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UNIT 6
OTHER MEASUREMENTS

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

 Know the importance and uses of various measurement systems.

 Know the parts and parameters in those systems.
 Distinguish the difference between measurement systems.

Pre-Test

Answer the following.

1. What is instrumentation engineering?

2. What is Unmanned Machinery Space (UMS)?

Content

Through the 1970’s, there was a rapid increase in the installation of complex centralized
measurement system and control system on board ships. The most extensive application
has been made in the power plant systems, which has resulted in the unmanned
machinery space (U.M.S.) concept’s being widely applied. In parallel with this progress in
power plant control, there has been the development of centralized cargo control in oil,
chemical and liquefied gas carriers, all of which have required the development of the
appropriate instrumentation.
From an engineering viewpoint, the variables discussed in the preceding chapters are the
most significant. However, other variables have a particular specialized interest and a
selected number are now presented with the appropriate instrumentation measurement.

6.1. ELECTRICAL

If a conductor moves relative to a magnetic field, an electro-motive force (e.m.f.) will be

induced in it giving rise to generator action. If it carries current, it will be subject to a force
tanding to move it to the left or right, depending on the direction of the current and
magnetic polarity, giving rise to motor action.
The measurement of capacitance, current, voltage, resistance, frequency, phase, energy,
etc. are all very important in instrumentation. The bridge (AC or DC) and potentiometer
are frequently used in telemetering and control components. Electronic measuring devices
are being increasingly used and rectifiers, amplifiers, oscillators, etc. are an integral part
of telemetering and control systems.
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6.2. SPEED TACHOGENERATOR

Tachogenerators are the most popular form of transducer used for the measurement of
velocity. Permanent magnet DC tachogenerators are capable of providing a voltage-
speed characteristic with a linearity better than 0.1 per cent over their speed range.
The DC tachogenerator is a small precision generator driven by the shaft whose rotational
speed is required. Output voltage is directly proportional to speed. The tachogenerator is
best geared to run at a maximum speed so giving maximum output signal and improved
signal to noise ratio.
When used as a tachometer in measuring systems, the output voltage from the
tachogenerator is measured on a conventional voltmeter calibrated in terms of rotational
speed (an analogue device).
Mechanical type tachometers are based on centrifugal action linked to produce lateral
travel.
A conventional AC generator for use as a tachogenerator or tachometer is generally not
satisfactory because frequency (and phase) as well as voltage amplitude are proportional
to speed of rotation. In this case, a “drag-cup” device is used. The rotor is a thin aluminum
cup rotating around a fixed iron core. The stator is wound with two coils at right angles,
one AC supply, the other AC output. With the cup stationary, there will be no output as the
windings are at right angles. Induced emf with cup rotation due to cutting of flux of supply
winding links with the output winding, thus, giving a signal proportional to rotational speed;
frequency and phase being that of input signal. The device can be used for rate of change
detection. With DC supply at constant speed, no emf is induced in the output coils but
angular acceleration or deceleration induces a voltage proportional to this change in the
output coils. A “velocity voltage” applied to a differentiation (rate of change) circuit will give
a voltage across the resistor which is approximately proportional to acceleration
(especially with a small time constant). Alternatively, as force is proportional to
acceleration a simple spring accelerometer can be used. A digital tachometer (counter) is
shown in Figure 6.1

Figure 6.1 Digital Tachometer

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As the (ferrous) toothed-wheel rotates, each tooth alters the air gap and flux in a pick up
coil (P) whose output pulses are amplified (A). Pulses pass through a timing gate (G), say,
one-second opening period and are counted on a digital counter (D) with scales (related
to teeth number per revolution) and displays as revolutions per second. Alternatively,
rev/min readings can be arranged with different gate or scale settings.

6.3. TORQUE-POWER

These meters are used to measure the power being transmitted by the propeller shaft
from the engine to the propeller. The shaft being of an elastic material, twists under the
influence of a torsional load such as that produced by the propeller.
Indicated power can be measured by a conventional mechanical indicator although
modern practice is tending towards oscilloscope display with integration for power. Shaft
power of engines is measured by a torsionmeter in conjunction with a tachometer (power
proportional to product of torque and rotational speed). Specific fuel consumption is readily
achieved from these readings with a flowmeter calibration of fuel consumption. Various
types of torsionmeter are available but those giving a continuous reading are usually of
the electrical type. One design in common use is based on differential transformer
operation. Another design is based on magnetic stress sensitivity and is termed a torque
inductor (torductor).
The torductor, as the name implies, is a torque Inductor. It is a stress transducer that is
eminently suited to the measuring of torque in rotating shafts. It gives a high power output
and requires no slip rings or other shaft attachments since it operates without any contact.
Figure 6.2 shows a ring conductor. It consists of one primary ring which carries four poles,
marked N, S, that s supplied with (50 Hz) alternating current. Two outer secondary rings
have four poles each, arranged at 45° to the primaries, all of which are connected in series
with mutually reversed windings.
No contact exists between the poles and the shaft and there are no stresses in the shaft,
there being a 2 to 3 mm air gap provided to ensure this.
When no torque is applied to the shaft there are no stresses in the shaft and the
magnetic fields between NS poles induced in the shaft will be symmetrical, the
equipotential lines are then situated symmetrically under the secondary poles: S1, S2,
as shown and secondary flux and voltage will then be zero.
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Figure 6.2 Ring Torductor

When a torque is being transmitted, the equipotential lines form an asymmetrical pattern
as shown, due to the mutually perpendicular unlike stresses acting at 45° to the shaft axis
causing increased permeability in one direction and decreased permeability at 90° in the
other direction. This causes the S₁ pole to become magnetically slightly positive and the
S₂, pole slightly negative.
The output from the secondaries of the ring torductor is of the order of a few milliwatts
which is large enough to be used without any application. If this signal is now married to
a speed signal from a tachogenerator, then the power being developed could be displayed
directly on to one dial.

6.4. VISCOMETER

Temperature control in case of heating of a liquid by vapour in a heater converts

temperature into the displacement of a position of the pen in the regulator by means of a
temperature sensitive unit and a capillary provided around an output tube as detecting
elements.
Newton investigated the viscosity of fluids and postulated, for most fluids under prescribed
conditions, that flow rate is proportional to applied stress, more exactly that applied shear
stress is proportional to velocity gradient.
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𝐹 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑛

Where n is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Applying this equation to the case
of flow through a small bore tube of radius r and length l gives:
𝜋𝑝𝑟 4
n=
8𝐼𝑉

For a constant flow rate (V):

H = p X a constant
where p is differential pressure.
Figure 6.3 shows the operational arrangement of the sensor element of a viscometer
(Viscotherm). A small gear pump driven at constant speed by an electric motor through a
reduction gear forces a constant fluid quantity from the housing through a small bore tube
(capillary). Fluid flows through the capillary without turbulence, i.e., streamline (laminar)
flow prevails and pressure differential can be measured by any of the means previously
described.

Figure 6.3 Viscosity Sensor

6.5. PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELLS

When radiated, energy falls on to the specially coated cathode. Electrons absorb the
energy, which may be enough to allow some of them to escape from the surface of the
cathode. The effectiveness of this process increases with the frequency of radiation, and
there is a sharply defined critical lower limit of frequency for each particular coating
material.
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Photo-conductive cells are constructed with a thin layer of semi-conductor material and
their resistance varies with the incident light energy. They are used as sensors in many
situations such as oil-water content, smoke density, oil mist, flame indicator, etc. detection
as described later in this unit.
Photo-emissive cells rely on the light energy providing energy to release electrons from a
metallic cathode.
If visible light, which is radiation and hence, energy, falls upon certain alkali metals such
as caesium, electrons will be emitted from the surface of the metal. Metals in general
exhibit this characteristic but for most materials, the light required has a threshold
wavelength in the ultraviolet region so that visible light does not cause electron emission.
Light energy comes in packages called photons and the energy of the photon is used in
doing work to remove the electrons and to give the electrons kinetic energy after escape
from the metal.
Figure 6.4 shows a simple photocell, visible light falls on the metal cathode from which
electrons are emitted. They collect at the anode and in this way create a potential V which
can then be amplified and used for alarm and control, etc.
In the vacuum cell, all current is carried by the photoelectrons to the positive anode.
Secondary-emission (photo-amplifier) cells utilize a series of increasingly positive anodes
and give high amplification.

Figure 6.4 Photocell

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Figure 6.5 Photo-Transistor

Photo-transistors exhibit similar characteristics and small size and high amplification make
their use particularly attractive especially when applied to counting systems, i.e., digital
tachometry. This device is shown in Figure 6.5. Optical focus incident light on to the base
increases the base current, hence, collector current, and output voltage falls.

6.6. OIL IN WATER SENSOR

The energy radiated increases the number of mobile electrons, and under suitable
conditions the current flow is proportional to the intensity of the radiation.
A useful application of photo-cells is in the detection of oil-water interface. Fluid passing
through glass is exposed to long wavelength light from an ultraviolet lamp which causes
flourescence if oil particles are present. This light can be detected by the secondary
element photo-cell unit which produces a signal for amplification. The amount of
fluorescent light is dependent on the amount of oil in the oil-water mixture and this affects
the amount of visible light detected by the photo-cell.

6.7. SMOKE DENSITY DETECTOR

The measurement of carbon dioxide of a sample from air depends on the fact that the
thermal conductivity of carbon dioxide is different from that of air.
For the first warning and exhaust gas indication, a photo-cell in conjunction with an
amplifier and alarm or indicator is used. Three types are in use: those which operate by
light scatter, by light obstruction and a combination of both.
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Figure 6.6 Smoke Density Detector

A light scatter photo-cell separated from a semi-conductor intermittently flashing light

source is shown in Figure 6.6. The housing enclosure allows smoke but not light inside.
With smoke present in the container light, is scattered around the barrier on to the photo-
cell and an alarm is triggered off. The light obscuration type is used in oil mist detection
for internal combustion engine crankcases and the combination type is used for detection
of C0₂ flooding systems.

6.8. OIL MIST DETECTOR

The photo cells of Figure 6.7 are normally in a state of electric balance, i.e., measure and
reference tube mist content in equilibrium. Out of balance current due to rise of crankcase
mist density can be arranged to indicate on a galvanometer which can be connected to a
continuous chart recording and audio visual or audible alarms. The suction fan draws a
large volume of slow moving oil-air vapor mixture in turn from various crankcase selection
points. Oil mist near the lower critical density region has a very high optical density. Alarm
is normally arranged to operate at 2.5% of the lower critical point, i.e., assuming 50 mg/l
as lower explosive limit then warning at 1.25 mg/l.
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Figure 6.7 Crankcase Oil Mist Detector

6.9. pH SENSOR

The pH value of a system is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration in the system. Its value ranges between 0 to 14, neutrality being 7. Anything
from 7 to 14 is alkaline and from 0 to 7 is acidic. pH measurement and control is extremely
important being primarily used for boiler feed water analysis.
The method of pH measurement is by means of a conductivity cell consisting of two
electrodes and a temperature sensor, pH value varies with temperature. Hence, it is
important that this be controlled by means of a sensor/compensator. One of the electrodes
is a reference electrode which has a fixed potential irrespective of the variation of the
hydrogen ion concentration of the system. The other electrode produces a potential
dependent mainly upon the difference in hydrogen ion concentrations between the buffer
system and the system whose pH has to be measured (across the membrane). In this
way, the potential difference between the glass measuring electrode and reference
electrode is a measure of the pH value of the solution. Electrodes with
sensor/compensator are inserted in the fluid flow path.
Figure 6.8 shows the two types of electrode used in the conductivity cell.
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Figure 6.8 pH Sensor

6.10 HEAT (FIRE) DETECTOR

Detector heads are generally one of the three types. At a set heat (temperature) condition
the increasing pressure on the pneumatic diaphragm bulb type closes electrical alarm
contacts and increased differential temperature on the bi-metallic type activates alarms,
increased heat fractures a quartzoid bulb (containing a highly expansive fluid) releasing
water sprinkler supply and alarm. A typical fire detection-alarm circuit is shown in Figure
6.9.

Figure 6.9 Fire Detection-Alarm Circuit

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Figure 6.10 Flame Detector

6.11. FLAME DETECTOR

Figure 6.10 illustrates the infrared type of device. Flame has a characteristic flicker
frequency of about 25 Hz and the use of this is made of this fact to trigger an alarm.
Flickering radiation from flames reaches detector lens/filter unit which only allows infrared
rays to pass and be focused upon the cell. The signal from the cell goes into the selective
amplifier which is tuned to 25 Hz then into the time delay unit (to minimize incidence of
false alarms, fire has to be present for a pre-determined period), trigger alarm circuits.

6.12. GAS EXPLOSION DETECTOR METER

The instrument illustrated in Figure 6.1 1 is first charged with fresh air from the atmosphere
using the rubber respirator bulb (A). On-off switch (S1) is closed together with checked
switch (S2) and the compensatory filament (C) and the detector filament (D) allowed to
reach steady state working temperature. The zero adjustment rheostat (F), can now be
adjusted so that galvanometer (G) reads zero. Voltage is adjustable from battery (B) by
the rheostat (E). Switch S2 is now opened.
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Figure 6.11 Gas Explosion – Detection Meter

The instrument is now charged from the suspect gas space and while operating the bulb,
the switch S2 is again closed. If a flammable or explosive gas is present it will cause the
detector filament to increase in temperature. This disturbs the bridge balance and a
current flows. Galvanometer (G) can be calibrated so that the scale is marked to read “%
of lower limit of explosive concentration of gas”.
An alternative design has two ionizing chambers, one reference (air) and the other sample,
each containing a radioactive ionizing source. Combustion particles when ionized are
more bulky and less mobile than normal gas molecules so they are readily neutralized.
This results in higher resistance and voltage change at the sample chamber which
activates alarms.

6.13. GAS ANALYSIS

For detailed gas analysis an Orsat apparatus is used. However a number of

measurements require to be continuously recorded. Two representative examples can be
considered namely an oxygen analyzer and a carbon analyzer.
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Figure 6.12 Oxygen Analyzer

Two platinum wire resistances are heated by current from an ac bridge and the gas to be
measured enters the resistance chamber by the diffuser. One of the resistance wires is
placed in magnetic field hence oxygen is drawn towards this resistance, thus convention
currents are set up around this resistance which is then cooled relatively to the other
resistance. The bridge is then unbalanced, the amount of unbalanced is a measure of the
oxygen content and this is displayed on the galvanometer.

6.14. CO₂ ANALYZER

Referring to Figure 6.13.

Approximate thermal conductivities are in proportion:
C0₂ = 1 , H₂0 = 1, CO = 4, 0₂ = 2, N₂ = 2
The samples enters via a filter and drier, water vapor must be removed as it has the same
conductivity as C0₂. The wire cell resistance is proportional to heat dissipation,
proportional to thermal conductivity of gas in the cell, proportional therefore to C0₂ content.
Air is used in the reference cell. Thus the only difference between gas sample and air,
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from the thermal conductivity viewpoint is C0₂ (as H₂O removed and O₂ and N₂ same
value). This assumes no CO or H₂, if these are present (normally are very small
proportions) they will be registered as CO₂ unless the sample is first passed over a burner
and this two gases burned off before the reading.
Thus, the Wheatstone bridge electrical unbalance is dependent on CO₂ content and the
unbalance electrical current is measured by the pontentiometer.
Chemical absorption and mechanical types are also used.

Figure 6.13 Thermal Conductivity Type CO₂ Recorder

6.15. RELATIVE HUMIDITY

A hair element will react to changes of humidity and provide a linear movement, with
negligible force which can be converted to electrical or pneumatic signal and amplified as
required.

6.16. WATER ANALYSIS

The measurement of ph has been considered previously. Two other measurements are
commonly required, i.e., electrical conductivity meter for dissolved solid assessment and
dissolved oxygen meter.
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6.17. “DIONIC” WATER PURITY METER

Specific conductivity mho/cm³ (reciprocal megohm) is used and when corrected to 20°C
is called a dionic unit. Conductivity of pure distilled water 0.5 and fresh about 500 dionic
units. The sensor, shown in Figure 6.14, measures conductivity of two water columns in
parallel, i.e. between positive platinum rings and negative gunmetal collars. The insulating
plunger, operated by a bi-metallic strip, varies across sectional area for automatic
correction to 20°C. The measurement is by conventional ohmmeter. The device should be
used with digassifying units to avoid errors due to occlusion of carbon dioxide.

Figure 6.14 Dionic Water Purity Meter

6.18. DISSOLVED OXYGEN METER

This is shown in Figure 6.15. The sample water flows via a chamber which surrounds the
katharometer (Wheatstone bridge circuit) and receives pure hydrogen. Some Hydrogen is
taken into solution and this releases some dissolved oxygen (in air). This mixture passes
to atmosphere across one side of the bridge whilst the other side is in pure hydrogen. The
cooling effect is different on the two sides of the katharometer, depending on air (oxygen)
present and resultant unbalance current operates an indicator or recorder calibrated
directly in ppm oxygen. For very low oxygen content it is often necessary to utilize an
electro chemical cell in place of this meter.
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6.15 Dissolved Oxygen Mater Instrument Calibration Testing Adjustment

Generally specialist subject. Pneumatic instruments would be tested by master gauge,

standard manometer or dead weight tester. Electrical instruments are tested by resistors,
potentiometers, capacitors, etc.
Using a Bourdon pressure gauge as example:
1. Zero (error) adjustment changes base point without changing the slope or shape
of the calibration curve. It is usually achieved by rotating the indicator pointer
relative to the movement, linkage and element.
2. Multiplication (magnification) adjustment alters the slope without changing base
point or shape. This is effected by altering the drive linkage length ratios between
primary element and indicator pointer.
3. Angularity adjustment changes the curve shape without altering base point and
alters scale calibration at the ends. This error is minimize by ensuring that link arms
are perpendicular with the pointer at mid scale.
Figure 6.16 shows calibration curves and adjustments for the Bourdon link type of
instrument mechanism.
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Figure 6.16 Instrument Calibration And Adjustment

Instruments readings (I), true values (T), desired result (D). Zero error and adjustment (Z),
multiplication error and adjustment (A) — error curves or lines for actual values.
Over the design range pointer movement bears a linear relationship to pressure, and the
scale is calibrated accordingly.
Hysteresis – a vibration phenomena. Best eliminated by correctly meshed gearing and
fitted pivots to reduce backlash, etc.

Learning Activity

Essay.

1. Define centralized measurement system and explain its impact and benefits.

2. How is centralized measurement system applied in shipping industry? Give some

examples.
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Assessment

Direction. Identify the correct answer to each statement that specifies the description or
the process of the instrumentation of a certain system. Indicate your answers in the blank
space provided.

__________ 1. At a set heat (temperature) condition the increasing pressure on the

pneumatic diaphragm bulb type closes electrical alarm contacts and
increased differential temperature on the bi-metallic type activates
alarms, increased heat fractures a quartzoid bulb (containing a highly
expansive fluid) releasing water sprinkler supply and alarm.

__________ 2. An alternative design has two ionizing chambers, one reference (air) and
the other sample, each containing a radioactive ionizing source.
Combustion particles when ionized are more bulky and less mobile than
normal gas molecules so they are readily neutralized. This results in
higher resistance and voltage change at the sample chamber which
activates alarms.

__________ 3. The samples enters via a filter and drier, water vapor must be removed
as it has the same conductivity as C0₂. The wire cell resistance is
proportional to heat dissipation, proportional to thermal conductivity of
gas in the cell, proportional therefore to C0₂ content. Air is used in the
reference cell.

__________ 4. Two other measurements are commonly required, electrical conductivity

meter for dissolved solid assessment and dissolved oxygen meter.

__________ 5. The sample water flows via a chamber which surrounds the
katharometer (Wheatstone bridge circuit) and receives pure hydrogen.
Some Hydrogen is taken into solution and this releases some dissolved
oxygen (in air). This mixture passes to atmosphere across one side of
the bridge whilst the other side is in pure hydrogen.

__________ 6. A hair element will react to changes of humidity and provide a linear
movement, with negligible force which can be converted to electrical or
pneumatic signal and amplified as required.

__________ 7. Two platinum wire resistances are heated by current from an ac bridge
and the gas to be measured enters the resistance chamber by the
diffuser. One of the resistance wires is placed in magnetic field hence
oxygen is drawn towards this resistance, thus convention currents are
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set up around this resistance which is then cooled relatively to the other
resistance. The bridge is then unbalanced, the amount of unbalanced is
a measure of the oxygen content and this is displayed on the
galvanometer.

__________ 8. Flickering radiation from flames reaches detector lens/filter unit which
only allows infrared rays to pass and be focused upon the cell. The
signal from the cell goes into the selective amplifier which is tuned to 25
Hz then into the time delay unit (to minimize incidence of false alarms,
fire has to be present for a pre-determined period), trigger alarm circuits.

__________ 9. Fluid passing through glass is exposed to long wavelength light from an
ultraviolet lamp which causes flourescence if oil particles are present.
This light can be detected by the secondary element photo-cell unit
which produces a signal for amplification.

__________ 10. A small gear pump driven at constant speed by an electric motor
through a reduction gear forces a constant fluid quantity from the
housing through a small bore tube

__________ 11. As the (ferrous) toothed-wheel rotates, each tooth alters the air gap and
flux in a pick up coil whose output pulses are amplified. Pulses pass
through a timing gate, say, one-second opening period and are counted
on a digital counter with scales (related to teeth number per revolution)
and displays as revolutions per second.

__________ 12. One of the electrodes is a reference electrode which has a fixed
potential irrespective of the variation of the hydrogen ion concentration
of the system. The other electrode produces a potential dependent
mainly upon the difference in hydrogen ion concentrations between the
buffer system and the system whose pH has to be measured
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accomplishing the activity, please send me a message to our class
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Congratulations! You are now ready for the next unit.

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