
→ → → →
➔ 𝐵 is perpendicular to all 𝐼 , 𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟 . ( 𝐼 , 𝑑𝑙 are parallel )
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➔ Comparison between Coulomb’s law and Biot-Savart law

◆ Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from
the source to the point of interest.
◆ The principle of superposition applies to both fields.
→
(In this connection, note that the magnetic field is linear in the source 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 just as
the electrostatic field is linear in its source: the electric charge.)
◆ The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the electric charge.
→
The magnetic field is produced by a vector source 𝐼 𝑑𝑙.
 ◆ The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the
field point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing the
→
displacement vector r and the current element 𝐼 𝑑𝑙.
◆ There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the
→
electrostatic case i.e. magnetic field in the direction of 𝑑𝑙 is zero. [as sin(0) = 0]
➔ Relation between ε0 (permittivity), μ0 (permeability) and c (speed of light)
µ0 −7
ϵ0 µ0 = ( 4 π ϵ0 ) 4π
=
10
9 × 10
9 =
1

( 3 × 10 ) 8 2
=
1
2
𝑐

◆ Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant, the product ϵ0 µ0 is fixed.

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop

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µ0 𝐼 |𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 | µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
Magnitude, |𝑑𝐵| = 4π 3 = 4π 2 = 4π 2 2
( )

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𝑟 𝑟 𝑥 +𝑅
Direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 ,
dB = dBx + dBY since 𝑑𝑙 element is diametrically opposite.

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dBY gets cancelled by symmetry, only dBx will remain.
µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑅
Magnitude, dBx = |𝑑𝐵| cosθ =

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4π 2 2 2 1/2
( 𝑥 +𝑅 ) (𝑥 2
+𝑅 )
2
^ µ0 𝐼 ( 2π𝑅 ) 𝑅 ^ µ0 𝐼 𝑅 ^
Resultant Magnetic field, B = Bx 𝑖 = 𝑖 = 𝑖

➔ Special case:
4π
(𝑥 2 2 3/2
+𝑅 )
K (
2 𝑥 +𝑅
2 2 3/2
)

◆ magnetic field at the centre of the loop i.e. x=0

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µ0 𝐼 ^
𝐵0 = 2𝑅
𝑖
◆ If there are N number of turns in the coil,
µ0 𝐼 𝑁 ^
𝐵0 = 𝑖
VE

2𝑅
➔ The magnetic field lines due to a circular wire form closed loops.
➔ The direction of the magnetic field is given by (another) right-hand thumb rule.
➔ Right-Hand Thumb Rule: Curl the palm of your right hand around the circular wire with
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the fingers pointing in the direction of the current. The right-hand thumb gives the
direction of the magnetic field.
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AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

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➔ Simple way of expressing Biot-Savart law

➔ Line integral of the magnetic field around any closed curve is equal to µ0 times the net
current 𝐼 threading through the area enclosed by the curve.
→ →
∮ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑙 = µ0 ∑ 𝐼 = µ0 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
( )
➔ Any current outside the closed area (loop) is not included.
➔ Outward current is taken as +ve and inward is taken as –ve.
 → →
➔ Choose amperian loop such that 𝐵 is tangential to 𝑑𝑙 i.e. makes 00 angle and non zero
→ →
constant B, or normal to 𝑑𝑙 i.e. makes 900 angle or 𝐵 vanishes.
➔ Simplified ampere’s circuital law BL = μ0 Ie (B is tangential)
➔ Apply Ampere’s Circuital Law whenever there is a symmetrical circuit like a straight
infinite current carrying wire.
Magnetic Field due to a long infinite straight current carrying wire
Use Ampere’s Law,
µ0 𝐼
B ✕ 2πr = μ0 𝐼 ⇒ B= 2π𝑟
➔ Magnetic field at every point on a circle of radius r, (with the wire along the axis), is the

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same in magnitude. (cylindrical symmetry)
➔ The field that normally can depend on three coordinates depends only on one: r.
Whenever there is symmetry, the solutions simplify.

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➔ The field direction at any point on this circle is tangential to it. Thus, the lines of constant
magnitude of magnetic field form concentric circles. The iron filings form concentric

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circles when placed in B. These lines called magnetic field lines form closed loops. This
is unlike the electrostatic field lines which originate from positive charges and end at

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negative charges. The expression for the magnetic field of a straight wire provides a
theoretical justification to Oersted’s experiments.
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➔ Even though the wire is infinite, the field due to it at a non-zero distance is not infinite. It
tends to blow up only when we come very close to the wire. The field is directly
proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance from the (infinitely
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long) current source.

➔ A simple rule to determine the direction of the magnetic field due to a long wire called the
right-hand rule: Grasp the wire in your right hand with your extended thumb pointing in
the direction of the current. Your fingers will curl around in the direction of the magnetic
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field.
Details about Ampere’s law, Biot-Savart law and Gauss’s law, Coulomb’s law
➔ Ampere’s circuital law is a simplified version of Biot-Savart law.
➔ Both relate the magnetic field and the current, and both express the same physical
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consequences of a steady electrical current.

➔ Ampere’s law is to Biot-Savart law, what Gauss’s law is to Coulomb’s law.
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➔ Both Ampere's and Gauss’s law relate a physical quantity on the periphery or boundary
(magnetic or electric field) to another physical quantity, namely, the source, in the interior
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(current or charge).
➔ Ampere’s circuital law holds for steady currents which do not fluctuate with time.
➔ While Ampere’s circuital law holds for any loop, it may not always facilitate an evaluation
of the magnetic field in every case. E.g. B(r) at the centre of the circular current loop.
➔ However, there exists a large number of situations of high symmetry where the law can
be conveniently applied. (most commonly solenoid and toroid)

THE SOLENOID
➔ A cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire with generally diameter of
the coil smaller than its length is called solenoid.
 ➔ By long solenoid we mean that the solenoid’s length is large compared to its radius.
➔ Magnetic field produced in & around solenoid. Inside B is uniform & parallel to solenoid
➔ Solenoid consists of a long wire wound in the form of a helix where the neighbouring
turns are closely spaced. So each turn can be regarded as a circular loop. The net
magnetic field is the vector sum of the fields due to all the turns. Enamelled wires are
used for winding so that turns are insulated from each other.
➔ Magnetic field between two neighbouring circular turns vanishes (as θ = 900 )
➔ Magnetic field at the interior point is uniform, strong and along the axis of the solenoid.
➔ The field outside the solenoid approaches zero. We shall assume that the field outside is
zero. The field inside becomes everywhere parallel to the axis.
➔ Magnetic field inside the infinite long solenoid, 𝐵𝑖𝑛 = µ0 𝑛 𝐼 , (n is no. of turns per length)

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➔ The direction of the field is given by the right-hand rule.
➔ The solenoid is commonly used to obtain a uniform magnetic field.

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FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CURRENTS

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➔ Since conductor carrying current produces a magnetic field (Biot-Savart law) and an
external magnetic field will exert a force on a current carrying conductor (Lorentz force),

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hence two current carrying conductors placed near each other will exert magnetic forces
on each other. K
Magnetic field due to a conductor ‘a’ at distance d
µ0 𝐼𝑎
𝐵𝑎 = 2π𝑑
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Magnetic force on segment L of ‘b’ due to Ba

µ0 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏
𝐹𝑏𝑎 = 𝐼𝑏𝐿𝐵𝑎 = 2π𝑑
𝐿
Fba = – Fab
Magnitude of the force Fba per unit length, fba
VE

µ0 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑏
𝑓𝑏𝑎 = 2π𝑑
➔ Currents flowing in the same direction attract each other.
➔ Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel.
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➔ One ampere is the value of that steady current which, when maintained in each of the
two very long, straight, parallel conductors of negligible cross-section, and placed one
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metre apart in vacuum, would produce on each of these conductors a force equal to 2 ×
10–7 newtons per metre of length.
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➔ An instrument called the current balance is used to measure this mechanical force.
➔ When a steady current of 1A is set up in a conductor, the quantity of charge that flows
through its cross-section in 1s is one coulomb (1C).

TORQUE ON CURRENT LOOP, MAGNETIC DIPOLE

Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field
➔ A rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and placed in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque. It does not experience a net force (Fnet = 0).
➔ Torque is the measure of the force that causes an object to rotate around an axis.
➔ As the force is responsible for linear acceleration, torque is responsible for the angular
acceleration.

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A
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K
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➔ When a rectangular loop is parallel to the magnetic field: The field exerts no force on
the two arms AD and BC of the loop. It is perpendicular to the arm AB of the loop and
exerts a force F1 on it which is directed into the plane of the loop.
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Its magnitude, 𝐹1 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵
Similarly, it exerts a force F2 on the arm CD and F2 is directed out of the plane of paper.
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𝐹2 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 = 𝐹1
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Torque along the axis, τ = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵 + 𝐼𝑏𝐵 = 𝐼(𝑎𝑏)𝐵 = 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵
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2 2 2 2
where A = area of the rectangular.
➔ When a rectangular loop is not along the magnetic field: The angle between the field
and the normal to the coil is θ. Forces on the arms AB and CD are F1 and F2 which are
equal, opposite and act along the axis of the coil. 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵
→
The torque generated is less than the earlier case when plane of loop is along 𝐵 . This is
because the perpendicular distance between the forces of the couple has decreased.
Magnitude of the torque on the loop,
𝑎 𝑎
τ = 𝐹1 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ + 𝐹2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝐼(𝑎𝑏)𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ
 ➔ As θ → 0 ( plane of loop is perpendicular to magnetic field ),
The perpendicular distance between the forces of the couple also approaches zero. This
makes the forces collinear and the net force and torque zero.
➔ Magnetic Moment of the current loop, 𝑚 = 𝐼 𝐴
➔ Direction of the magnetic moment is from south to north pole or perpendicular to the
plane of the loop. The SI unit of magnetic moment is Am2 .
→ → ^ ^
➔ Torque on the current loop, τ = 𝑚 × 𝐵 = 𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑛 = 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑛
When magnetic moment is parallel or antiparallel to field, torque = 0
➔ When m and B are parallel the equilibrium is a stable one. Any small rotation of the coil
produces a torque which brings it back to its original position. (stable equilibrium)

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➔ When they are antiparallel, the equilibrium is unstable as any rotation produces a torque
which increases with the amount of rotation.
➔ The presence of this torque is also the reason why a small magnet or any magnetic

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dipole aligns itself with the external magnetic field.
➔ If the loop has N closely bound turns, magnetic moment m = N I A

M
→ → → ^ ^
Torque, τ = 𝑚 × 𝐵 = 𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑛 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑛 , where θ is b/w B & normal of coil
Special Cases:

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(a) when θ = 0, torque is zero. (plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field)
(b) when θ = 90, torque is maximum. (plane of the coil is parallel to the field)
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Circular current loop as a magnetic dipole
2
µ0 𝐼 𝑅
➔ Magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop, 𝐵 = along the axis.
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2 2 3/2
(
2 𝑥 +𝑅 )
Here, x is the distance along the axis from the centre of the loop.
2 2
µ0 𝐼 𝑅 µ0 𝐼 𝑅 π µ0 𝐼 𝐴 µ0 ( 𝐼𝐴 ) µ0 𝑚 µ0 2𝑚
𝐵= 3 = 3 π
= 3 = 3 = 3 = 4π 3 (x >> R)
2𝑥 2𝑥 2π𝑥 2π𝑥 2π𝑥 𝑥
VE

➔ Magnetic field in the plane of the loop at a distance x from the centre,
µ0𝑚
𝐵 = 4 π 𝑥3
(x >> R)
➔ The above results are exact for a point magnetic dipole.
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➔ A planar current loop is equivalent to a magnetic dipole of dipole moment m = 𝐼 A .

Fundamental difference between Magnetic Dipole and Electric Dipole
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➔ An electric dipole is built up of two elementary units – the charges (or electric monopole)
In magnetism, a magnetic dipole (or a current loop) is the most elementary element.
➔ The equivalent of electric charges, i.e., magnetic monopoles are not known to exist.
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➔ A current loop produces a magnetic field and behaves like a magnetic dipole at large
distances, and it is subject to torque like a magnetic needle.
➔ Elementary particles such as an electron or a proton also carry an intrinsic magnetic
moment, not accounted for by circulating currents.

THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER (MCG)

➔ The galvanometer consists of a coil, with many turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis, in
a uniform radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical soft iron core which not only makes
the field radial but also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
➔ When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it. τ = 𝑁 𝐼 𝐴 𝐵
➔ Since the field is radial by design, sinθ = 1, hence maximum torque.
➔ The magnetic torque NIAB tends to rotate coil. Spring Sp provides a counter torque kⲫ
that balances the magnetic torque NIAB resulting in a steady angular deflection ⲫ.
In equilibrium,
kⲫ = NIAB where k is torsional constant of spring i.e. restoring torque per unit twist
➔ The deflection ⲫ is indicated on the scale by a pointer attached to the spring.
ϕ= ( 𝑁𝐴𝐵
𝑘 )𝐼 where ( 𝑁𝐴𝐵
𝑘 ) is a galvanometer constant for a given galvanometer.
➔ Used as a detector to check if a current is flowing in the circuit, to check no current case
in wheatstone bridge, also to check the direction of the current.

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➔ Galvanometer as Ammeter
Galvanometer can not be used as an ammeter to measure the value of the current

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because of two reasons (i) it is very sensitive device, show full deflection for small
current, (ii) it has to connected in series for measuring current, but since it has a large
resistance, this can alter the value of current. To overcome these difficulties, attach a

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small resistance rs , called shunt resistance, in parallel with the galvanometer coil so
that most of the current passes through the shunt. The resultant resistance of the

U
𝑅𝐺 𝑟𝑠
arrangement is 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑟𝑠
≃ 𝑟𝑠 if RG >> rs
K
➔ Combination of Galvanometer in series plus a shunt resistance in parallel is ammeter.
➔ Ammeter is used to read the current value.
➔ The deflection per unit current is called current sensitivity of the galvanometer.
ER

ϕ 𝑁𝐴𝐵
Current sensitivity, 𝐼
= 𝑘
To increase current sensitivity, the number of turns can be increased.
➔ Galvanometer As Voltmeter
For this it must be connected in parallel with that section of the circuit. And it must draw
VE

a very small current, otherwise the voltage measurement will disturb the original set up
by an amount which is very large. To ensure this, a large resistance R is connected in
series with the galvanometer.
N

The resistance of the voltmeter now is RG + R ≃ R : large

➔ The deflection per unit voltage is called voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.
ϕ 𝑁𝐴𝐵 𝐼
( 𝑁𝐴𝐵
) 1
A

Voltage sensitivity, 𝑉
= 𝑘 𝑉
= 𝑘 𝑅
➔ Increasing the current sensitivity may not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity
R

➔ If we double the number of turns i.e. N → 2N, current sensitivity doubles but voltage
sensitivity remains unchanged as resistance of the galvanometer also doubles.
ϕ ϕ
Current sensitivity, 𝐼
→2 𝐼
ϕ ϕ
Voltage sensitivity, 𝑉
→ 𝑉