PROTOCOLS

Rules That Govern

Communications
PROTOCOL SUITE
Network Protocols
• The format of the message, such as how
much data to put into each segment
• The way intermediary devices share
information about the path to the
destination
• The method to handle update messages
between intermediary devices
• The process to initiate and terminate
communications between hosts
Protocol Suites and
Industry Standards
Protocol Suites and Industry Standards
The organizations that standardize networking
protocols are the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) and the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF).
Example: Interaction of Protocols
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Transport Protocol (TCP)
• Internetwork Protocol (IP)
• Network Access Protocols
• Data-link Management Protocols
• Physical Transmission of Data on the Media
Layered Models
The IT industry uses layered models to
describe the complex process of network
communication. Protocols for specific
functions in the process are grouped by
purpose into well-defined layers.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
Defines common terms that describe
the network functions to those working
in the industry and allows greater
understanding and cooperation.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
Segments the process to allow
technologies performing one function
to evolve independently of
technologies performing other
functions. For example, advancing
technologies of wireless media is not
dependent on advances in routers.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
Fosters competition because products
from different vendors can work
together.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
Provides a common language to
describe networking functions and
capabilities.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
Assists in protocol design, because
protocols that operate at a specific
layer have defined information that
they act upon and a defined interface
to the layers above and
below.
The Benefits of a Layered Model
As a student, you will benefit from the
layered approach as you build your
understanding of the network
communication process.
Protocol and
Reference Models
Two Networking Models to
Communicate within the Industry:
Protocol Models and Reference Models.
Protocol Model
• It provides a model that closely
matches the structure of a particular
protocol suite.
• The TCP/IP model is a protocol model
because it describes the functions
that occur at each layer of protocols
within the TCP/IP suite.
Reference Model
• It provides a common reference for
maintaining consistency within all
types of network protocols and
services.
Reference Model
• It is not intended to be an
implementation specification or to
provide a sufficient level of detail to
define precisely the services of the
network architecture.
Reference Model
• The primary purpose of a reference
model is to aid in clearer
understanding of the functions and
process involved.
Reference Model
• The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model is the most widely known
internetwork reference model.
TCP/IP vs. ISO OSI Model
The OSI model describes the entire
communication process in detail, and
the TCP/IP model describes the
communication process in terms of the
TCP/IP protocol suite and the way it
functions.
TCP/IP vs. ISO OSI Model
It is important to know details of the
OSI model to understand the entire
network communication process and to
know the TCP/IP model to understand
how the process is implemented in
current networks.
TCP/IP vs. ISO OSI Model
The OSI model is used to reference the
process of communication, not to
regulate it.

Some of the layers of the OSI model are

combined in the TCP/IP model
ISO OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
Network Access Layer
TCP/IP Model
The rules and implementations of the
TCP/IP model were cooperatively
developed by members of the industry
using Request for Comments (RFC)
documents.
TCP/IP Model
Communication Process
1. Creation of data at the application
layer of the originating source end
device.
2. Segmentation and encapsulation of
data as it passes down the protocol
stack in the source end device.
Communication Process
3. Generation of the data onto the
media at the network access layer
of the stack.
4. Transportation of the data through
the internetwork, which consists of
media and any intermediary
devices.
Communication Process
5. Reception of the data at the network
access layer of the destination end
device.
6. Decapsulation and reassembly of the
data as it passes up the stack in the
destination device. You learn more about
the encapsulation and decapsulation
processes in the next section.
Communication Process
7. Passing this data to the destination
application at the application layer
of the destination end device.
Protocol Data Units
and Encapsulation
Header or Control Data
Encapsulation and Decapsulation
Encapsulation
It is the process of adding control
information as it passes through the
layered model.
Decapsulation
It is the process of removing the extra
information and sending only the
original application data up to the
destination application layer.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
It is the generic term for data at each
level, but it is different at each layer.

e.g. a PDU at the internetwork layer is

different from the PDU at the transport
layer, because internetwork layer data
has been added to the transport layer
data.
Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
Encapsulation
Sending and Receiving Process
1. An end user, using an e-mail
application, creates data. The
application layer codes the data as
e-mail and sends the data to the
transport layer.
Sending and Receiving Process
2. The message is segmented, or broken
into pieces, for transport. The transport
layer adds control information in a
header so that it can be assigned to the
correct process and all segments put into
proper order at the destination. The
segment is sent down to the
internetwork layer.
Sending and Receiving Process
3. The internetwork layer adds IP
addressing information in an IP
header. The segment is now an
addressed packet that can be
handled by routers en route to the
destination. The internetwork layer
sends the packet down to the
network access layer.
Sending and Receiving Process
4. The network access layer creates an
Ethernet frame with local network
physical address information in the
header. This enables the packet to get to
the local router and out to the web. The
frame also contains a trailer with error-
checking information. After the frame is
created, it is encoded into bits and sent
onto the media to the destination.
Sending and Receiving Process
5. At the destination host, the process
is reversed. The frame is
decapsulated to a packet, then to a
segment, and then the transport
layer puts all segments into the
proper order.
Sending and Receiving Process
6. When all data has arrived and is
ready, it is sent to the application
layer, and then the original
application data goes to the
receiver’s e-mail application. The
message is successful.
OSI Model
Application Layer Transport Layer
Presentation Layer Network Layer
Session Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model, known as the OSI model,
provides an abstract description of the
network communication process.
OSI Model
It was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)
to provide a road map for
nonproprietary protocol development.
OSI Model
The communication process begins at
the application layer of the source, and
data is passed down to each lower
layer to be encapsulated with
supporting data until it reaches the
physical layer and is put out on the
media.
Comparing the OSI Model to the TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Network Addressing
Addressing in the Network
Addressing of data happens in three
different layers of the OSI model.

The PDU at each layer adds address

information for use by the peer layer at
the destination.
Addressing in the Network
Getting Data to the End Device
• During the process of encapsulation,
address identifiers are added to the
data as it travels down the protocol
stack on the source host.
• There are two layers of addressing
added to ensure that data is delivered
to the destination.
Getting Data to the End Device
• During the process of encapsulation,
address identifiers are added to the
data as it travels down the protocol
stack on the source host.
• There are two layers of addressing
added to ensure that data is delivered
to the destination.
Getting Data to the End Device
The Host Physical Address
• It is contained in the header of the Layer
2 PDU, called a frame.
• Layer 2 is concerned with the delivery of
messages on a single local network.
• The Layer 2 address is unique on the
local network and represents the
address of the end device on the
physical media.
Getting Data to the End Device
• The physical address comes from codes
placed on the NIC by the manufacturer.
• In a LAN using Ethernet, this address is
called the MAC address.
• When two end devices communicate on
the local Ethernet network, the frames
that are exchanged between them
contain the destination and source MAC
addresses.
Getting Data to the End Device
• After a frame is successfully received by
the destination host, the Layer 2
address information is removed as the
data is decapsulated and moved up the
protocol stack to Layer 3.
Getting Data Through the Internetwork
• Layer 3 protocols are primarily
designed to move data from one local
network to another local network
within an internetwork.
Getting Data Through the Internetwork
The IP Address
• In the TCP/IP protocol suite, every IP
host address contains information about
the network where the host is located.
• At the boundary of each local network,
an intermediary network device, usually
a router, decapsulates the frame to read
the destination host address contained
in the header of the packet, the Layer 3
PDU.
Getting Data Through the Internetwork
• Routers use the network identifier
portion of this address to determine
which path to use to reach the
destination host.
• When the path is determined, the
router encapsulates the packet in a new
frame and sends it on its way toward
the destination end device.
Getting Data Through the Internetwork
• When the frame reaches its final
destination, the frame and packet
headers are removed and the data
moved up to Layer 4.
Getting Data Through the Internetwork
Getting Data to the Right Application
• The transport layer adds port numbers to
its segment header information to ensure
that the destination host knows which
application process is to receive the
packet.
Getting Data to the Right Application
• The transport layer adds port numbers to
its segment header information to ensure
that the destination host knows which
application process is to receive the packet.
Getting Data to the Right Application
The Port Number
• The end host assigns a port number to each
type of traffic going in and out.
• A user can send and receive many types of
traffic over a single network interface, and
using port numbers for each segment keeps
traffic for web pages separate from e-mail
traffic and so on.
• The segment contains both source and
destination ports in case the receiver needs to
contact the sender.
Getting Data to the Right Application
Application Layer
Application Layer Transport Layer
Presentation Layer Network Layer
Session Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Interfacing Human and Data Networks
Application Layer
• The application layer of the OSI model
provides the first step of getting data onto
the network.
Application Software
• Applications are the software programs
used by people to communicate over the
network.
• Examples of application software, including
HTTP, FTP, e-mail, and others, are used to
explain the differences between these two
concepts.
OSI and TCP/IP Model
Application Layer
• Layer 7 provides the interface between
the applications you use to
communicate and the underlying
network over which your messages are
transmitted.
• Application layer protocols are used to
exchange data between programs
running on the source and destination
hosts.
Application Layer
Three Primary Functions
1. Coding and conversion of application
layer data to ensure that data from the
source device can be interpreted by
the appropriate application on the
destination device.
Three Primary Functions
2. Compression of the data in a manner
that can be decompressed by the
destination device.
Three Primary Functions
3. Encryption of the data for transmission
and decryption of data upon receipt by
the destination.
Examples
Video
• QuickTime
• Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
Examples
Graphic Image Formats
• Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)
• Join Photographic Experts Group
(JPEG)
• Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)
Session Layer
It creates and maintain dialogs between
source and destination applications.

It handles the exchange of information to

initiate dialogs and keep them active, and
to restart sessions that are disrupted or
idle for a long period of time.
SEATWORK
TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Telnet
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Application Layer
Software
Two Forms of Software Programs or Processes
• Applications
• Services
Software Processes
Network-Aware Applications
Some end-user applications are
network aware, meaning that they
implement the application layer
protocols and are able to communicate
directly with the lower layers of the
protocol stack. E-mail clients and web
browsers are examples of these types
of applications.
Application Layer Services
Different types of data—whether it is
text, graphics, or video—require
different network services to ensure
that it is properly prepared for
processing by the functions occurring
at the lower layers of OSI model.
User Applications, Services, and
Application Layer Protocols
Interfacing Human and Data Networks
Application Layer
protocols specify..
• what messages are exchanged between the source and
destination hosts,
• the syntax of the control commands,
• the type and format of the data being transmitted, and
• the appropriate methods for error notification and
recovery.
Application Layer Protocol Functions
Protocols perform the following tasks:
• Establish consistent rules for exchanging data between
applications and services loaded on the participating
devices.
Application Layer Protocol Functions
Protocols perform the following tasks:
• Specify how data inside the messages is structured and the
types of messages that are sent between source and
destination. These messages can be requests for services,
acknowledgments, data messages, status messages, or
error messages.
Application Layer Protocol Functions
Protocols perform the following tasks:
• Define message dialogues, ensuring that a message being
sent is met by the expected response and that the correct
services are invoked when data transfer occurs.
Making Provisions for
Applications and Services
Client/Server Model
Servers
Application Layer Services and Protocols
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networking and Applications
P2P Applications
Application Layer Protocols and
Services Examples
DNS Services and Protocol
How DNS Works
DNS Service Hierarchy
WWW Service and HTTP

The Browser interprets the three parts of the URL

•The protocol or scheme
•The server name
•The specific filename requested
WWW Service and HTTP

Three Most Common Message Types:

•GET
•POST
•PUT
WWW Service and HTTP