Web Development and Database

Administration

Level IV
Based on November, 2023 Version-II Curriculum

Module Title: Advanced Structured Query Language

Module code: EIS WDDBA4 M03 1123

Nominal duration: 100 Hours

Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill

November, 2023

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

 Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................ 2
Acronym…………………………………………………………………………………………..3
Introduction to the Module ............................................................................................................. 4
Unit One: Advanced SQL statements ............................................................................................. 5
1.1. DBMS fundamentals ........................................................................................................ 6
1.2. Database tools and equipment .......................................................................................... 7
1.3. Functions of where clause ................................................................................................ 9
1.4. Functions of order by clause .......................................................................................... 14
1.5. Boolean operators ........................................................................................................... 15
1.6. Elimination of duplicated and null values ...................................................................... 22
1.7. Functions of join operator .............................................................................................. 23
1.8. Functions of union operator ........................................................................................... 26
1.9. Data control language..................................................................................................... 27
1.10. Transaction control language...................................................................................... 28
Self-Check 1.................................................................................................................................. 34
Operation Sheet-1.1 Create database ............................................................................................ 36
Operation Sheet-1.2 where clause with comparison operators ..................................................... 42
Operation Sheet-1.3 where and order by clause ........................................................................... 44
Operation Sheet-1.4 Working with Boolean operators ................................................................. 47
Operation Sheet-1.5 Working with Join ....................................................................................... 49
Operation Sheet-1.6 Working with union operator....................................................................... 52
Operation Sheet-1.7 Data Control Language ................................................................................ 53
Lap Test………………………………………………………………………………………….54
Unit Two: SQL statements with functions.................................................................................... 56
2.1. Arithmetic operations ..................................................................................................... 57
2.2. String functions and operators........................................................................................ 57
2.3. Mathematical functions .................................................................................................. 61
2.4. Date functions ................................................................................................................ 63
 Self-Check 2.................................................................................................................................. 67
Operation Sheet-2.1 Arithmetic operators and string function ..................................................... 68
Operation Sheet-2.2 Date function ............................................................................................... 69
Lap Test………………………………………………………………………………………….71
Unit Three: SQL statements with aggregation and filtering ......................................................... 72
3.1. Function of group by statement .......................................................................................... 73
3.2. Function of having clause .................................................................................................. 75
3.4. Backup database ................................................................................................................. 78
Self-Check 3.................................................................................................................................. 79
Operation Sheet-3.1 Sort aggregated data and backup ................................................................. 80
Lap Test………………………………………………………………………………………….82
Reference………………………………………………………………………………………...83
Developer’s Profile ....................................................................................................................... 86

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 Acknowledgment
Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many representatives
of TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and expertise to the
development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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 Acronym

DML……………………………………………………… Data Manipulation Language

RDBMS…………………………………………………… Relational Database Management System

SSMS……………………………………………………… SQL Server Management Studio

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 Introduction to the Module
In this module, you will explore advanced SQL syntax and functionalities that enable you to
perform tasks such as aggregating data, filtering results, joining multiple tables, and handling
complex queries. By the end of this module, you will have a comprehensive understanding of
advanced SQL techniques, equipping you with the skills to efficiently manipulate and retrieve
data from databases and optimize query performance.

This module covers the units:

• Advanced SQL statement

• SQL statements with functions
• SQL statements with aggregation and filtering
This module covers the objectives:

• Construct complex queries involving multiple tables using JOIN statement

• Understand how to use SQL functions to manipulate data, perform calculations, format
strings, and extract useful information.
• Understand the GROUP BY clause to group data based on specific criteria
• Filtering data using the HAVING clause
Module Instruction

For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instructions

• Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

• Read the information that this module contain.
• Complete the Self-check.
• Submit your accomplished Self-check.
• Do the Operations in the module.
• Do the LAP test in page (if you are ready) and show your output to your teacher.

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 Unit One: Advanced SQL statements

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics

• DBMS fundamentals
• Information-based database tools and equipment
• Functions of where clause
• Functions of order by clause
• Boolean operators
• Elimination of duplicated and null values
• Functions of join operator
• Functions of union operator
• Data control language
• Transaction control language
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
• Understand fundamentals of DBMS and identify database tools and equipment
• Retrieve specific columns and sort query output
• Use Boolean operators
• Eliminate duplicated and null values
• Retrieve data from two or more tables
• Combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements
• Grant and revoke a database
• Understand TCL

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 1.1. DBMS fundamentals
A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs
to access those data. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a
database. The collection of data, usually referred to as the database, contains information relevant
to an enterprise. The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database
information that is both convenient and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be
recorded and that have implicit meaning. The management system is important because without
the existence of some kind of rules and regulations it is not possible to maintain the database. We
have to select the particular attributes which should be included in a particular table; the common
attributes to create relationship between two tables; if a new record has to be inserted or deleted
then which tables should have to be handled etc. These issues must be resolved by having some
kind of rules to follow in order to maintain the integrity of the database.

Database systems are designed to manage large bodies of information. Management of data
involves both defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms for the
manipulation of information. In addition, the database system must ensure the safety of the
information stored, despite system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access. If data are to be
shared among several users, the system must avoid possible anomalous results. So Understanding
the fundamentals of DBMS is crucial for anyone working with databases, whether as a database
administrator, data analyst, or software developer.

1. Data Organization: One of the primary functions of a DBMS is to organize data in a structured
manner. It provides a logical framework, known as a schema, which defines the structure and
relationships of the data. The schema includes tables, which consist of rows (records) and
columns (attributes). By organizing data into tables, DBMS ensures data integrity, consistency,
and easy access.
2. Data Retrieval: DBMS allows users to retrieve data from databases using queries. Queries are
written in a language called Structured Query Language (SQL), which is a standard language
for interacting with relational databases. With SQL, users can specify the desired data, apply

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 filters, join multiple tables, and sort the results. DBMS optimizes query execution to ensure
efficient retrieval of data.
3. Data Manipulation: DBMS enables users to manipulate data by performing various operations
such as inserting, updating, and deleting records. These operations ensure data consistency and
integrity. DBMS also supports transactions, which are a set of operations that are executed as
a single unit. Transactions ensure that either all operations are successfully completed, or none
of them are applied, maintaining data integrity.
4. Data Security: DBMS provides mechanisms to ensure data security and access control. It
allows administrators to define user roles and privileges, restricting unauthorized access to
sensitive data. DBMS also supports encryption techniques to protect data during transmission
and storage.
5. Data Integrity and Consistency: DBMS enforces data integrity rules to maintain the accuracy
and consistency of data. It supports constraints such as primary keys, foreign keys, and unique
constraints to ensure data integrity. DBMS also provides mechanisms for data validation and
error handling.
6. Data Backup and Recovery: DBMS offers features for data backup and recovery to protect
against data loss. It allows administrators to schedule regular backups and restore data in case
of system failures or disasters. This ensures the availability and reliability of data.

1.2. Database tools and equipment

When it comes to managing and manipulating data effectively, selecting the right database tools
and equipment is crucial. The choice of tools and equipment should align with the specific
information requirements of your organization or project. This process involves considering
various factors such as data volume, complexity, security needs, performance requirements, and
scalability.

To begin with, it is essential to assess the data volume and complexity of your project. If you are
dealing with large datasets or complex data structures, you may need a robust database

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 management system (DBMS) that can handle the workload efficiently. In such cases, relational
database management systems (RDBMS) like SQL, Oracle, or Microsoft SQL Server are
commonly used due to their ability to handle structured data and perform complex queries.

Security is another critical aspect to consider when selecting database tools and equipment. If your
organization deals with sensitive or confidential data, you should prioritize tools that offer robust
security features such as encryption, access controls, and auditing capabilities. Database systems
like PostgreSQL and Microsoft SQL Server provide advanced security features to protect your
data from unauthorized access or breaches.

Performance requirements play a significant role in determining the appropriate database tools and
equipment. If your application or project demands high-speed data processing and retrieval, you
might consider in-memory databases like Redis or Apache Ignite. These databases store data in
memory, enabling faster access and query execution compared to traditional disk-based databases.

Scalability is also a crucial factor to consider, especially if your project is expected to grow in
terms of data volume or user base. Tools like Apache Cassandra or MongoDB are known for their
ability to handle massive amounts of data and provide horizontal scalability, allowing you to add
more servers to accommodate increasing demands.

In this module, we will be using Microsoft SQL Server as the database management system for
learning and practicing advanced SQL concepts. SQL Server is a popular and widely-used open-
source relational database management system that provides a robust and scalable platform for
storing, managing, and retrieving data.

SQL Server offers a comprehensive set of features and functionalities that make it an ideal choice
for learning advanced SQL. It supports a wide range of SQL commands and syntax, allowing us
to explore and practice various advanced techniques effectively. Additionally, SQL Server has
excellent performance and reliability, making it suitable for handling large datasets and complex

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 queries. By using Microsoft SQL Server, you will gain hands-on experience with a real-world
database management system. You will learn how to set up and configure SQL, create and manage
databases, tables, and indexes, and execute SQL queries to manipulate and retrieve data. This
practical experience will not only deepen your understanding of advanced SQL concepts but also
prepare you for real-world scenarios where SQL is commonly used.

Figure 1.1. SQL

1.3. Functions of where clause

• Retrieving data from a table
The SQL WHERE clause is used to filter the results obtained by the DML statements such as
SELECT, UPDATE and DELETE etc. It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified
condition. We can retrieve the data from a single table or multiple tables (after join operation)
using the WHERE clause.

You can use SQL to retrieve the columns of a database table with the SELECT statement. You
can retrieve all columns, a single column, or several specific columns. It is then up to your
programming language to display that data.

Questions you may have include:

➢ How do you retrieve all columns?

➢ How do you retrieve a single column?

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 ➢ How do you retrieve some columns?

You can write a query to retrieve all the elements in a database table by using the SELECT
statement and wildcard (*) indicator.

Select * from table_name;

Note: It is standard practice to add ";" at the end of your SQL query.

The most common query from a database is to collect or retrieve all the elements in a specific
column of the database table.

Select column_name from table_name;

You can also retrieve data from several columns by separating the column names with a comma.

Select column_1, column_2, column_7 from table_name;

Note: Do not place a comma after the last item in the list, because it will result in an error
message.

• WHERE clause with SELECT statement

Typically, the SELECT statement is used to retrieve data from a table. If we use the WHERE
clause with the SELECT statement, we can filter the rows to be retrieved based on a specific
condition (or expression).

Example: Assume we have created a table named CUSTOMERS in SQL database using
CREATE TABLE statement and inserted some values. The table created is as shown below.

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500
7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

In the following query, we are fetching the ID, NAME and SALARY fields from the
CUSTOMERS table for the records where the SALARY is greater than 2000

➢ Select ID, Name, Salary from customers where salary > 2000;

ID Name Salary
4 Fulea 6500
5 Kemal 8500
6 Momona 4500
7 Tibletse 10000
• WHERE clause with UPDATE statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table. Using the SQL WHERE
clause with the UPDATE statement, we can update particular records. If the WHERE clause is not
used, the UPDATE statement would affect all the records of a table. Following is the syntax.

Example: by using the previous customers table, we are incrementing the salary of the customer
named Ramesh by 10000 by using the WHERE clause along with the UPDATE statement

✓ Update customer set salary= salary + 1000 where Name= ‘Tilahun’;

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 3000

• Comparison operators in the WHERE clause

SQL Comparison Operators test whether two given expressions are the same or not. These
operators are used in SQL conditional statements while comparing one expression with another
and they return a Boolean value which can be either TRUE or FALSE. The result of an SQL
comparison operation can be UNKNOWN when one or another operand has its value as NULL.

Here is a list of all the comparison operators available in SQL.

Operator Description
= Equal to
!= Not equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
!< Not less than
!> Not greater than

Example: by using the previous customers table, we can write a query with a comparison
operator

➢ Select * from customers where age != 25;

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500
7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

➢ Select * from customers where age >= 25;

ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500

• CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables. They are used to retrieve
data from the database more quickly than otherwise. The users cannot see the indexes, they are
just used to speed up searches/queries.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the
indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently
searched against.

✓ CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

➢ CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

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 ➢ CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...) ASC or DES;

1.4. Functions of order by clause

The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in either ascending or descending order,
based on one or more columns. This clause can sort data by a single column or by multiple
columns. Sorting by multiple columns can be helpful when you need to sort data hierarchically,
such as sorting by state, city, and then by the person's name.

ORDER BY is used with the SQL SELECT statement and is usually specified after the WHERE,
HAVING, and GROUP BY clauses.

Following are the important points about ORDER BY Clause

• To sort the data in ascending order, we use the keyword ASC.

• To sort the data in descending order, we use the keyword DESC.

In addition to sorting records in ascending order or descending order, the ORDER BY clause can
also sort the data in a database table in a preferred order.

Example: by using the previous product table

Sort the products from highest to lowest price

• SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Price DESC;

Sort the products from lowest to highest price

• SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Price ASC;

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 Sort the products alphabetically by using Product name

• SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Product_Name;
Sort the products by Product Name in reverse order

• SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Product_Name DESC;

1.5. Boolean operators

Boolean operators in SQL are logical operators used to combine or manipulate conditions in a
query.

Operator Description
ALL TRUE if all of the sub query values meet the condition

AND TRUE if all the condition separated by AND is true

ANY TRUE if any of the sub query values meet the condition
BETWEEN TRUE if the operand is within the range of comparisons
EXISTS TRUE if the sub query returns one or more records

IN TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of expressions

LIKE TRUE if the operand matches a pattern
NOT Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
OR TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is true

Example: Assume we have created a table named CUSTOMERS in SQL database using
CREATE TABLE statement and inserted some values. The table created is as shown below.

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500
7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000
• SQL ALL Operator

The ALL operator:

➢ Returns a Boolean value as a result

➢ Returns TRUE if ALL of the sub query values meet the condition
➢ It is used with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements

ALL means that the condition will be true only if the operation is true for all values in the range.

ALL operator syntax

➢ SELECT ALL column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
• WHERE clause with AND, OR operators
We can use AND and OR operators together in SQL to combine multiple conditions in a
WHERE clause to filter rows that meets the specified criteria. The AND operator will make sure
only those rows are filtered that satisfy all the conditions and the OR operator will filter records
that satisfy any one of the specified conditions. However, this is only used when specifying one
condition is not enough to filter all the required rows.

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 Following is the syntax for using the AND and OR operators in a WHERE clause

✓ WHERE (condition1 OR condition2) AND condition3;

Example: by using the previous customers table, we are retrieving all rows from the
CUSTOMERS table based on some conditions. The parentheses control the order of evaluation
so that the OR operator is applied first, followed by the AND operator.

➢ Select * from customers where (age = 25 OR salary < 4500) AND (name =
'Chemdesa' OR name = 'Momona');
ID Name Age Address Salary

3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000

• SQL ANY Operator

The ANY operator:

➢ Returns a Boolean value as a result

➢ Returns TRUE if ANY of the sub query values meet the condition

ANY means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of the values in the
range.

ANY operator syntax

✓ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);

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 Note: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >, >=, <, or <=).

Example: in the following example if we want to retrieve name of the customers whose salary is
2000, we can write this query

✓ SELECT Name
FROM customers
WHERE ID = ANY
(SELECT ID
FROM customers
WHERE salary=2000;
Name
Tilahun
Chemdesa

• SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator is a logical operator in SQL, that is used to retrieve the data within a
specified range. The retrieved values can be integers, characters, or dates. You can use
the BETWEEN operator to replace a combination of "greater than equal AND less than equal"
conditions.

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Example: by using the previous customers table, we can write a query that will display all
customers whose age is between 20 and 30.

➢ Select * from customers where age between 20 and 30;

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500
7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

Example: by using the previous customers table, we can write a query that will display all
customers whose name starts between the a and g.

➢ Select * from customers where name between ‘a’ and ‘g’;

ID Name Age Address Salary
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
4 Fulea 25 Kality 6500

✓ NOT BETWEEN Operator

The NOT BETWEEN operator in SQL works in exactly opposite to the BETWEEN operator.
This is used to retrieve the data which is not present in the specified range.

Example: Select * from customers where age not between 20 and 30;

ID Name Age Address Salary

1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000

• SQL EXISTS Operator

➢ The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any record in a sub query. It
returns TRUE if the sub query returns one or more records.

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 EXISTS operator Syntax

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
• WHERE clause with IN operator

Using the IN operator you can specify the list of values or sub query in the where clause. If you
use WHERE and IN with the SELECT statement, it allows us to retrieve the rows in a table that
match any of the values in the specified list. Following is the syntax for it

Example: by using the previous customers table, suppose you want to display records with
NAME values Khilan, Hardik and Muffy from the CUSTOMERS table, you can use the
following query

➢ Select * from customers where name in (‘Tilahun', 'Chemdesa', 'momona');

ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 3000
3 Chemdesa 23 Lemikura 2000
6 Momona 22 Lafto 4500

➢ WHERE clause with NOT IN operator

The WHERE clause with NOT IN operator is the negation of WHERE clause with the IN
operator.

✓ If you use WHERE with the IN operator, the DML statement will act on the list of values
(of a column) specified

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 ✓ Whereas, if you use WHERE with the NOT IN operator, the DML operation is performed
on the values (of a column) that are not there in the specified list.

Example: by using the previous customers table, we are displaying the records from
CUSTOMERS table, where AGE is NOT equal to 25, 23 and 22.

✓ Select * from customers where age NOT IN (25, 23, 22);

ID Name Age Address Salary
1 Tilahun 32 Gulele 2000
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500
7 Tibletse 24 Bole 10000

• SQL LIKE Operator

➢ The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column.
➢ There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
✓ The percent sign % represents zero, one, or multiple characters
✓ The underscore sign _ represents one, single character
LIKE operator syntax

➢ SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
Example: by using the previous customers table, we can write a query which would display all
the records where the name starts with K and is at least 3 characters in length

✓ Select * from customers where name LIKE 'K__%';

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 ID Name Age Address Salary
2 Kebede 25 Arada 1500
5 Kemal 27 Yeka 8500

• SQL NOT Operator

➢ The NOT operator is used in combination with other operators to give the opposite result,
also called the negative result.
NOT operator syntax

➢ SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;

1.6. Elimination of duplicated and null values

• Duplicated values
Duplicates can be a big problem in SQL databases as they can slow down query performance and
waste valuable storage space.

When the result set from a SELECT statement contains duplicate rows, you may want to remove
them and keep every row data to be unique for a column or combination of columns. You can use
the DISTINCT identifier to eliminate duplicate records from the result set.

Consider the following facts when using DISTINCT identifier in a SELECT statement:

➢ In a SELECT statement, include DISTINCT keyword after the SELECT clause.

➢ Multiple columns can be specified after DISTINCT keyword. In this case, the result set
contains distinct combination of data from these columns.

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 DISTINCT keyword syntax

➢SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name;
• Null Value
A null value indicates no value. It means that the column value is absent in a row. A null value is
not the same as a blank space or a zero value. A zero value is an integer and a blank space is a
character while a null value is the one that has been left blank.

To exclude the null values from a table we need to use IS NOT NULL operator with the
WHERE clause. IS NOT NULL Operator is used to test for non-empty values.

IS NOT NULL operator syntax:

➢ SELECT column_names
FROM table_name WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;

1.7. Functions of join operator

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column
between them.

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables. It is the
most common type of join. Inner joins combine records from two tables whenever there are
matching values in a field common to both tables.

Inner Join clause in SQL Server creates a new table (not physical) by combining rows that have
matching values in two or more tables. This join is based on a logical relationship (or a common
field) between the tables and is used to retrieve data that appears in both tables.

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 INNER JOIN operator syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
• SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the matching
records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the right side, if there is no
match.

LEFT JOIN keyword syntax

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.

Figure 1.1. Left Join

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 • SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the matching
records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left side, if there is no match.

RIGHT JOIN Syntax

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Note: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.

Figure 1.2. Right Join

• SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left (table1) or
right (table2) table records.

Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.

FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name WHERE condition;

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 Figure 1.3. Full outer Join
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

1.8. Functions of union operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.

Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns

The columns must also have similar data types

The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

UNION operator syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
UNION operator with where clause syntax

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 WHERE condition1

UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2 WHERE condition2

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 1.9. Data control language
DCL stands for Data Control Language in Structured Query Language (SQL). As the name
suggests these commands are used to control privilege in the database. The privileges (Right to
access the data) are required for performing all the database operations like creating tables,
views, or sequences.
DCL command is a statement that is used to perform the work related to the rights, permissions,
and other control of the database system.

Need Of DCL commands

• Unauthorized access to the data should be prevented in order to achieve security in our
database
• DCL commands maintain the database effectively than anyone else other than database
administrator is not allowed to access the data without permission.
• These commands provide flexibility to the data administrator to set and remove database
permissions in granular fashion.
GRANT

This command is used to grant permission to the user to perform a particular operation on a
particular object. If you are a database administrator and you want to restrict user accessibility
such as one who only views the data or may only update the data. You can give the privilege
permission to the users according to your wish.

Syntax:

GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

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 REVOKE

This command is used to take permission/access back from the user. If you want to return
permission from the database that you have granted to the users at that time you need to run
REVOKE command.

Syntax:

REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

1.10. Transaction control language

Transactions group a set of tasks into a single execution unit. Each transaction begins with a
specific job and ends when all the tasks in the group successfully completed. If any of the tasks
fail, the transaction fails. Therefore, a transaction has only two results: success or failure.
BEGIN:

Incomplete steps result in the failure of the transaction. A database transaction, by definition,
must be atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable.
These are popularly known as ACID properties. These properties can ensure the concurrent
execution of multiple transactions without conflict.

Properties of Transaction

• Atomicity: The outcome of a transaction can either be completely successful or

completely unsuccessful. The whole transaction must be rolled back if one part of it fails.
• Consistency: Transactions maintain integrity restrictions by moving the database from
one valid state to another.
• Isolation: Concurrent transactions are isolated from one another, assuring the accuracy of
the data.
• Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its modifications remain in effect even in the
event of a system failure.

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 1. COMMIT
This command is used to save the data permanently.
Whenever we perform any of the DML command like -INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE,
these can be rollback if the data is not stored permanently. So, in order to be at the safer side
COMMIT command is used.
• Syntax: commit;
2. ROLLBACK
This command is used to get the data or restore the data to the last savepoint or last
committed state. If due to some reasons the data inserted, deleted or updated is not correct,
you can roll back the data to a particular savepoint or if savepoint is not done, then to the last
committed state.
• Syntax: rollback;
3. SAVEPOINT
This command is used to save the data at a particular point temporarily, so that whenever
needed can be rollback to that particular point.
• Syntax: Savepoint A;

Example: Consider the following student table

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 • UPDATE STUDENT
SET NAME = ‘Sherlock’
WHERE NAME = ‘Jolly’;
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK;
By using the above command, you can update the record and save it permanently by
using COMMIT command.

Now after COMMIT:

If commit was not performed then the changes made by the update command can be rollback.

Now if no COMMIT is performed.

• UPDATE STUDENT
SET NAME = ‘Sherlock’
WHERE STUDENT_NAME = ‘Jolly’;
After update command the table will be:

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 Now if ROLLBACK is performed on the above table:

rollback;

After Rollback:

If on the above table savepoint is performed:

• INSERT into STUDENT

VALUES ('Jack', 95);
Commit;
• UPDATE NAME
SET NAME= ‘Rossie’
WHERE marks= 70;
SAVEPOINT A;

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 • INSERT INTO STUDENT
VALUES (‘Zack’, 76);
SAVEPOINT B;
• INSERT INTO STUDENT
VALUES (‘Bruno’, 85);
SAVEPOINT C;
• SELECT * FROM STUDENT;

Now if we Rollback to SAVEPOINT B:

Rollback to B;

The resulting Table will be-

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 Now if we Rollback to SAVEPOINT A:

Rollback to A;

The resulting Table will be-

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 Self-Check 1
Part I: Say true or false

1. The inner join technique is useful when data from several relations are to be retrieved and
displayed and the relationships are not necessarily nested.
2. The UNION clause is used to combine the output from multiple queries together into a
single result table.
3. With the UNION clause, each query involved must output the same number of columns,
and they must be UNION compatible.
4. Difference between WHERE and HAVING clause is that the WHERE clause allows
you to filter data from a group of rows.
5. You can’t use aggregate functions with order by clause.
6. Both group by and order by clauses serve similar function with similar purpose.
Part II: Choose the best answer

1. Which of the following is NOT a fundamental concept of a Database Management

System (DBMS)?
a) Data modeling
b) Data storage
c) Data visualization
d) Data retrieval
2. Which of the following is an example of a database tool used for data manipulation?
a) SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS)
b) Microsoft Excel
c) Notepad
d) Google Chrome
3. What is the primary function of the WHERE clause in SQL?
a) To eliminate duplicated values
b) To perform mathematical calculations

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 c) To specify the order of the result set
d) To filter rows based on specific conditions
4. What is the purpose of the ORDER BY clause in SQL?
a) To combine multiple tables into a single result set
b) To eliminate null values from the result set
c) To sort the result set based on specified columns
d) To perform arithmetic operations on the result set
5. Which of the following is a Boolean operator used in SQL?
a) AND c) BETWEEN
b) NOT NULL d) LIKE
6. TCL statements are primarily used for
a) Defining table structures
b) Specifying conditions in queries
c) Controlling transaction behavior
d) Committing or rolling back changes
e) Creating new databases
7. Which statements are examples of Data Control Language (DCL) statements?
a) SELECT
b) INSERT
c) GRANT
d) UPDATE
e) DELETE

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 Operation Sheet-1.1 Create database
Operation title: Create a Merchant database

Purpose: To create a merchant database with customer, supplier, customer_order, orderItem and
product table their respective relationships

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Create database merchant;

Step 2: create customer table

In order to create customer table, we will write the following SQL statement

➢ CREATE TABLE Customers (

Id int identity primary key,
FirstName nvarchar(40) not null,
LastName nvarchar(40) not null,
City nvarchar(40) null,
Country nvarchar(40) null,
Phone nvarchar(20) null)
Step 3: Insert into customers table

➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]

([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(1,'Maria','Anders','Ber
lin','Germany','')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(2,'Ana','Trujillo','Méxi
co D.F.','Mexico','(5) 555-4729')

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 ➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(3,'Antonio','Moreno','
México D.F.','Mexico','(5) 555-3932')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(4,'Thomas','Hardy','Lo
ndon','UK','(171) 555-7788')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(5,'Christina','Berglund'
,'Luleå','Sweden','0921-12 34 65')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(6,'Hanna','Moos','Man
nheim','Germany','0621-08460')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(7,'Frédérique','Citeaux
','Strasbourg','France','88.60.15.31')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(8,'Martín','Sommer','
Madrid','Spain','(91) 555 22 82')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(9,'Laurence','Lebihan',
'Marseille','France','91.24.45.40')
➢ INSERT INTO [Customers]
([Id],[FirstName],[LastName],[City],[Country],[Phone])VALUES(10,'Elizabeth','Lincoln'
,'Tsawassen','Canada','(604) 555-4729')
Step 4: To retrieve the customers table, we can write the following SQL statement
➢ Select * from customers

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 5: Here we will create a supplier table (refer step 2)

Step 6: Insert values in to supplier table (refer step 3)

Step 7: To retrieve the supplier table, we can write the following SQL statement

➢ Select * from supplier

Step 8: Here we will create Customer_order table

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 In order to create the customer_order table, we will write the following SQL statement

➢ CREATE TABLE "customer_Order" (

Id int identity primary key,
OrderDate datetime not null default getdate(),
OrderNumber nvarchar(10) null,
CustomerId int not null foreign key references
customers (id)
TotalAmount decimal(12,2) null default 0,)
Constraint PK_ORDER primary key (Id)
)
Step 9: Insert values in to customer_order table (refer step 3)

Step 10: To retrieve the Customer_order table, we can write the following SQL statement
➢ Select * from Customer_order
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 11: Here we will create OrderItem table (refer step 8)

Step 12: Insert values in to OrderItem table (refer step 3)

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 Step 13: To retrieve the OrderItem table, we can write the following SQL statement
➢ Select * from OrderItem
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 14: Create Product table (refer step 8)

Step 15: Insert values in to product table (refer step 3)

Step 16: To retrieve the Product table, we can write the following SQL statement

➢ Select * from Product

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 17: Create index for the merchant database tables

➢ create index IndexCustomerName on Customers (LastName, FirstName )

➢ create index IndexSupplierCountry on Supplier (Country ASC)

➢ create index IndexProductSupplierId on Product (SupplierId ASC)

➢ create index IndexOrderItemProductId on OrderItem (ProductId ASC)

➢ create index IndexCustomerorderId on "customer_Order" (CustomerId ASC)

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 Operation Sheet-1.2 where clause with comparison operators
Operation title: where clause with comparison operators

Purpose: To show functionalities of where clause with comparison operators

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: here we want to retrieve customers whose country is Mexico, so we can write the
following query

➢ Select Id, FirstName, LastName, City, Country, Phone

FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Mexico'
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: here we want retrieve orders whose unit price is greater than 30, so we can write the
following SQL statement

➢ Select * from OrderItem where unitprice>30;

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: here we want retrieve to list products with order quantities greater than or equal to 15, so
we can write the following SQL statement

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 ➢ SELECT ProductName
FROM Product
WHERE Id IN (SELECT ProductId
FROM OrderItem
WHERE Quantity >= 15)
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-1.3 where and order by clause
Operation title: where and order by clause

Purpose: To show functionalities of where and order by clause

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: here we want to retrieve 50% of the customers record, so we can write the following
SQL statement

➢ Select top 5 * from customers where Country='mexico'

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: here we want to list all suppliers with the number of products they offer, so we can write
the following SQL statement

➢ SELECT CompanyName,
ProductCount = (SELECT COUNT(P.id)
FROM [Product] P
WHERE P.SupplierId = S.Id)
FROM Supplier S order by companyname DESC

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: here we want to list all French customer cities (without duplicates)

➢ SELECT distinct city from customers where Country = 'france';

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 5: here we want to list all suppliers that have no fax, we can write the following query

➢ SELECT Id, CompanyName, Phone, Fax

FROM Supplier
WHERE Fax IS NULL

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-1.4 Working with Boolean operators
Operation title: Working with Boolean Operators

Purpose: To show functionalities of LIKE, EXISTS and IN operators

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: Here we want to list all products that are packaged in jars, we can write the following
query
➢ SELECT *
FROM Product
WHERE Package LIKE '%jars%'
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: here we want to list customers with orders over $2000, we can write the following query
➢ SELECT *
FROM Customers
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT Id
FROM [customer_Order]
WHERE CustomerId = Customers.Id
AND TotalAmount > 2000)

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: here we want to list customers who are from London or Paris, we can write the following
query

➢ SELECT firstname
FROM Customers
WHERE City IN ('Paris','London')
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-1.5 Working with Join
Operation title: Working with Join

Purpose: To show functionalities of Join, left join, right join and full join

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: To List all suppliers with their products we can write the following query

➢ SELECT CompanyName, ProductName

FROM Supplier S
JOIN Product P ON S.Id = P.SupplierId
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: To list all suppliers and their products, including suppliers with no products we can write
the following query

➢ SELECT CompanyName, ProductName

FROM Supplier S
LEFT JOIN Product P ON S.Id = P.SupplierId

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: To list customers that have not placed orders we can write the following query

➢ SELECT FirstName, LastName, City, Country, TotalAmount

FROM [customer_Order] O
RIGHT JOIN Customers C ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
WHERE TotalAmount IS NULL
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 5: To match all customers and suppliers by country we can write the following query
➢ SELECT C.FirstName, C.LastName, C.Country AS CustomerCountry,
S.Country AS SupplierCountry, S.CompanyName
FROM Customers C
FULL JOIN Supplier S ON C.Country = S.Country
ORDER BY C.Country, S.Country

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 Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-1.6 Working with union operator
Operation title: Working with union operator

Purpose: To show functionalities of Join, left join, right join and full join

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Task 1

Step 1: To list all unique countries for customers and suppliers we can write the following
statement

➢ SELECT Country
FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT Country
FROM Supplier
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-1.7 Data Control Language
Operation title: Data Control Language

Purpose: To show grant and revoke commands for a database user

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use the above merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: Imagine we have two database administrators ababe and kebede and we want them to
create a table, insert and delete a data from the tables from the merchant database. So, we can
write the following query (suppose that kebede will grant permission for ababe)

➢ CREATE login ababe with password='123'

CREATE user ababe for login ababe
GRANT create table to ababe
➢ CREATE login kebe with password='123'
CREATE user kebe for login kebe
GRANT insert,delete on database:: merchant to ababe

Step 3: Cancel ababe’s permission on the merchant database

➢ REVOKE insert,delete on database:: merchant to ababe

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 Lap Test
Instruction: create a database and do the following tasks accordingly

Task 1: Create a database called ABC and create the following tables with their respective
relation.

Customer Table

Orders Table

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 Agent Table

Task 2: Retrieve the names of customers who have placed orders with an order amount greater
than the average order amount.

Task 3፡ Retrieve the agent names in alphabetical order.

Task 4: Retrieve the orders where the order amount is either greater than $5000 or the advance
amount is less than $1000.

Task 5: Retrieve the distinct agent codes from the AGENTS table and the distinct agent codes
from the ORDERS table.

Task 6: Retrieve the customer names and their corresponding working areas.

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 Unit Two: SQL statements with functions

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics

• Arithmetic operations

• String functions and operators

• Mathematical functions

• Date functions

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
• Understand and use arithmetic operations
• Use string functions and operators
• Understand and use mathematical functions
• Understand and use date functions

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 2.1. Arithmetic operations
Arithmetic operators can perform arithmetical operations on numeric operands involved.
Arithmetic operators are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division (/).

Operator Meaning
+(Add) Addition
-(Subtract) Subtraction
*(Multiply) Multiplication
/(Divide) Division
%(Modulo) Returns the integer reminder of a division
Arithmetic operations syntax:

➢ SELECT column_name arithmetic operator FROM [table_name] WHERE

[expression];

2.2. String functions and operators

The following table shows some string functions. All string functions works with the select
statement.

Function Description
ASCII Returns the ASCII for the specified character
CHAR Returns the character based on ASCII
CHARINDEX Returns the position of a substring in a string
DATALENGTH Returns the number of bytes used to represent an expression
DIFFERENCE Compare two SOUNDEX values and returns integer value
LEFT Extract a number of characters by starting from the left
UPPER Convert a string in to upper case
LTRIM Remove leading spaces from a string
SUBSTRING Extract some characters from a string
REPLICATE Replicates a string a specified number of times

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 • The ASCII () function returns the ASCII value for the specific character.
ASCII syntax

➢ ASCII (character)
Character parameter returns the ASCII value. If more than one character is entered, it will only
return the value for the first character

• The CHAR () function returns the character based on the ASCII code.
CHAR syntax

➢ CHAR (code)
Code parameter returns the ASCII number code for the character

• The CHARINDEX () function searches for a substring in a string, and returns the position.
If the substring is not found, this function returns 0.

Note: This function performs a case-insensitive search.

CHARINDEX syntax

➢ CHARINDEX (substring, string, start)

Substring parameter is the one to search for

String parameter is the one to be searched

Start parameter is optional where the search will start

• The DATALENGTH () function returns the number of bytes used to represent an

expression.
Note: The DATALENGTH () function counts both leading and trailing spaces when calculating
the length of the expression.

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 DATALENGTH syntax

➢ DATALENGTH (expression)
Expression parameter is the one that return data type length

• The DIFFERENCE () function compares two SOUNDEX values, and returns an integer.
The integer value indicates the match for the two SOUNDEX values, from 0 to 4.
0 indicates weak or no similarity between the SOUNDEX values. 4 indicate strong similarity or
identically SOUNDEX values.

DIFFERENCE syntax

➢ DIFFERENCE (expression, expression)

The two expressions are to be compared. Can be contrast, variable or column

• The LEFT () function extracts a number of characters from a string (starting from left).
LEFT syntax

➢ LEFT (string, number_of_chars)

String operator is the one to extract from

Number_of_chars operator, it is the number of characters to extract If the number exceeds the
number of characters in string, it returns string

• The UPPER () function converts a string to upper-case.

UPPER syntax

➢ UPPER (text)
Text parameter is the string to be converted

• The LTRIM () function removes leading spaces from a string.

Note: Also look at the RTRIM () function.

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 LTRIM syntax

➢ LTRIM (string)
String parameter is the one to remove leading spaces from.

• The SUBSTRING () function extracts some characters from a string.

SUBSTRING syntax

➢ SUBSTRING (string, start, length)

String parameter is the one the string to be extracted from

Start parameter is the first position in string is 1

Length parameter is number of characters to extract. Must be a positive number

• The REPLICATE () function repeats a string a specified number of times.

REPLICATE syntax

➢ REPLICATE (string, integer)

String parameter is the string to repeated

Integer parameter is the number of times to repeat the string

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 2.3. Mathematical functions
The following table shows some mathematical functions. All string functions works with the
SELECT statement.

Function Description
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values
SQUARE Returns the square of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
POWER Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number
COS Returns cosine of a number
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= a number
• The COUNT () function returns the number of records returned by a select query.
Note: NULL values are not counted.

COUNT () Syntax

➢ COUNT (expression)
Expression parameter is a field or a string value

• The AVG () function returns the average value of an expression.

Note: NULL values are ignored.

AVG () syntax

➢ AVG (expression), the Expression parameter is a numeric value

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 • The DEGREES () function converts a value in radians to degrees.
DEGREES () syntax

➢ DEGREES (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value

• The MAX () function returns the maximum value in a set of values.

MAX () syntax

➢ MAX (expression)
Expression parameter is a numeric value

• The SQUARE () function returns the square of a number.

SQUARE () syntax

➢ SQUARE (number)
Number parameter is a positive number to calculate the square

• The SUM () function calculates the sum of a set of values.

Note: NULL values are ignored.

SUM () syntax

➢ SUM (expression)
Expression parameter is a field or a formula

• The POWER () function returns the value of a number raised to the power of another
number.
POWER () syntax

➢ POWER (a, b)
A parameter is a number (the base) and B parameter is a number (the exponent)

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 • The TAN () function returns the tangent of a number.
TAN () syntax

➢ TAN (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value

• The COS () function returns the cosine of a number.

COS () syntax

➢ COS (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value

• The CEILING () function returns the smallest integer value that is larger than or equal to a
number.
CEILING () syntax

➢ CEILING (number)
Number parameter is a numeric value

2.4. Date functions

The following table shows some date functions

Function Description

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time

DATEADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the date

DATEDIFF Returns the difference between two dates

DATEPART Returns a single part of a date/time

CONVERT Displays date/time data in different formats

GETDATE Returns the current database system date and time

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 • The CURRENT_TIMESTAMP function returns the current date and time, in a 'YYYY-
MM-DD hh:mm:ss.mmm' format.
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP syntax

➢ CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
• The DATEADD () function adds or subtracts a time/date interval to a date and then returns
the date.
DATEADD () syntax

➢ DATEADD (datepart, number, date)

Interval parameter is to add time/date interval. Can be one of the following values:

✓ yyyy, yy = Year
✓ qq, q = Quarter
✓ mm, m = month
✓ dy, y = Day of the year
✓ day, dd, d = Day
✓ ww, wk = Week
✓ dw, w = Weekday
✓ hh = hour
✓ mi, n = Minute
✓ ss, s = Second
✓ ms = Millisecond
➢ Number parameter is the number of intervals to add to date. Can be positive (to get
dates in the future) or negative (to get dates in the past)
➢ Date parameter is the date that will be modified.

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 • The DATEDIFF () function returns the difference between two dates.
DATEDIFF () syntax

➢ DATEDIFF (date_part, start_date, end_date)

Interval parameter is the part to be returned

✓ yyyy, yy = Year
✓ qq, q = Quarter
✓ mm, m = month
✓ dy, y = Day of the year
✓ dd, d = Day
✓ ww, wk = Week
✓ dw, w = Weekday
✓ hh = hour
✓ mi, n = Minute
✓ ss, s = Second
✓ ms = Millisecond
➢ start date and end date parameters are the two dates to calculate the difference
between.
• The DATEPART () function is used to return a single part of a date/time, such as year,
month, day, hour, minute, etc.
DATEPART () syntax

➢ DATEPART (datepart,date)
Where date is a valid date expression and datepart can be one of the following:

Interval parameter is the part to be returned

✓ yyyy, yy = Year
✓ qq, q = Quarter

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 ✓ mm, m = month
✓ dy, y = Day of the year
✓ dd, d = Day
✓ ww, wk = Week
✓ dw, w = Weekday
✓ hh = hour
✓ mi, n = Minute
✓ ss, s = Second
✓ ms = Millisecond
• The CONVERT () function is a general function that converts an expression of one data
type to another.
The CONVERT () function can be used to display date/time data in different formats.

CONVERT () syntax

➢ CONVERT (data_type(length),expression,style)
✓ data_type(length) Specifies the target data type (with an optional length)
✓ expression Specifies the value to be converted
✓ style Specifies the output format for the date/time
• The GETDATE () function returns the current date and time from the SQL Server.
GETDATE () syntax

➢ GETDATE ()

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 Self-Check 2
Part I: Choose the best answer

1. Which of the following is an example of an arithmetic operator?

a) CONCATENATE c) SUBSTRING
b) LENGTH d) DIVIDE
2. Which function is used to convert a string to uppercase in SQL?
a) LOWER() c) TRIM()
b) UPPER() d) CONCAT()
3. Which function is used to return the current date and time in SQL?
a) YEAR() c) DAY()
b) CURRENT_TIMESTAMP d) NOW()
4. Which mathematical function in SQL returns the smallest integer value that is >= a
number
a) ROUND() c) CEILING()
b) FLOOR () d) ABS()

Part II: Say true or false

1. The CONCAT() function in SQL is used to concatenate two or more strings.

2. The DATEDIFF() function in SQL is used to calculate the difference between two dates.
3. LTRIM function in SQL is used to create leading spaces from a string
4. REPLICATE() function repeats a string a specified number of times.

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 Operation Sheet-2.1 Arithmetic operators and string function
Operation title: Arithmetic operators and string function

Purpose: To show functionalities of arithmetic operators and string functions in a table

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: Calculate the total amount (UnitPrice * Quantity) for each order item and display the
result with the order item ID and the total amount.

➢ SELECT Id, UnitPrice * Quantity AS TotalAmount

FROM OrderItem;
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: To retrieve the product names that start with the letter "A" and display them in uppercase.

➢ SELECT UPPER(ProductName) AS ProductName

FROM Product
WHERE ProductName LIKE 'A%';
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Operation Sheet-2.2 Date function
Operation title: Date function

Purpose: To show functionalities of some date functions

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: let us create a table called orders which stores orders of customers with their order id,
product name and the date, which the order is placed. We can write the table as shown below

➢ CREATE TABLE Orders

(
OrderId int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY,
ProductName varchar(50) NOT NULL,
OrderDate datetime DEFAULT GETDATE()

Step 3: to insert order data in the orders table we can write the following statement

➢ INSERT INTO Orders1111 (ProductName) VALUES ('Shola Milk')

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: From the previous table, if we want to retrieve the date in year, month, date format, we
can write the following query

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 ➢ SELECT DATEPART(yyyy,OrderDate) AS OrderYear,
DATEPART(mm,OrderDate) AS OrderMonth,
DATEPART(dd,OrderDate) AS OrderDay
FROM Orders1111
WHERE OrderId=1

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 5: If we want to add 30 days to the "OrderDate", to find the payment date. We can write the
following query

➢ SELECT OrderId,DATEADD(day,30,OrderDate) AS OrderPayDate

FROM Orders1111

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

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 Lap Test
Instruction: Use ABC database (from unit one lap test) in order to perform the following tasks

Task 1: Retrieve the total number of products

Task 2: Calculate the total amount (ORD_AMOUNT + ADVANCE_AMOUNT) for each order
and display the result with the order number and the total amount.

Task 3: Calculate the average commission for all agents and display the result rounded to two
decimal places.

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 Unit Three: SQL statements with aggregation and filtering

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics

• Function of group by statement

• Function of having clause
• Backup database
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
• Use group by statement to aggregate data
• Sort aggregated data
• Filter aggregated data using the 'having' clause
• Backup a database

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 3.1. Function of group by statement
The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows. It is often
used with aggregate functions (COUNT (), MAX (), MIN (), SUM (), AVG ()) to group the
result-set by one or more columns.

The GROUP BY Statement in SQL is used to arrange identical data into groups with the help of
some functions. i.e., if a particular column has the same values in different rows, then it will
arrange these rows in a group.

Features

• GROUP BY clause is used with the SELECT statement.

• In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed after the WHERE clause.
• In the query, the GROUP BY clause is placed before the ORDER BY clause if used.
• In the query, the Group BY clause is placed before the Having clause.
• Place condition in the having clause.

GROUP BY Syntax

➢ SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

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 Example: let’s say we have a customers table with the following data

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate Country

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 Adama

10249 81 6 1996-07-05 Welkite

10250 34 4 1996-07-08 Adama

If we want the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low: we can write the
following query

➢ SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT (CustomerID) DESC;
I. GROUP BY With JOIN
Below there is a customers table with the following data

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3

10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1

10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2

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 And here there is a shippers table with the following data

ShipperID ShipperName

1 Speedy Express

2 United Package

3 Federal Shipping
If we want to retrieve the number of orders sent by each shipper, we can write the following
SQL statement

➢ SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, COUNT

(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders from Orders
LEFT JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID = Shippers.ShipperID
GROUP BY ShipperName;Sorting aggregated data
II. GROUP BY With ORDER BY CLAUSE
you can sort aggregate data using the ORDER BY clause in combination with the aggregate
functions. Sorting aggregate data in SQL Server involves using aggregate functions to calculate
summary values and then sorting the result set based on those calculations

3.2. Function of having clause

The HAVING clause was introduced in SQL to allow the filtering of query results based on
aggregate functions and groupings, which cannot be achieved using the WHERE clause that is
used to filter individual rows.

In simpler terms MYSQL, the HAVING clause is used to apply a filter on the result of GROUP
BY based on the specified condition. The conditions are Boolean type i.e. use of logical
operators (AND, OR). This clause was included in SQL as the WHERE keyword failed when we
use it with aggregate expressions. Having is a very generally used clause in SQL. Similar to

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 WHERE it helps to apply conditions, but HAVING works with groups. If you wish to filter a
group, the HAVING clause comes into action.

Some important points:

• Having clause is used to filter data according to the conditions provided.

• Having a clause is generally used in reports of large data.
• Having clause is only used with the SELECT clause.
• The expression in the syntax can only have constants.
• In the query, ORDER BY is to be placed after the HAVING clause, if any.
• HAVING Clause is implemented in column operation.
• Having clause is generally used
after GROUPBY.

The main difference between where and having clause

Where Clause in SQL Having Clause in SQL

Applied before GROUP BY clause Used after GROUP BY clause

Used with single row operations such as Applicable with multiple row functions such
Upper, Lower and so on as Sum, count and so on

HAVING clause syntax

SELECT col_1, function_name(col_2)

FROM tablename

WHERE condition

GROUP BY column1, column2

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 HAVING Condition

ORDER BY column1, column2

Example: Below there is a customer table

Customer CustomerName ContactName Address City Postal Country

ID Code

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México D.F. 05021 Mexico

Emparedados y Constitución
helados 2222

3 Antonio Moreno Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico
Taquería

4 Around the Horn Thomas Hardy 120 Hanover London WA1 UK

Sq. 1DP

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsvägen 8 Luleå S-958 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund 22

If we want to lists the number of customers in each country. And only include countries with
more than 5 customers: the SQL statement will be

➢ SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country

FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT (CustomerID) > 5;
If we want to lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to low (Only include
countries with more than 5 customers): the SQL statement will be

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 ➢ SELECT COUNT (CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT (CustomerID) > 5
ORDER BY COUNT (CustomerID) DESC;

3.4. Backup database

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of an
existing SQL database.

Syntax

BACKUP DATABASE databasename

TO DISK = 'filepath';

• Backup with differential

A differential backup reduces the backup time (since only the changes are backed up).

The following SQL statement creates a differential back up of the database "testDB":

Example: BACKUP DATABASE testDB TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'

WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

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 Self-Check 3
Part I: Choose the best answer

1. What is the primary function of the GROUP BY statement in SQL?

a) It sorts the data in ascending order.
b) It filters data based on specified conditions.
c) It groups data based on one or more columns.
d) It performs mathematical calculations on the data.
2. You can sort aggregated data in a SQL query result using?
a) GROUP BY clause c) WHERE clause
b) ORDER BY clause d) HAVING clause
3. What is the main purpose of the HAVING clause in SQL?
a) To filter rows before they are grouped.
b) To sort groups in descending order.
c) To filter groups after they have been created.
d) To perform calculations on individual records.
4. When backing up a database, what does it involve?
a) Creating a duplicate copy of the database.
b) Deleting unnecessary records from the database.
c) Rearranging the data within the database.
d) Upgrading the database to a newer version.
Part II: Say true or false

1. The GROUP BY statement is used to group rows based on specified columns

2. SORT BY is used to arrange individual records in a database.
3. The HAVING clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause in a SQL query.
4. Backup files should be stored in a separate location from the original database.

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 Operation Sheet-3.1 Sort aggregated data and backup
Operation title: Sort aggregated data and backup database

Purpose: To sort aggregated data using group by, order by and having clause. And to be able to
back up the database.

Equipment tools and materials: SQL server 2012

Step 1: Use merchant database from operation sheet 1.1

Step 2: To retrieve the total order amount for each customer and sort the result in descending
order of the sum.

➢ SELECT CUST_CODE, SUM(ORD_AMOUNT) AS TotalOrderAmount

FROM ORDERS
GROUP BY CUST_CODE
ORDER BY TotalOrderAmount DESC;
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 3: To list the number of products for each supplier, sorted high to low.

➢ SELECT S.CompanyName, COUNT(P.Id) AS Products

FROM Supplier S
JOIN Product P ON S.Id = P.SupplierId

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 GROUP BY S.CompanyName
ORDER BY COUNT(P.Id) DESC
Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 4: List all countries with more than 1 suppliers.

➢ SELECT Country, COUNT(Id) AS Suppliers

FROM Supplier
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(Id) > 1

Quality Criteria: your output should look like this

Step 5: To perform full back up the merchant database we can write the following query (but
first we have to create backups folder in the specified location)

➢ BACKUP DATABASE merchant

TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';

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 Lap Test
Instruction: Use ABC database (from unit one lap test) in order to perform the following tasks

Task 1: Retrieve the total order amount for each customer and display the result with the
customer code and their total order amount.

Task 2: Retrieve the agents who have a commission greater than 5,000 and display their agent
code and commission.

Task 3: Create a full backup of the database ABC and specify the backup file path as
"C:\Backup\ABC.bak".

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 Reference
Books

SQL Server Transaction Log Management by Tony Davis and Gail Shaw 1st edition

The 45 Database Performance Tips for Developers by Phil Factor, Grant Fritchey 3rd edition

The 119 SQL Code Smells by Tony Davis and Gail Shaw 3rd edition

URL

https://www.freebookcentre.net/Database/Sql-Server-Books-Download.html

https://www.w3schools.com/sql/default.asp

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-ddl-dql-dml-dcl-tcl-commands/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-where-clause/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-order-by/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-group-by/

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sql-having-clause-with-examples/

https://www.sqlshack.com/sql-queries-in-sql-server-a-beginners-guide/

https://www.w3schools.in/mysql/ddl-dml-
dcl#:~:text=TCL%20stands%20for%20Transaction%20Control,treated%20as%20a%20single%
20unit.

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 Developer’s Profile
Qualificatio Organization/
No Name Field of Study Mobile number E-mail
n Institution

1 Frew Atkilt M-Tech Network & Information Bishoftu Polytechnic 0911787374 [email protected]
Security College

2 Gari Lencha MSc ICT Managment Gimbi Polytechnic 0917819599 [email protected]

3 Kalkidan Daniel BSc Computer Science Entoto Polytechnic 0978336988 [email protected]

4 Solomon Melese M-Tech Computer Engineering M/G /M/Polytechnic 0918578631 [email protected]

College

5 Tewodros Girma MSc Information system Sheno Polytechnic 0912068479 girmatewodiros @gmail.com
College

6 Yohannes BSc Computer Science Entoto Polytechnic 0923221273 [email protected]

Gebeyehu College