1.1.

INTRODUCTION
Power electronics is a subject that concerns the application of electronic-principles into
situations that are rated at power level rather than signal level. It may also be defined as a
subject that deals with the apparatus and equipment working on the principle of electronics
but rated at power level rather than signal level.
In broad terms, the task of power electronics is to process and control the flow of
electric energy by supplying voltages and currents in a form that is optimally suited for user
loads. Figure 1-1 shows a power electronic system in a block diagram form. The power input
to this power processor is usually (but not always) from the electric utility at a line frequency
of 60 or 50 Hz, single phase or three phases. The phase angle between the input voltage and
the current depends on the topology and the control of the power processor. The processed
output (voltage, current, frequency, and the number of phases) is as desired by the load. If the
power processor’s output can be regarded as a voltage source, the output current and the
phase angle relationship between the output voltage and the current depend on the load
characteristic. Normally, a feedback controller compares the output of the power processor
unit with a desired (or a reference) value, and the error between the two is minimized by the
controller. The power flow through such systems may be reversible, thus interchanging the
roles of the input and the output. In recent years, the field of power electronics has
experienced a large growth due to confluence of several factors. The controller in the block
diagram of Fig. 1-1 consists of linear integrated circuits and/or digital signal processors.
Revolutionary advances in microelectronics methods have led to the development of such
controllers. Moreover, these advances in semiconductor fabrication technology have made it
possible to significantly improve the voltage- and current-handling capabilities and the
switching speeds of power semiconductor devices, which make up the power processor unit
of Fig. 1-1. At the same time, the market for power electronics has significantly expanded.

Figure 1-1 Block diagram of a power Controller

1.2. POWER ELECTRONICS VERSUS LINEAR ELECTRONICS
In any power conversion process such as that shown by the block diagram in Fig. 1-1,
a small power loss and hence a high energy efficiency is important because of two reasons:
the cost of the wasted energy and the difficulty in removing the heat generated due to
dissipated energy. Other important considerations are reduction in size, weight, and cost. The
above objectives in most systems cannot be met by linear electronics where the
semiconductor devices are operated in their linear (active) region and a line-frequency
transformer is used for electrical isolation. As an example, consider the direct current (dc)
power supply of Fig. 1-2a to provide a regulated output voltage V„ to a load. The utility input
may be typically at 120 or 240 V and the output voltage may be, for example, 5 V. The
output is required to be electrically isolated from the utility input. In the linear power supply,
a line-frequency transformer is used to provide electrical isolation and for stepping down the
line voltage. The rectifier converts the alternating current (ac) output of the transformer low-
voltage winding into dc. The filter capacitor reduces the ripple in the dc voltage vd. Figure 1-
2b shows the vd waveform, which depends on the utility voltage magnitude (normally in a ±
10% range around its nominal value). The transformer turns ratio must be chosen such that
the minimum of the input voltage vd is greater than the desired output Va. For the range of
the input voltage waveforms shown in Fig. 1-2b, the transistor is controlled to absorb the
voltage difference between vd and Vo thus providing a regulated output. The transistor
operates in its active region as an adjustable resistor, resulting in a low energy efficiency. The
line-frequency transformer is relatively large and heavy.

In power electronics, the above voltage regulation and the electrical isolation are
achieved, for example, by means of a circuit shown in Fig. l-3a. In this system, the utility
input is rectified into a dc voltage vd, without a line-frequency transformer. By operating the
transistor as a switch (in a switch mode, either fully on or fully off) at some high switching
frequency/,, for example at 300 kHz, the dc voltage vd is converted into an ac voltage at the
switching frequency. This allows a high-frequency transformer to be used for stepping down
the voltage and for providing the electrical isolation.
1.3. SCOPE AND APPLICATIONS
The expanded market demand for power electronics has been due to several factors
discussed below.
1. Switch-mode (dc) power supplies and uninterruptible power supplies. Advances in
microelectronics fabrication technology have led to the development of computers,
communication equipment, and consumer electronics, all of which require regulated dc
power supplies and often uninterruptible power supplies.
2. Energy conservation. Increasing energy costs and the concern for the environment
have combined to make energy conservation a priority. One such application of power
electronics is in operating fluorescent lamps at high frequencies (e.g., above 20 kHz) for
higher efficiency. Another opportunity for large energy conservation is in motor-driven pump
and compressor systems. Load-proportional, capacity modulated heat pumps and air
conditioners are examples of applying power electronics to achieve energy conservation.
3. Process control and factory automation. There is a growing demand for the
enhanced performance offered by adjustable-speed-driven pumps and compressors in process
control. Robots in automated factories are powered by electric servo (adjustable-speed and
position) drives. It should be noted that the availability of process computers is a significant
factor in making process control and factory automation feasible.
4. Transportation. In many countries, electric trains have been in widespread use for a
long time. Now, the use electric vehicles expanding at an exponential rate in the world due to
its low carbon footprint. Electric vehicles require battery chargers and also converters that
utilize power electronics.
5. Electro-technical applications. These include equipment for welding,
electroplating, and induction heating.
6. Utility-related applications. One such application is in transmission of power over
high-voltage dc (HVDC) lines. At the sending end of the transmission line, line-frequency
voltages and currents are converted into dc. This dc is converted back into the line-frequency
ac at the receiving end of the line. Power electronics is also beginning to play a significant
role as electric utilities attempt to utilize the existing transmission network to a higher
capacity. Potentially, a large application is in the interconnection of photovoltaic and wind-
electric systems to the utility grid.
1.3.1. Some Applications of Power Electronics
1. Aerospace:
Space shuttle power supplies, satellite power supplies, aircraft power systems.
2. Commercial:
Advertising, heating, air conditioning, central refrigeration, computer and office equipment,
uninterruptible power supplies, elevators, light dimmers and flashers.
3. Industrial:
Arc and industrial furnaces, blowers and fans, pumps and compressors, industrial lasers,
transformer-tap -changers, rolling mills, textile mills, excavators, cement mills, welding.
4. Residential:
Airconditioning, cooking, lighting, space heating, refrigerators, electric-door openers, dryers,
fans, personal computers, other entertainment equipment, vacuum cleaners, washing and
sewing machines, light dimmers, food mixers, electric blankets, food-warmer trays.
5. Telecommunication:
Battery chargers, power supplies (DC and UPS).
6.Transportation:
Battery chargers, traction control of electric vehicles, electric locomotives, street cars, trolley
buses, subways, automotive electronics.
7. Utility systems:
High voltage dc transmission (HVDC), excitation systems, VAR compensation, ·static circuit
breakers, fans and boiler-feed pumps, supplementary energy systems (solar, wind).
1.4. TYPES OF POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
A power electronic system consists of one or more power electronic converters. A
power electronic converter is made up of some power semiconductor devices controlled by
integrated circuits. The switching characteristics of power semiconductor devices permit a
power electronic converter to shape the input power of one form to output power of some
other form.
Static power converters perform these functions of power conversion very efficiently.
Broadly speaking, power electronic converters (or circuits) can be classified into six types as
under:
1. Diode Rectifiers: A diode rectifier circuit converts ac input voltage into a fixed
dc voltage. The input voltage may be single-phase or three phase. Diode rectifiers
find wide use in electric traction, battery charging, electroplating, electrochemical
processing, power supplies, welding and uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
systems.

2. Ac to dc converters (Phase-controlled rectifiers): These convert constant ac

voltage to variable DC output voltage. These rectifiers use line voltage for their commutation,
as such these are also called line-commutated or naturally-commutated ac to dc converters.
Phase-controlled converters may be fed from 1-phase or 3-phase source. These are used in dc
drives, metallurgical and chemical industries, excitation systems for synchronous machines
etc.
3. DC to dc converters (DC Choppers): A dc chopper converts fixed dc input
voltage to a controllable dc output voltage. The chopper circuits require forced, or load,
commutation to turn-off the thyristors. For lower power circuits, thyristors are replaced by
power transistors. Classification of chopper circuits is dependent upon the type of
commutation and also on the direction of power flow. Choppers find wide applications in dc
drives, subway cars, trolley trucks, battery-driven vehicles etc.
4. DC to ac converters (Inverters): An inverter converts fixed dc voltage to a
variable ac voltage. The output may be a variable voltage and variable frequency. These
converters use line, load or forced commutation for turning-off the thyristors. Inverters find
wide use in induction-motor and synchronous-motor drives, induction heating, UPS, HVDC
transmission etc. At present, conventional thyristors are also being replaced by GTOs in high-
power applications and by power transistors in low-power applications.
5. AC to ac converters: These convert fixed ac input voltage into variable ac output
voltage. These are of two types as under:
(a) AC voltage controllers (AC voltage regulators): These converter circuits convert
fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac voltage at the same frequency. AC voltage controller
employ two thyristors in antiparallel or a triac. Turn-off of both the devices is obtained by
line commutation. Output voltage is controlled by varying the firing angle delay. AC voltage
controllers are widely used for lighting control, speed control of fans, pumps etc.
(b) Cycloconverters: These circuits convert input power at one frequency to output
power at a different frequency through one-stage conversion. Line commutation is more
common in these converters, though forced and load commutated cycloconverters are also
employed. These are primarily used for slow-speed large ac drives like rotary kiln etc.
6. Static switches: The power semiconductor devices can operate as static switches or
contactors. Static switches possess many advantages over mechanical and electromechanical
circuit breakers. Depending upon the input supply, the static switches are called ac static
switches or dc static switches.

Classifying converters according to how the devices within the converter are
switched
Further insight can be gained by classifying converters according to how the devices
within the converter are switched. There are three possibilities:
1. Line frequency (naturally commutated) converters, where the utility line voltages
present at one side of the converter facilitate the turn-off of the power semiconductor devices.
Similarly, the devices are turned on, phase locked to the line voltage waveform. Therefore,
the devices switch on and off at the line frequency of 50 or 60 Hz.
 2. Switching (forced-commutated) converters, where the controllable switches in the
converter are turned on and off at frequencies that are high compared to the line frequency. In
spite of the high switching frequency internal to the converter, the converter output may be
either dc or at a frequency comparable to the line frequency. As a side note in a switching
converter, if the input appears as a voltage source, then the output must appear as a current
source, or vice versa.
3. Resonant and quasi-resonant converters, where the controllable switches turn on
and/or turn off at zero voltage and/or zero current.
1.5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF POWER-ELECTRONIC
CONVERTERS
The advantages possessed by power-electronic systems are:
(i) High efficiency due to low loss in power-semiconductor devices.
(ii) High reliability of power-electronic converter systems.
(iii) Long life and less maintenance due to the absence of any moving parts.
(iv) Fast dynamic response of the power-electronic system as compared to electromechanical
converter systems.
(v) Small size and less weight result in less floor space and therefore lower installation cost.
(vi) Mass production of power-semiconductor devices has resulted in lower cost of the
converter equipment.
Systems based on power electronics, however, suffer from the following disadvantages:
(a) Power-electronic converter circuits have a tendency to generate harmonics in the
supply system as well as in the load circuit.
In the load circuit, the performance of the load is influenced, for example, a high
harmonic content in the load circuit causes commutation problems in dc machines, increased
motor heating and more acoustical noise in both dc and ac machines. So, steps must be taken
to filter these out from the output side of a converter.
In the supply system, the harmonics distort the voltage waveform and seriously
influence the performance of other equipment connected to the same supply line. In addition,
the harmonics in the supply line can also cause interference with communication lines. It is,
therefore, necessary to insert filters on the input side of a converter.
(b) Ac to dc and ac to ac converters operate at a low input power factor under certain
operating conditions. In order to avoid a low pf, some special measures have to be adopted.
(c) Power-electronic controllers have low overload capacity. These converters must,
therefore, be rated for taking momentary overloads. As such, cost of power electronic
controller may increase.
(d) Regeneration of power is difficult in power electronic converter systems.
 The advantages possessed by power electronic converters far outweigh their
disadvantages mentioned above. As a result, semiconductor-based converters are being
extensively employed in systems where power flow is to be regulated. As already stated,
conventional power controllers used in many installations have already been replaced by
semiconductor-based power electronic controllers.
1.6. INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF POWER ELECTRONICS
The discussion in this introductory chapter shows that the study of power electronics
encompasses many fields within electrical engineering, as illustrated by Fig. 1-10. These
include power systems, solid-state electronics, electrical machines, analog/digital control and
signal processing, electromagnetic field calculations, and so on. Combining the knowledge of
these diverse fields makes the study of power electronics challenging as well as interesting.
There are many potential advances in all these fields that will improve the prospects for
applying power electronics to new applications.

Figure. Interdisciplinary nature of power electronics

1.7. Questions
1.1. (a) What is power electronics? Discuss briefly the concept of power electronics.
(b) What is a converter? Illustrate your answer with examples.
(c) Enumerate at least ten applications of power electronics.
(d) Give the advantages and disadvantages of power electronic converters.
1.2 (a) Discuss the various types of power electronic converters.
(b) Describe a power electronic system with its general block diagram. (Linear and
SMPS)
1.3 (a) Give the differences between an ac voltage controller and a cycloconverters.
(b) What is power-electronic module? Describe smart-power.
(c) Discus the scope and specific applications of power electronics
(d) Discuss the relationship between power electronics and other electrical
engineering fields