18.

34 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (CTS) (Continued)

Sloped Frame Roofs Wood Deck Metal Deck Roofs
Membrane, Membrane,
Wood Wood Sheathing, Sheathing,
Slate or Shingles, Shingles, R-10 R-20
Tile, Wood Wood Wood Membrane, Membrane, Insulation Insulation Membrane, Membrane,
Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Board, Board, Sheathing, Sheathing,
R-38 R-19 R-38 R-10 R-20 Wood Deck, Wood Deck, R-10 R-20
Batt Batt Batt Insulation Insulation Suspended Suspended Insulation Insulation
Insulation, Insulation, Insulation, Board, Board, Acoustical Acoustical Board, Metal Board, Metal
Gyp. Board Gyp. Board Gyp. Board Wood Deck Wood Deck Ceiling Ceiling Deck Deck
Roof Number 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
U, Btu/h·ft2 ·°F 0.0233 0.0405 0.0229 0.0695 0.0411 0.0582 0.0369 0.0799 0.0445
Total R 42.84 24.69 43.75 14.40 24.34 17.17 27.12 12.51 22.46
Hour Conduction Time Factors, % Conduction Time Factors, % Conduction Time Factors, %
1 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.9 1.2 18.0 3.3
2 2.5 11.6 1.7 6.9 2.1 2.7 1.5 60.0 38.1
3 14.0 24.2 9.7 17.2 10.0 7.8 4.3 18.4 37.6
4 22.8 22.1 17.0 17.7 15.4 10.1 7.6 3.0 14.6
5 21.4 15.6 18.1 14.3 15.2 9.8 8.8 0.5 4.5
6 15.7 10.0 15.5 10.9 12.7 8.8 8.6 0.1 1.3
7 10.1 6.2 11.9 8.2 10.1 7.8 8.0 0.0 0.4
8 6.0 3.8 8.5 6.2 7.9 6.9 7.2 0.0 0.1
9 3.4 2.3 5.9 4.6 6.1 6.1 6.5 0.0 0.0
10 1.9 1.4 4.0 3.5 4.7 5.4 5.9 0.0 0.0
11 1.0 0.8 2.6 2.6 3.6 4.8 5.3 0.0 0.0
12 0.6 0.5 1.7 2.0 2.8 4.2 4.7 0.0 0.0
13 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.5 2.2 3.7 4.3 0.0 0.0
14 0.2 0.2 0.7 1.1 1.7 3.3 3.8 0.0 0.0
15 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.8 1.3 2.9 3.4 0.0 0.0
16 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.0 2.6 3.1 0.0 0.0
17 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.8 2.3 2.8 0.0 0.0
18 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.6 2.0 2.5 0.0 0.0
19 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.8 2.2 0.0 0.0
20 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.0
21 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 1.4 1.8 0.0 0.0
22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.2 1.6 0.0 0.0
23 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.1 1.5 0.0 0.0
24 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.9 1.3 0.0 0.0
Total Percentage 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Layer ID from F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01
outdoors to indoors F14 F15 F15 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13
(See Table 18) G05 G05 G05 G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 G03
F05 F05 F05 I02 I02 I02 I02 I02 I02
I05 I05 I05 G06 I02 G06 I02 F08 I02
I05 F05 I05 F03 G06 F05 G06 F03 F08
F05 G01 F05 0 F03 F16 F05 0 F03
G01 F03 G01 0 0 F03 F16 0 0
F03 0 F03 0 0 0 F03 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

loads. for those estimating design cooling loads for such uses, with the fol-
lowing exceptions:
7. HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONS
• Temperatures outdoor conditioned spaces are generally lower
Techniques for estimating design heating load for commercial, than maintained space temperatures.
institutional, and industrial applications are essentially the same as
• Credit for solar or internal heat gains is not included
• Thermal storage effect of building structure or content is ignored.
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 18.35

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (CTS) (Continued)

Metal Deck Roofs Concrete Roofs
Membrane, Membrane, 2 in. 2 in.
Sheathing, Sheathing, Concrete Concrete
R-10 R-20 Roof Ballast, Roof Ballast, Membrane, Membrane,
Insulation Insulation Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Sheathing, Sheathing,
Board, Board, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, R-15 R-30
Metal Deck, Metal Deck, R-15 R-30 R-25 R-15 R-30 Insulation Insulation
Suspended Suspended Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Board, Board,
Acoustical Acoustical Board, Board, Board, Board, Board, 4 in. LW 4 in. LW
Ceiling Ceiling Metal Deck Metal Deck Metal Deck Metal Deck Metal Deck Concrete Concrete
Roof Number 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
U, Btu/h·ft2 ·°F 0.0654 0.0331 0.0572 0.0309 0.0438 0.0526 0.0295 0.0539 0.0299
Total R 15.29 30.21 17.48 32.40 22.85 19.03 33.95 18.56 33.48
Hour Conduction Time Factors, % Conduction Time Factors, %
1 4.8 0.2 8.6 0.3 6.4 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.8
2 40.0 8.8 52.5 12.8 44.2 10.1 1.3 2.2 0.9
3 34.7 26.6 29.8 31.1 32.7 21.9 8.1 7.9 2.5
4 13.8 26.3 7.3 25.5 11.6 19.5 14.7 11.2 5.9
5 4.6 17.3 1.5 14.7 3.6 14.2 15.8 11.2 8.6
6 1.4 9.8 0.3 7.7 1.1 10.1 14.0 10.0 9.6
7 0.4 5.2 0.1 3.9 0.3 7.1 11.4 8.7 9.4
8 0.1 2.7 0.0 2.0 0.1 5.0 8.8 7.5 8.7
9 0.0 1.4 0.0 1.0 0.0 3.5 6.7 6.4 7.8
10 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 5.5 6.9
11 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.2 0.0 1.7 3.7 4.7 6.0
12 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.2 2.8 4.0 5.2
13 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.9 2.0 3.4 4.5
14 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 1.5 2.9 3.9
15 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.1 2.5 3.4
16 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.8 2.2 2.9
17 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.6 1.8 2.5
18 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 1.6 2.2
19 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 1.4 1.9
20 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.2 1.6
21 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 1.0 1.4
22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.9 1.2
23 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 1.1
24 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.9
Total Percentage 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Layer ID from F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01
outdoors to indoors F13 F13 F13 F13 F08 M17 M17 F13 F13
(See Table 18) G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 F13 F13 G03 G03
I02 I02 I03 I03 F05 G03 G03 I03 I03
F08 I02 F08 I03 I05 I03 I03 M11 I03
F05 F08 F03 F08 G01 F08 I03 F03 M11
F16 F05 0 F03 F03 F03 F08 0 F03
F03 F16 0 0 0 0 F03 0 0
0 F03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Thermal bridging effects on wall and roof conduction are greater This simplified approach is justified because it evaluates worst-
for heating loads than for cooling loads, and greater care must be case conditions that can reasonably occur during a heating season.
taken to account for bridging effects on U-factors used in heating Therefore, the near-worst-case load is based on the following:
load calculations.
Heat losses (negative heat gains) are thus considered to be instan- • Design interior and exterior conditions
taneous, heat transfer essentially conductive, and latent heat treated • Including infiltration and/or ventilation
only as a function of replacing space humidity lost to the exterior • No solar effect (at night or on cloudy winter days)
environment. • Before the periodic presence of people, lights, and appliances has
an offsetting effect
18.36 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

Table 17 Roof Conduction Time Series (CTS) (Concluded)

Concrete Roofs
Membrane, Membrane,
Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, Membrane, 6 in. HW 6 in. HW
Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Sheathing, Concrete, Concrete,
R-15 R-30 R-15 R-30 R-15 R-30 R-15 R-30 R-19 R-38
Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Insulation Batt Batt
Board, Board, Board, Board, Board, Board, Board, Board, Insulation, Insulation,
6 in. 6 in. 8 in. 8 in. 6 in. 6 in. 8 in. 8 in. Suspended Suspended
LW LW LW LW HW HW HW HW Acoustical Acoustical
Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete Ceiling Ceiling
Roof Number 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
U, Btu/h·ft2 ·°F 0.0523 0.0294 0.0509 0.0297 0.0558 0.0304 0.0553 0.0303 0.0420 0.0233
Total R 19.10 34.02 19.65 33.64 17.93 32.85 18.09 33.02 23.78 42.84
Hour Conduction Time Factors, %
1 1.5 1.9 2.4 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.8 1.4 1.6
2 1.7 1.7 2.3 1.4 2.4 2.2 2.6 2.7 2.3 1.6
3 3.4 2.0 2.6 1.5 4.6 2.7 3.5 2.8 5.7 2.6
4 6.0 3.2 3.7 2.6 6.5 4.1 4.8 3.4 8.0 4.8
5 7.5 4.9 4.9 4.6 7.0 5.4 5.7 4.3 8.2 6.5
6 7.8 6.2 5.7 6.4 6.8 6.2 5.9 5.0 7.8 7.3
7 7.6 6.9 6.1 7.4 6.5 6.4 5.9 5.5 7.2 7.4
8 7.1 7.0 6.1 7.8 6.1 6.3 5.7 5.6 6.6 7.1
9 6.5 6.9 6.0 7.6 5.7 6.1 5.5 5.6 6.0 6.7
10 6.0 6.5 5.8 7.2 5.3 5.8 5.3 5.5 5.5 6.2
11 5.5 6.1 5.5 6.7 5.0 5.5 5.0 5.3 5.0 5.7
12 5.0 5.7 5.2 6.1 4.7 5.2 4.8 5.1 4.6 5.3
13 4.6 5.2 5.0 5.5 4.4 4.8 4.6 4.9 4.2 4.8
14 4.2 4.8 4.7 5.0 4.1 4.5 4.4 4.7 3.8 4.4
15 3.8 4.4 4.4 4.5 3.8 4.3 4.2 4.5 3.5 4.0
16 3.5 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.6 4.0 4.0 4.3 3.2 3.7
17 3.2 3.7 3.9 3.6 3.4 3.8 3.8 4.1 2.9 3.4
18 2.9 3.4 3.7 3.2 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.9 2.6 3.1
19 2.6 3.1 3.4 2.9 2.9 3.3 3.4 3.7 2.4 2.8
20 2.4 2.9 3.2 2.6 2.8 3.1 3.3 3.6 2.2 2.6
21 2.2 2.6 3.0 2.3 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.4 2.0 2.4
22 2.0 2.4 2.9 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.2 1.8 2.2
23 1.8 2.2 2.7 1.9 2.3 2.6 2.8 3.1 1.7 2.0
24 1.7 2.0 2.5 1.7 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 1.5 1.8
Total Percentage 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Layer ID from F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01 F01
outdoors to indoors F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13 F13
(See Table 18) G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 G03 M14 M14
I03 I03 I03 I03 I03 I03 I03 I03 F05 F05
M12 I03 M13 I03 M14 I03 M15 I03 I05 I05
F03 M12 F03 M13 F03 M14 F03 M15 F16 I05
0 F03 0 F03 0 F03 0 F03 F03 F16
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F03
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Typical commercial and retail spaces have nighttime unoccupied some perimeter heat may be required, leaving infiltration and ven-
periods at a setback temperature where little to no ventilation is tilation as the primary heating loads. Ventilation heat load may be
required, building lights and equipment are off, and heat loss is pri- offset with heat recovery equipment. These loads (conduction loss,
marily through conduction and infiltration. Before being occupied, warm-up load, and ventilation load) may not be additive when siz-
buildings are warmed to the occupied temperature (see the follow- ing building heating equipment, and it is prudent to analyze each
ing discussion). During occupied time, building lights, equipment, load and their interactions to arrive at final equipment sizing for
and people cooling loads can offset conduction heat loss, although heating.
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 18.37

7.1 HEAT LOSS CALCULATIONS

The general procedure for calculation of design heat losses of a
structure is as follows:
1. Select outdoor design conditions: temperature, humidity, and
wind direction and speed.
2. Select indoor design conditions to be maintained.
3. Estimate temperature in any adjacent unheated spaces.
4. Select transmission coefficients and compute heat losses for
walls, floors, ceilings, windows, doors, and foundation elements.
5. Compute heat load through infiltration and any other outdoor air
introduced directly to the space.
6. Sum the losses caused by transmission and infiltration.
Outdoor Design Conditions
The ideal heating system provides enough heat to match the
structure’s heat loss. However, weather conditions vary consider-
ably from year to year, and heating systems designed for the worst
weather conditions on record would have a great excess of capacity Fig. 12 Heat Flow from Below-Grade Surface
most of the time. A system’s failure to maintain design conditions
during brief periods of severe weather usually is not critical. How-
used to find the steady-state heat loss to the ground surface, as
ever, close regulation of indoor temperature may be critical for some
follows:
occupancies or industrial processes. Design temperature data and
discussion of their application are given in Chapter 14. Generally, HF = Uavg (tin – tgr) (36)
the 99% temperature values given in the tabulated weather data are where
used. However, caution is needed, and local conditions should Uavg = average U-factor for below-grade surface from Equation (38) or
always be investigated. In some locations, outdoor temperatures are (39), Btu/h·ft2·°F
commonly much lower and wind velocities higher than those given tin = below-grade space air temperature, °F
in the tabulated weather data. tgr = design ground surface temperature from Equation (37), °F
The effect of soil heat capacity means that none of the usual
Indoor Design Conditions external design air temperatures are suitable values for tgr . Ground
The main purpose of the heating system is to maintain indoor surface temperature fluctuates about an annual mean value by
conditions that make most of the occupants comfortable. Keep in amplitude A, which varies with geographic location and surface
mind, however, that the purpose of heating load calculations is to cover. The minimum ground surface temperature, suitable for heat
obtain data for sizing the heating system components. In many loss estimates, is therefore
cases, the system will rarely be called upon to operate at the design tgr = tgr – A (37)
conditions. Therefore, the use and occupancy of the space are gen-
eral considerations from the design temperature point of view. where
Later, when the building’s energy requirements are computed, the tgr = mean ground temperature, °F, estimated from the annual
actual conditions in the space and outdoor environment, including average air temperature or from well-water temperatures, shown
internal heat gains, must be considered. in Figure 18 of Chapter 34 in the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—
HVAC Applications
The indoor design temperature should be selected at the lower end A = ground surface temperature amplitude, °F, from Figure 13 for
of the acceptable temperature range, so that the heating equipment North America
will not be oversized. Even properly sized equipment operates under Figure 14 shows depth parameters used in determining Uavg. For
partial load, at reduced efficiency, most of the time; therefore, any walls, the region defined by z1 and z2 may be the entire wall or any
oversizing aggravates this condition and lowers overall system effi- portion of it, allowing partially insulated configurations to be ana-
ciency. A maximum design dry-bulb temperature of 70°F is recom- lyzed piecewise.
mended for most occupancies. The indoor design value of relative The below-grade wall average U-factor is given by
humidity should be compatible with a healthful environment and the
thermal and moisture integrity of the building envelope. A minimum 2k soil
U avg,bw = ------------------------
relative humidity of 30% is recommended for most situations. z2 z1
(38)
Calculation of Transmission Heat Losses 2k soil Rother 2k soil Rother
× ln z 2 + ----------------------------- ln z 1 + -----------------------------
Exterior Surface Above Grade. All above-grade surfaces ex-
posed to outdoor conditions (walls, doors, ceilings, fenestration, where
and raised floors) are treated identically, as follows: Uavg,bw = average U-factor for wall region defined by z1 and z2,
Btu/h·ft2 ·°F
q=A HF (34) ksoil = soil thermal conductivity, Btu/h·ft·°F
Rother = total resistance of wall, insulation, and indoor surface resistance,
HF = U t (35) h·ft2 ·°F/Btu
z1, z2=depths of top and bottom of wall segment under consideration, ft
where HF is the heating load factor in Btu/h·ft2. (Figure 14)
Below-Grade Surfaces. An approximate method for estimating The value of soil thermal conductivity k varies widely with soil
below-grade heat loss [based on the work of Latta and Boileau type and moisture content. A typical value of 0.8 Btu/h·ft·°F has
(1969)] assumes that the heat flow paths shown in Figure 12 can be been used previously to tabulate U-factors, and Rother is approxi-
18.38 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals
Table 18 Thermal Properties and Code Numbers of Layers Used in Wall and Roof Descriptions for Tables 16 and 17
Specific Resistance Thermal
Layer Thickness, Conductivity, Density, Heat, R, Mass, Capacity,
ID Description in. Btu·in/h·ft2 ·°F lb/ft3 Btu/lb·°F ft2 ·°F·h/Btu lb/ft2 Btu/ft2 ·°F Notes
F01 Outdoor surface resistance — — — — 0.25 — — 1
F02 Indoor vertical surface resistance — — — — 0.68 — — 2
F03 Indoor horizontal surface resistance — — — — 0.92 — — 3
F04 Wall air space resistance — — — — 0.87 — — 4
F05 Ceiling air space resistance — — — — 1.00 — — 5
F06 EIFS finish 0.375 5.00 116.0 0.20 0.08 3.63 0.73 6
F07 1 in. stucco 1.000 5.00 116.0 0.20 0.20 9.67 1.93 6
F08 Metal surface 0.030 314.00 489.0 0.12 0.00 1.22 0.15 7
F09 Opaque spandrel glass 0.250 6.90 158.0 0.21 0.04 3.29 0.69 8
F10 1 in. stone 1.000 22.00 160.0 0.19 0.05 13.33 2.53 9
F11 Wood siding 0.500 0.62 37.0 0.28 0.81 1.54 0.43 10
F12 Asphalt shingles 0.125 0.28 70.0 0.30 0.44 0.73 0.22
F13 Built-up roofing 0.375 1.13 70.0 0.35 0.33 2.19 0.77
F14 Slate or tile 0.500 11.00 120.0 0.30 0.05 5.00 1.50
F15 Wood shingles 0.250 0.27 37.0 0.31 0.94 0.77 0.24
F16 Acoustic tile 0.750 0.42 23.0 0.14 1.79 1.44 0.20 11
F17 Carpet 0.500 0.41 18.0 0.33 1.23 0.75 0.25 12
F18 Terrazzo 1.000 12.50 160.0 0.19 0.08 13.33 2.53 13
G01 5/8 in. Gyp. Board 0.625 1.11 50.0 0.26 0.56 2.60 0.68
G02 5/8 in. plywood 0.625 0.80 34.0 0.29 0.78 1.77 0.51
G03 1/2 in. fiberboard sheathing 0.500 0.47 25.0 0.31 1.06 1.04 0.32 14
G04 1/2 in. wood 0.500 1.06 38.0 0.39 0.47 1.58 0.62 15
G05 1 in. wood 1.000 1.06 38.0 0.39 0.94 3.17 1.24 15
G06 2 in. wood 2.000 1.06 38.0 0.39 1.89 6.33 2.47 15
G07 4 in. wood 4.000 1.06 38.0 0.39 3.77 12.67 4.94 15
I01 R-5, 1 in. insulation board 1.000 0.20 2.7 0.29 5.00 0.23 0.07 16
I02 R-10, 2 in. insulation board 2.000 0.20 2.7 0.29 10.00 0.45 0.13 16
I03 R-15, 3 in. insulation board 3.000 0.20 2.7 0.29 15.00 0.68 0.20 16
I04 R-11, 3 1/2 in. batt insulation 3.520 0.32 1.2 0.23 11.00 0.35 0.08 17
I05 R-19, 6 1/4 in. batt insulation 6.080 0.32 1.2 0.23 19.00 0.61 0.14 17
I06 R-30, 9 1/2 in. batt insulation 9.600 0.32 1.2 0.23 30.00 0.96 0.22 17
M01 4 in. brick 4.000 6.20 120.0 0.19 0.65 40.00 7.60 18
M02 6 in. LW concrete block 6.000 3.39 32.0 0.21 1.77 16.00 3.36 19
M03 8 in. LW concrete block 8.000 3.44 29.0 0.21 2.33 19.33 4.06 20
M04 12 in. LW concrete block 12.000 4.92 32.0 0.21 2.44 32.00 6.72 21
M05 8 in. concrete block 8.000 7.72 50.0 0.22 1.04 33.33 7.33 22
M06 12 in. concrete block 12.000 9.72 50.0 0.22 1.23 50.00 11.00 23
M07 6 in. LW concrete block (filled) 6.000 1.98 32.0 0.21 3.03 16.00 3.36 24
M08 8 in. LW concrete block (filled) 8.000 1.80 29.0 0.21 4.44 19.33 4.06 25
M09 12 in. LW concrete block (filled) 12.000 2.04 32.0 0.21 5.88 32.00 6.72 26
M10 8 in. concrete block (filled) 8.000 5.00 50.0 0.22 1.60 33.33 7.33 27
M11 4 in. lightweight concrete 4.000 3.70 80.0 0.20 1.08 26.67 5.33
M12 6 in. lightweight concrete 6.000 3.70 80.0 0.20 1.62 40.00 8.00
M13 8 in. lightweight concrete 8.000 3.70 80.0 0.20 2.16 53.33 10.67
M14 6 in. heavyweight concrete 6.000 13.50 140.0 0.22 0.44 70.00 15.05
M15 8 in. heavyweight concrete 8.000 13.50 140.0 0.22 0.48 93.33 20.07
M16 12 in. heavyweight concrete 12.000 13.50 140.0 0.22 0.89 140.0 30.10
M17 2 in. LW concrete roof ballast 2.000 1.30 40 0.20 1.54 6.7 1.33 28
Notes: The following notes give sources for the data in this table. 14. Chapter 26, Table 4 for nail-base sheathing
1. Chapter 26, Table 1 for 7.5 mph wind 15. Chapter 26, Table 4 for Southern pine
2. Chapter 26, Table 1 for still air, horizontal heat flow 16. Chapter 26, Table 4 for expanded polystyrene
3. Chapter 26, Table 1 for still air, downward heat flow 17. Chapter 26, Table 4 for glass fiber batt, specific heat per glass fiber board
4. Chapter 26, Table 3 for 1.5 in. space, 90°F, horizontal heat flow, 0.82 emittance 18. Chapter 26, Table 4 for clay fired brick
5. Chapter 26, Table 3 for 3.5 in. space, 90°F, downward heat flow, 0.82 emittance 19. Chapter 26, Table 4, 16 lb block, 8 16 in. face
6. EIFS finish layers approximated by Chapter 26, Table 4 for 3/8 in. cement plaster, 20. Chapter 26, Table 4, 19 lb block, 8 16 in. face
sand aggregate 21. Chapter 26, Table 4, 32 lb block, 8 16 in. face
7. Chapter 33, Table 3 for steel (mild) 22. Chapter 26, Table 4, 33 lb normal weight block, 8 16 in. face
8. Chapter 26, Table 4 for architectural glass 23. Chapter 26, Table 4, 50 lb normal weight block, 8 16 in. face
9. Chapter 26, Table 4 for marble and granite 24. Chapter 26, Table 4, 16 lb block, vermiculite fill
10. Chapter 26, Table 4, density assumed same as Southern pine 25. Chapter 26, Table 4, 19 lb block, 8 16 in. face, vermiculite fill
11. Chapter 26, Table 4 for mineral fiberboard, wet molded, acoustical tile 26. Chapter 26, Table 4, 32 lb block, 8 16 in. face, vermiculite fill
12. Chapter 26, Table 4 for carpet and rubber pad, density assumed same as fiberboard 27. Chapter 26, Table 4, 33 lb normal weight block, 8 16 in. face, vermiculite fill
13. Chapter 26, Table 4, density assumed same as stone 28. Chapter 26, Table 4 for 40 lb/ft3 LW concrete
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 18.39

Table 19 Representative Nonsolar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction

Interior Zones
Light Medium Heavy Light Medium Heavy
With Carpet No Carpet With Carpet No Carpet With Carpet No Carpet

Carpet

Carpet

Carpet

Carpet

Carpet

Carpet
With

With

With
%

No

No

No
Glass 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90%
Hour Radiant Time Factor, %
0 47 50 53 41 43 46 46 49 52 31 33 35 34 38 42 22 25 28 46 40 46 31 33 21
1 19 18 17 20 19 19 18 17 16 17 16 15 9 9 9 10 9 9 19 20 18 17 9 9
2 11 10 9 12 11 11 10 9 8 11 10 10 6 6 5 6 6 6 11 12 10 11 6 6
3 6 6 5 8 7 7 6 5 5 8 7 7 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 8 6 8 5 5
4 4 4 3 5 5 5 4 3 3 6 5 5 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 5 3 6 4 5
5 3 3 2 4 3 3 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 2 4 4 4
6 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 3 2 4 3 4
7 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 2 2 1 3 3 4
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 4
9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 3 3
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 3 3
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 3
12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 3
13 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 3
14 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 1 2 3
15 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 3
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 3
17 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2
18 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 2 2
19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 0 2 2
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2
21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2
22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 2
23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 2
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Table 20 Representative Solar RTS Values for Light to Heavy Construction

Light Medium Heavy

% With Carpet No Carpet With Carpet No Carpet With Carpet No Carpet

Glass 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90% 10% 50% 90%
Hour Radiant Time Factor, %
0 53 55 56 44 45 46 52 54 55 28 29 29 47 49 51 26 27 28
1 17 17 17 19 20 20 16 16 15 15 15 15 11 12 12 12 13 13
2 9 9 9 11 11 11 8 8 8 10 10 10 6 6 6 7 7 7
3 5 5 5 7 7 7 5 4 4 7 7 7 4 4 3 5 5 5
4 3 3 3 5 5 5 3 3 3 6 6 6 3 3 3 4 4 4
5 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 5 5 5 2 2 2 4 4 4
6 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 4 4 4 2 2 2 3 3 3
7 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 4 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3
9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3
10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 2
12 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
13 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
14 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2
15 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
16 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
17 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
18 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
19 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2
22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1
23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
18.40 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

Table 21 RTS Representative Zone Construction for Tables 19 and 20

Construction Class Exterior Wall Roof/Ceiling Partitions Floor Furnishings
Light Steel siding, 2 in. insulation, 4 in. LW concrete, ceiling 3/4 in. gyp., air space, Acoustic tile, ceiling air 1 in. wood @ 50%
air space, 3/4 in. gyp. air space, acoustic tile 3/4 in. gyp. space, 4 in. LW concrete of floor area
Medium 4 in. face brick, 2 in. insulation, 4 in. HW concrete, ceiling 3/4 in. gyp., air space, Acoustic tile, ceiling air 1 in. wood @ 50%
air space, 3/4 in. gyp. air space, acoustic tile 3/4 in. gyp. space, 4 in. HW concrete of floor area
Heavy 4 in. face brick, 8 in. HW 8 in. HW concrete, ceiling 3/4 in. gyp., 8 in. HW Acoustic tile, ceiling air 1 in. wood @ 50%
concrete air space, air space, acoustic tile concrete block, space, 8 in. HW concrete of floor area
2 in. insulation, 3/4 in. gyp. 3/4 in. gyp.

Table 22 Average U-Factor for Basement Walls

with Uniform Insulation

Depth, Uavg,bw from Grade to Depth, Btu/h·ft2 ·°F

ft Uninsulated R-5 R-10 R-15
1 0.432 0.135 0.080 0.057
2.6 0.331 0.121 0.075 0.054
3 0.273 0.110 0.070 0.052
4 0.235 0.101 0.066 0.050
5 0.208 0.094 0.063 0.048
6 0.187 0.088 0.060 0.046
7 0.170 0.083 0.057 0.044
8 0.157 0.078 0.055 0.043
Soil conductivity = 0.8 Btu/h·ft ·°F; insulation is over entire depth. For other soil con-
ductivities and partial insulation, use Equation (38).

Table 23 Average U-Factor for Basement Floors

Uavg,bf , Btu/h·ft2 ·°F
Fig. 13 Ground Temperature Amplitude zf
(Depth of Floor wb (Shortest Width of Basement), ft
Below Grade), ft 20 24 28 32
1 0.064 0.057 0.052 0.047
2 0.054 0.048 0.044 0.040
3 0.047 0.042 0.039 0.036
4 0.042 0.038 0.035 0.033
5 0.038 0.035 0.032 0.030
6 0.035 0.032 0.030 0.028
7 0.032 0.030 0.028 0.026
Soil conductivity is 0.8 Btu/h·ft·°F; floor is uninsulated. For other soil conductivities
and insulation, use Equation (38).

Fig. 14 Below-Grade Parameters

Table 24 Heat Loss Coefficient Fp of Slab Floor Construction
Construction Insulation Fp , Btu/h·ft·°F
mately 1.47 h ·ft2 ·°F/Btu for uninsulated concrete walls. For 8 in. block wall, brick facing Uninsulated 0.68
these parameters, representative values for Uavg,bw are shown in R-5.4 from edge to footer 0.50
Table 22. 4 in. block wall, brick facing Uninsulated 0.84
The average below-grade floor U-factor (where the entire base- R-5.4 from edge to footer 0.49
ment floor is uninsulated or has uniform insulation) is given by Metal stud wall, stucco Uninsulated 1.20
2k soil R-5.4 from edge to footer 0.53
U avg ,bf = -------------- (39) Poured concrete wall with Uninsulated 2.12
wb duct near perimeter* R-5.4 from edge to footer 0.72
w z ksoil Rother z k soil Rother *Weighted average temperature of heating duct was assumed at 110ºF during heating
× ln -----b- + ---f + --------------------------
- ln ---f + --------------------------
- season (outdoor air temperature less than 65ºF).
2 2 2
where
wb = basement width (shortest dimension), ft The simplified approach that treats heat loss as proportional to
zf = floor depth below grade, ft (see Figure 14) slab perimeter allows slab heat loss to be estimated for both
unheated and heated slab floors:
Representative values of Uavg,bf for uninsulated basement floors
are shown in Table 23.
q = p HF (40)
At-Grade Surfaces. Concrete slab floors may be (1) unheated,
relying for warmth on heat delivered above floor level by the heating HF = Fp t (41)
system, or (2) heated, containing heated pipes or ducts that consti-
tute a radiant slab or portion of it for complete or partial heating of where
the house. q = heat loss through perimeter, Btu/h
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 18.41

Fp = heat loss coefficient per foot of perimeter, Btu/h·ft·°F, Table 24 Table 25 Common Sizing Calculations in Other Chapters
p = perimeter (exposed edge) of floor, ft Subject Volume/Chapter Equation(s)
Surfaces Adjacent to Buffer Space. Heat loss to adjacent Duct heat transfer ASTM Standard C680
unconditioned or semiconditioned spaces can be calculated using a Piping heat transfer Fundamentals Ch. 4 Table 2
heating factor based on the partition temperature difference: Pump power Systems Ch. 44 (3), (4)
Moist-air sensible heating and cooling Fundamentals Ch. 1 (43)
Moist-air cooling and dehumidification Fundamentals Ch. 1 (45)
HF = U (tin – tb) (42)
Air mixing Fundamentals Ch. 1 (46)
Space heat absorption and moist-air Fundamentals Ch. 1 (48)
Infiltration moisture gains
Adiabatic mixing of water injected into Fundamentals Ch. 1 (47)
Infiltration of outdoor air through openings into a structure is moist air
caused by thermal forces, wind pressure, and negative pressure
(planned or unplanned) with respect to the outdoors created by
mechanical systems. Typically, in building design, if the mechani- 7.2 HEATING SAFETY FACTORS AND LOAD
cal systems are designed to maintain positive building pressure, ALLOWANCES
infiltration need not be considered except in ancillary spaces such
as entryways and loading areas. Before mechanical cooling became common in the second half
Infiltration is treated as a room load and has both sensible and of the 1900s, and when energy was less expensive, buildings
latent components. During winter, this means heat and humidity included much less insulation; large, operable windows; and gener-
loss because cold, dry air must be heated to design temperature and ally more infiltration-prone assemblies than the energy-efficient and
moisture must be added to increase the humidity to design condi- much tighter buildings typical of today. Allowances of 10 to 20% of
tion. Typically, during winter, controlling indoor humidity is not a the net calculated heating load for piping losses to unheated spaces,
factor and infiltration is reduced to a simple sensible component. and 10 to 20% more for a warm-up load, were common practice,
Under cooling conditions, both sensible and latent components are along with other occasional safety factors reflecting the experience
added to the space load to be treated by the air conditioning sys- and/or concern of the individual designer. Such measures are less
tem.Procedures for estimating the infiltration rate are discussed in conservatively applied today with newer construction. A combined
Chapter 16. The infiltration rate is reduced to a volumetric flow rate warm-up/safety allowance of 20 to 25% is fairly common but varies
at a known dry bulb/wet bulb condition. Along with indoor air con- depending on the particular climate, building use, and type of con-
dition, the following equations define the infiltration sensible and struction. Engineering judgment must be applied for the particular
latent loads. project. Armstrong et al. (1992a, 1992b) provide a design method to
deal with warm-up and cooldown load.
qs (Btu/h) = 60(cfm/v)cp (tin – to) (43)
7.3 OTHER HEATING CONSIDERATIONS
where
cfm = volume flow rate of infiltrating air
Calculation of design heating load estimates has essentially
become a subset of the more involved and complex estimation of
cp = specific heat capacity of air, Btu/lbm ·°F cooling loads for such spaces. Chapter 19 discusses using the
v = specific volume of infiltrating air, ft3/lbm heating load estimate to predict or analyze energy consumption over
time. Special provisions to deal with particular applications are cov-
Assuming standard air conditions (59°F and sea-level condi- ered in the 2019 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications and the
tions) for v and cp , Equation (43) may be written as 2020 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment.
The 1989 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals was the last edi-
qs (Btu/h) = 1.10(cfm)(tin – to) (44) tion to contain a chapter dedicated only to heating load. Its contents
were incorporated into this volume’s Chapter 17, which describes
The infiltrating air also introduces a latent heating load given by steady-state conduction and convection heat transfer and provides,
among other data, information on losses through basement floors
and slabs.
ql (Btu/h) = 60(cfm/v)(Win – Wo)Dh (45)

where 8. SYSTEM HEATING AND COOLING

Win = humidity ratio for indoor space air, lbw /lba LOAD EFFECTS
Wo = humidity ratio for outdoor air, lbw /lba
Dh = change in enthalpy to convert 1 lb water from vapor to liquid, The heat balance (HB) or radiant time series (RTS) methods are
Btu/lbw used to determine cooling loads of rooms within a building, but they
For standard air and nominal indoor comfort conditions, the do not address the plant size necessary to reject the heat. Principal
latent load may be expressed as factors to consider in determining the plant size are ventilation, heat
transport equipment, and air distribution systems. Some of these
factors vary as a function of room load, ambient temperature, and
ql = 4840(cfm)(Win – Wo) (46) control strategies, so it is often necessary to evaluate the factors and
strategies dynamically and simultaneously with the heat loss or gain
The coefficients 1.10 in Equation (44) and 4840 in Equation (46) calculations.
are given for standard conditions. They depend on temperature and Detailed analysis of system components and methods calculating
altitude (and, consequently, pressure). their contribution to equipment sizing are beyond the scope of this
18.42 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

chapter, which is general in nature. Table 25 lists the most fre- Variable-Air-Volume Systems
quently used calculations in other chapters and volumes.
Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems have airflow controls that
adjust cooling airflow to match the room cooling load. Damper
8.1 ZONING leakage or minimum airflow settings may cause overcooling, so
most VAV systems are used in conjunction with separate heating
Organization of building rooms into zones as defined for load systems. These may be duct-mounted heating coils, or separate radi-
calculations and air-handling units has no effect on room cooling ant or convective heating systems.
loads. However, specific grouping and ungrouping of rooms into The amount of heat added by the heating systems during cooling
zones may cause peak system loads to occur at different times becomes part of the room cooling load. Calculations must deter-
during the day or year, and may significantly affect heat removal mine the minimum airflow relative to off-peak cooling loads. The
equipment sizes. quantity of heat added to the cooling load can be determined for
For example, if each room is cooled by a separate heat removal each terminal by Equation (8) using the minimum required supply
system, the total capacity of the heat transport systems equals the airflow rate and the difference between supply air temperature and
sum of peak room loads. Conditioning all rooms by a single heat the room indoor heating design temperature.
transport system (e.g., a variable-volume air handler) requires less
capacity (equal to the simultaneous peak of the combined rooms
load, which includes some rooms at off-peak loads). This may sig- Constant-Air-Volume Reheat Systems
nificantly reduce equipment capacity, depending on the configura-
tion of the building. In constant-air-volume (CAV) reheat systems, all supply air is
cooled to remove moisture and then heated to avoid overcooling
rooms. Reheat refers to the amount of heat added to cooling supply
8.2 VENTILATION air to raise the supply air temperature to the temperature necessary
for picking up the sensible load. The quantity of heat added can be
Consult ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and building codes to deter- determined by Equation (8).
mine the required quantity of ventilation air for an application, and With a constant-volume reheat system, heat transport system
the various methods of achieving acceptable indoor air quality. The load does not vary with changes in room load, unless the cooling
following discussion is confined to the effect of mechanical venti- coil discharge temperature is allowed to vary. Where a minimum
lation on sizing heat removal equipment. Where natural ventilation circulation rate requires a supply air temperature greater than the
is used, through operable windows or other means, it is considered available design supply air temperature, reheat adds to the cooling
as infiltration and is part of the direct-to-room heat gain. Where load on the heat transport system. This makes the cooling load on
ventilation air is conditioned and supplied through the mechanical the heat transport system larger than the room peak load.
system, its sensible and latent loads are applied directly to heat
transport and central equipment, and do not affect room heating and
Mixed Air Systems
cooling loads. If the mechanical ventilation rate sufficiently exceeds
exhaust airflows, air pressure may be positive and infiltration from
envelope openings and outdoor wind may not be included in the Mixed air systems change the supply air temperature to match
the cooling capacity by mixing airstreams of different temperatures;
load calculations. Chapter 16 includes more information on venti-
examples include multizone and dual-duct systems. Systems that
lating commercial buildings.
cool the entire airstream to remove moisture and to reheat some of
Depending on ventilation requirements and local climate condi- the air before mixing with the cooling airstream influence load on
tions, peak cooling coil loads may occur at peak dehumidification or the heat transport system in the same way a reheat system does.
enthalpy conditions instead of design dry-bulb conditions. Coil Other systems separate the air paths so that mixing of hot- and cold-
loads should be checked against all those peak conditions. deck airstreams does not occur. For systems that mix hot and cold
airstreams, the contribution to the heat transport system load is
determined as follows.
8.3 AIR HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
1. Determine the ratio of cold-deck flow to hot-deck flow from
Heat transport equipment is usually selected to provide adequate
Qh
heating or cooling for the peak load condition. However, selection ------ = (Tc – Tr)/(Tr – Th)
must also consider maintaining desired indoor conditions during all Qc
occupied hours, which requires matching the rate of heat transport
to room peak heating and cooling loads. Automatic control systems 2. From Equation (9), the hot-deck contribution to room load
normally vary the heating and cooling system capacity during these during off-peak cooling is
off-peak hours of operation.
qrh = 1.1Qh (Th – Tr)

On/Off Control Systems where

Qh = heating airflow, cfm
On/off control systems, common in residential and light com-
Qc = cooling airflow, cfm
mercial applications, cycle equipment on and off to match room
load. They are adaptable to heating or cooling because they can Tc = cooling air temperature, °F
cycle both heating and cooling equipment. In their purest form, their Th = heating air temperature, °F
heat transport matches the combined room and ventilation load over Tr = room or return air temperature, °F
a series of cycles. qrh = heating airflow contribution to room load at off-peak hours, Btu/h
18.42 2021 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals

8. SYSTEM HEATING AND COOLING On/Off Control Systems

LOAD EFFECTS On/off control systems, common in residential and light com-
mercial applications, cycle equipment on and off to match room
The heat balance (HB) or radiant time series (RTS) methods are load. They are adaptable to heating or cooling because they can
used to determine cooling loads of rooms within a building, but they cycle both heating and cooling equipment. In their purest form, their
do not address the plant size necessary to reject the heat. Principal heat transport matches the combined room and ventilation load over
factors to consider in determining the plant size are ventilation, heat a series of cycles.
transport equipment, and air distribution systems. Some of these
factors vary as a function of room load, ambient temperature, and Variable-Air-Volume Systems
control strategies, so it is often necessary to evaluate the factors and Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems have airflow controls that
strategies dynamically and simultaneously with the heat loss or gain adjust cooling airflow to match the room cooling load. Damper
calculations. leakage or minimum airflow settings may cause overcooling, so
Detailed analysis of system components and methods calculating most VAV systems are used in conjunction with separate heating
their contribution to equipment sizing are beyond the scope of this systems. These may be duct-mounted heating coils, or separate radi-
chapter, which is general in nature. Table 25 lists the most fre- ant or convective heating systems.
quently used calculations in other chapters and volumes. The amount of heat added by the heating systems during cooling
becomes part of the room cooling load. Calculations must deter-
8.1 ZONING mine the minimum airflow relative to off-peak cooling loads. The
quantity of heat added to the cooling load can be determined for
Organization of building rooms into zones as defined for load each terminal by Equation (8) using the minimum required supply
calculations and air-handling units has no effect on room cooling airflow rate and the difference between supply air temperature and
loads. However, specific grouping and ungrouping of rooms into the room indoor heating design temperature.
zones may cause peak system loads to occur at different times
during the day or year, and may significantly affect heat removal Constant-Air-Volume Reheat Systems
equipment sizes. In constant-air-volume (CAV) reheat systems, all supply air is
For example, if each room is cooled by a separate heat removal cooled to remove moisture and then heated to avoid overcooling
system, the total capacity of the heat transport systems equals the rooms. Reheat refers to the amount of heat added to cooling supply
sum of peak room loads. Conditioning all rooms by a single heat air to raise the supply air temperature to the temperature necessary
transport system (e.g., a variable-volume air handler) requires less for picking up the sensible load. The quantity of heat added can be
capacity (equal to the simultaneous peak of the combined rooms determined by Equation (8).
load, which includes some rooms at off-peak loads). This may sig- With a constant-volume reheat system, heat transport system
nificantly reduce equipment capacity, depending on the configura- load does not vary with changes in room load, unless the cooling
tion of the building. coil discharge temperature is allowed to vary. Where a minimum
circulation rate requires a supply air temperature greater than the
8.2 VENTILATION available design supply air temperature, reheat adds to the cooling
load on the heat transport system. This makes the cooling load on
Consult ASHRAE Standard 62.1 and building codes to deter- the heat transport system larger than the room peak load.
mine the required quantity of ventilation air for an application, and
the various methods of achieving acceptable indoor air quality. The Mixed Air Systems
following discussion is confined to the effect of mechanical venti- Mixed air systems change the supply air temperature to match
lation on sizing heat removal equipment. Where natural ventilation the cooling capacity by mixing airstreams of different temperatures;
is used, through operable windows or other means, it is considered examples include multizone and dual-duct systems. Systems that
as infiltration and is part of the direct-to-room heat gain. Where cool the entire airstream to remove moisture and to reheat some of
ventilation air is conditioned and supplied through the mechanical the air before mixing with the cooling airstream influence load on
system, its sensible and latent loads are applied directly to heat the heat transport system in the same way a reheat system does.
transport and central equipment, and do not affect room heating and Other systems separate the air paths so that mixing of hot- and cold-
cooling loads. If the mechanical ventilation rate sufficiently exceeds deck airstreams does not occur. For systems that mix hot and cold
exhaust airflows, air pressure may be positive and infiltration from airstreams, the contribution to the heat transport system load is
envelope openings and outdoor wind may not be included in the determined as follows.
load calculations. Chapter 16 includes more information on venti-
lating commercial buildings. 1. Determine the ratio of cold-deck flow to hot-deck flow from
Depending on ventilation requirements and local climate condi- Qh
tions, peak cooling coil loads may occur at peak dehumidification or ------ = (Tc – Tr)/(Tr – Th)
Qc
enthalpy conditions instead of design dry-bulb conditions. Coil
loads should be checked against all those peak conditions. 2. From Equation (9), the hot-deck contribution to room load
during off-peak cooling is
8.3 AIR HEAT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS qrh = 1.1Qh (Th – Tr)
Heat transport equipment is usually selected to provide adequate where
heating or cooling for the peak load condition. However, selection Qh = heating airflow, cfm
must also consider maintaining desired indoor conditions during all Qc = cooling airflow, cfm
occupied hours, which requires matching the rate of heat transport Tc = cooling air temperature, °F
to room peak heating and cooling loads. Automatic control systems Th = heating air temperature, °F
normally vary the heating and cooling system capacity during these Tr = room or return air temperature, °F
off-peak hours of operation. qrh = heating airflow contribution to room load at off-peak hours, Btu/h
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 18.43

Heat Gain from Fans qfr = heat release to room housing motor and drive, Btu/h
2545 = conversion factor, Btu/h·hp
Fans that circulate air through HVAC systems add energy to the
system through the following processes: Supply airstream temperature rise may be determined from psy-
chrometric formulas or Equation (8).
• Increasing velocity and static pressure adds kinetic and potential
Variable- or adjustable-frequency drives (VFDs or AFDs) often
energy
drive fan motors in VAV air-handling units. These devices release
• Fan inefficiency in producing airflow and static pressure adds
heat to the surrounding space. Refer to manufacturers’ data for heat
sensible heat (fan heat) to the airflow
released or efficiencies. The disposition of heat released is deter-
• Inefficiency of motor and drive dissipates sensible heat
mined by the drive’s location: in the conditioned space, in the return
The power required to provide airflow and static pressure can be air path, or in a nonconditioned equipment room. These drives, and
determined from the first law of thermodynamics with the following other electronic equipment such as building control, data process-
equation: ing, and communications devices, are temperature sensitive, so the
rooms in which they are housed require cooling, frequently year
PA = 0.000157Vp round.
where
PA = air power, hp
Duct Surface Heat Transfer
V = flow rate, cfm Heat transfer across the duct surface is one mechanism for
p = pressure, in. of water energy transfer to or from air inside a duct. It involves conduction
through the duct wall and insulation, convection at inner and outer
at standard air conditions with air density = 0.075 lb/ft3 built into the surfaces, and radiation between the duct and its surroundings.
multiplier 0.000157. The power necessary at the fan shaft must Chapter 4 presents a rigorous analysis of duct heat loss and gain,
account for fan inefficiencies, which may vary from 50 to 70%. This and Chapter 23 addresses application of analysis to insulated duct
may be determined from systems.
PF = PA / F
The effect of duct heat loss or gain depends on the duct routing,
duct insulation, and its surrounding environment. Consider the fol-
where lowing conditions:
PF = power required at fan shaft, hp
F = fan efficiency, dimensionless
• For duct run within the area cooled or heated by air in the duct,
heat transfer from the space to the duct has no effect on heating or
The power necessary at the input to the fan motor must account for cooling load, but beware of the potential for condensation on cold
fan motor inefficiencies and drive losses. Fan motor efficiencies ducts.
generally vary from 80 to 95%, and drive losses for a belt drive are • For duct run through unconditioned spaces or outdoors, heat
3% of the fan power. This may be determined from transfer adds to the cooling or heating load for the air transport
system but not for the conditioned space.
PM = (1 + DL) PF /EM ED
• For duct run through conditioned space not served by the duct,
where heat transfer affects the conditioned space as well as the air trans-
port system serving the duct.
PM = power required at input to motor, hp
ED = belt drive efficiency, dimensionless • For an extensive duct system, heat transfer reduces the effective
EM = fan motor efficiency, dimensionless supply air differential temperature, requiring adjustment through
PF = power required at fan shaft, hp air balancing to increase airflow to extremities of the distribution
DL = drive loss, dimensionless system.
Almost all the energy required to generate airflow and static pressure Duct Leakage
is ultimately dissipated as heat in the building and HVAC system; a Air leakage from supply ducts can considerably affect HVAC
small portion is discharged with any exhaust air. Generally, it is system energy use. Leakage reduces cooling and/or dehumidify-
assumed that all the heat is released at the fan rather than dispersed ing capacity for the conditioned space, and must be offset by
to the remainder of the system. The portion of fan heat released to the increased airflow (sometimes reduced supply air temperatures),
airstream depends on the location of the fan motor and drive: if they unless leaked air enters the conditioned space directly. Supply air
are within the airstream, all the energy input to the fan motor is leakage into a ceiling return plenum or leakage from uncondi-
released to the airstream. If the fan motor and drive are outdoor the tioned spaces into return ducts also affects return air temperature
airstream, the energy is split between the airstream and the room and/or humidity.
housing the motor and drive. Therefore, the following equations may
Determining leakage from a duct system is complex because of
be used to calculate heat generated by fans and motors:
the variables in paths, fabrication, and installation methods. Refer
If motor and drive are outside the airstream, to Chapter 21 and publications from the Sheet Metal and Air Con-
ditioning Contractors’ National Association (SMACNA) for meth-
qf s = 2545PF
ods of determining leakage. In general, good-quality ducts and
qfr = 2545(PM – PF ) post-installation duct sealing provide highly cost-effective energy
savings, with improved thermal comfort and delivery of ventilation
If motor and drive are inside the airstream, air.
qf s = 2545PM
Ceiling Return Air Plenum Temperatures
qf r = 0.0 The space above a ceiling, when used as a return air path, is a
where ceiling return air plenum, or simply a return plenum. Unlike a tra-
PF = power required at fan shaft, hp ditional ducted return, the plenum may have multiple heat sources
PM = power required at input to motor, hp in the air path. These heat sources may be radiant and convective
qf s = heat release to airstream, Btu/h loads from lighting and transformers; conduction loads from adja-