UNIT-2 – STATISTICS AND ANALYTICS (20SC02P)

Unit-2 SUMMARIZATION OF DATA (08 Hours)

Statistics have majorly categorised into two types:
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is a way to organise, represent and describe a collection of data
using tables, graphs, and summary measures.
For example, the collection of people in a city using the internet or using Television
In this type of statistics, the data is summarised through the given observations. The
summarisation is one from a sample of population using parameters such as the mean
or standard deviation.

Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics is a method which allows us to use information collected from a
sample to make decisions, predictions or inferences from a population. It grants us
permission to give statements which goes beyond the available data or information. For
example, deriving estimates from hypothetical research.

This type of statistics is used to interpret the meaning of Descriptive statistics. That
means once the data has been collected, analysed and summarised then we use these
stats to describe the meaning of the collected data. Or we can say, it is used to draw
conclusions from the data that depends on random variations such as observational
errors, sampling variation, etc.

Data tabulation
Tabulation is a process of systematic arrangement of the classified data in rows and
columns, in the form of table.
Example 1:
Number of oranges in the box 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
Number of boxes 5 8 10 6 3 13 45

Example 2:
Height (cm) 140-150 150-160 160-170 170-180 Total
No. of students 6 24 18 2 50

The above two types example are Frequency Distribution or Frequency table.

Frequency distribution is a systematic presentation of the values taken by a variable

along with their frequencies. Frequency refers to the number of times an observation
is repeated.
The number of observations corresponding to a particular class is known as class
frequency. Class frequency is a positive integer including zero.
From the above examples, we can explain the following terms:

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Number of oranges per boxes, height are variables and number of boxes, number
of students are frequencies.
While framing a frequency distribution, if class intervals are not considered, then it is
called Discrete frequency distribution (Ex.1).

While framing a frequency distribution, if class intervals are considered, then it is called
Continuous frequency distribution (Ex.2).

Formation of Discrete frequency distribution:

For formation of frequency distribution, three columns are formed
❖ Variable
❖ Tally bars
❖ Frequency.

In the first column, values of given variable are written without repetition in an order.
For each value a tally/stroke is marked against that value in the second column. In this
way tally scores are marked for all values. For easy counting the tallies are put as a
group of 5 (IIII). Finally count the number of tally bars corresponding to each value of
the variable in third column. It is known as frequency. The total frequency (N) is equal
to the total number of observations.

Example 3.
In survey of 40 families in Haveri, the number of children per family was recorded
and the following data were obtained.
1,0,3,2,1,5,6,2,2,1,0,3,4,2,1,6,3,2,1,5,3,3,2,4,2,2,3,0,2,1,4,5,3,3,4,4,1,2,4,5.
Represent the data in the form of a discrete frequency distribution.
Sol: Frequency distribution of the number of children.

Number of children (x) Tally Marks Frequency (f)

0 III 3

1 IIII II 7

2 IIII IIII 10

3 IIII III 8

4 IIII II 6

5 IIII 4

6 II 2

Total 40
Formation of continuous frequency distribution:
Suitable class intervals are formed on the basis of the magnitude of the data. For each
value a tally mark is marked against the class in which it falls. This process is continued
until all the values are exhausted. The tallies of each class are counted and written as
frequency of that class.

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To construct a continuous frequency distribution table, it essential to know the following

factors:
Range: It is the difference highest and lowest value in the data
i.e., Range = H.V- L.V.

Class:
The sub range is called class.

Class limits:
The lowest and highest values which are taken to define the boundaries of a class are
class limits. The lowest value is called lower limit (L.L) and the highest value is upper
limit (U.L).
Example: (30 – 40), (40-50) … are class limits.
The lowest values of the class are 30-40 they are lower limits and the highest value of
the class are 40-50 they are upper limits.

Inclusive class:
In a class, if lower as well as upper limits are included in the same class, such a class
is called Inclusive class. Here, upper limit of a class is not equal to the lower limit of the
next class.
Ex. 0-9, 10-19, 20-39…. Are inclusive classes.

Exclusive class:
In a class, If the lower limit is included in the same class and upper limit is excluded
from that class but included in the next class, such a class is called Exclusive class.
Here, upper limit of a class is equal to lower limit of the next class.
Ex: 30-40, 40-50, 50-60 are exclusive classes.

Correction factor:
It is half of the difference between lower limit of a class and upper limit of the preceding
class. thus,
𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 − 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔
Correction factor (C.F) = 𝟐
To get exclusive class intervals from inclusive class intervals, add C.F from all lower
limits.
Ex: Convert the flowing inclusive class intervals to exclusive class intervals.
C-I 10 -19 20 - 29 30 - 39 40-49

20−19 1
C.F = = = 0.5
2 2
By subtracting it from all lower limits we get lower limit as 9.5, 19.5,29.5, 39.5 and
adding it to all upper limits we get upper limit as 19.5, 29.5, 39.5, 49.5.
Therefore, the exclusive class intervals are 9.5 -19.5, 19.5 -29.5, 29.5 - 39.5 and 39.5 -
49.5.

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Open- end classes

In a class, if the lower or upper limit of the class is not specified such a class is called
open-end class.
For example: less than (below) or more than (above) a particular class limit.
The frequency distribution based on open-end classes is called open end frequency
distribution.
Ex:
Class interval Frequency
Less than 20 8
20 – 30 15
30 - 40 23
40 - 50 12
50 - 60 9
More than 60 3

Mid-point (class mark)

The central value of a class is called mid-point or class mark. It is the average of class
limits.
𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 + 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
i.e., m or x = 2
Ex: Midpoint of the class ( 10 – 20 ) is,
𝐿𝐿+𝑈𝐿 10+20
M= = = 15
2 2

Width (size) of the class:

The difference between the upper and lower limits of a class is called width of the class.
It is denoted by C or I.
For example, the width of the class intervals (30 – 40) is 40 – 30 = 10.

Number of classes:
The number of classes can be obtained by using the Prof. Sturge’s Rule
Number of classes (K) = 1 + 3.322 log N; where N: Number of observations.
The width of the class can also be obtained by:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Width of the class = C =𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠(𝑘)

Cumulative frequency
The added-up frequencies are called cumulative frequencies.
There are two types of cumulative frequencies:
1. Less than type
2. More than type
The number of observations (frequencies) below a certain limit is less than cumulative
frequency (L.C.F). The frequency distribution formed for less than cumulative
frequencies against upper class limits, is, less than cumulative frequency distribution.

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Ex:
Frequency Distribution Less than cumulative frequency
distribution
Weight (Kg) Number of persons
Weight (kg) Number of persons
30-40 10
Less than 40 10
40- 50 15
Less than 50 (10+15)=25
50-60 20
Less than 60 (25+20)=45
60-70 15
Less than 70 (15+45)=60

The number of frequencies above a certain limit is more than cumulative frequency. The
frequency distribution formed for more than cumulative frequencies against lower class
limit is more than cumulative frequency distribution.
Frequency Distribution More than cumulative frequency
Weight (Kg) Number of persons distribution
30-40 10 Weight (kg) Number of persons
40- 50 15 More than 30 (50+10)=60
50-60 20 More than 40 (45+15)=50
60-70 15 More than 50 (15+20)=45
More than 60 15

Frequency density:
The frequency per unit of class interval is the frequency density
(f/c). or It is the ratio of the class frequency to the width of the class interval.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
i.e., Frequency density = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

It is used to compare the concentration of the frequencies of different classes for a given
frequency distribution.

Weight Number of Width of Frequency

(Kg) persons(f) the class density(f/c)
0-10 10 10 10
=1
10
10- 30 15 20 .75
30-50 40 20 2
50-60 45 10 4.5
60-65 20 5 5

Relative frequency (relative frequency table)

Relative frequency is the ratio of frequency of the value of the variable to the total
frequency.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
i.e. Relative frequency (R.f) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

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Ex:
No of apples Per box No of boxes Relative Frequency R.f=f/N

5 5 5/45 = 0.111

6 8 8/45 = 0.178

7 13 13/45 = 0.289

8 10 10/45 = 0.222

9 6 6/45 = 0.133

10 3 3/45 = 0.067

Total (N) 45 1

Grouped Data:
The data formed by aggregating individual observations of a variable into groups, so that
a frequency distribution of these groups serves as a convenient means of summarizing
or analysing the data is called as Grouped Data.

The following are the different tools or methods using for grouping Data.

1) Bar Graph: The pictorial representations of a grouped data, in the form of vertical
or horizontal rectangular bars, where the lengths of the bars are equivalent to the
measure of data, are known as bar graphs or bar charts. The bars drawn are of
uniform width, and the variable quantity is represented on one of the axes. Also,
the measure of the variable is depicted on the other axes. The heights or the lengths
of the bars denote the value of the variable, and these graphs are also used to
compare certain quantities. The frequency distribution tables can be easily
represented using bar charts which simplify the calculations and understanding of
data.

Types of Bar Charts: The bar graphs can be vertical or horizontal. The primary
feature of any bar graph is its length or height. If the length of the bar graph is
more, then the values are greater of any given data. Bar graphs normally show
categorical and numeric variables arranged in class intervals. They consist of an
axis and a series of labelled horizontal or vertical bars. The bars represent
frequencies of distinctive values of a variable or commonly the distinct values
themselves. The number of values on the x-axis of a bar graph or the y-axis of a
column graph is called the scale.
The types of bar charts are as follows:
1. Vertical bar chart
2. Horizontal bar chart
Even though the graph can be plotted using horizontally or vertically, the most
usual type of bar graph used is the vertical bar graph. The orientation of the x-
axis and y-axis are changed depending on the type of vertical and horizontal bar
chart. Apart from the vertical and horizontal bar graph, the two different types of
bar charts are:

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Uses of Bar Graphs:

Bar graphs are used to match things between different groups or to trace changes over
time. Yet, when trying to estimate change over time, bar graphs are most suitable when
the changes are bigger.
Bar charts possess a discrete domain of divisions and are normally scaled so that all
the data can fit on the graph. When there is no regular order of the divisions being
matched, bars on the chart may be organized in any order. Bar charts organized from
the highest to the lowest number are called Pareto charts.

Chart Title
15
10
5
0

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

2) Pie Chart: The “pie chart” also is known as “circle chart”, that divides the circular
statistical graphic into sectors or slices in order to illustrate the numerical
problems. Each sector denotes a proportionate part of the whole. To find out the
composition of something, Pie-chart works the best at that time. In most of the
cases, pie charts replace some other graphs like the bar graph, line plots,
histograms etc. The pie chart is an important type of data representation. It
contains different segments and sectors in which each segment and sectors of a pie
chart forms a certain portion of the total(percentage). The total of all the data is
equal to 360°.
Sales

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

3) Line Graph: A line graph is a type of chart used to show information that changes
over time. We plot line graphs using several points connected by straight lines. We
also call it a line chart. The line graph comprises of two axes known as ‘x’ axis and
‘y’ axis.
• The horizontal axis is known as the x-axis.
• The vertical axis is known as the y-axis.

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4) Frequency Polygon: A frequency polygon is a graph constructed by using lines

to join the midpoints of each interval, or bin. A frequency polygon is almost identical
to a histogram, which is used to compare sets of data or to display a cumulative
frequency distribution. It uses a line graph to represent quantitative data.

5) Frequency Curve: Smooth free curve moving around the frequency polygon is
known as frequency curve. A frequency-curve is a smooth curve for which the total
area is taken to be unity. It is a limiting form of a histogram or frequency polygon.
The frequency curve for a distribution can be obtained by drawing a smooth and
free hand curve through the midpoints of the upper sides of the rectangles forming
the histogram.

6) Relative Frequency Polygon: A frequency polygon is a type of chart that

helps us visualize a distribution of values. For Relative frequency polygon refer
above mentioned steps of relative frequency distribution, calculate the mid points
of class intervals and frequency. Using these draw frequency polygons, it gives
Relative frequency polygon.

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7) Histogram: A frequency distribution shows how often each different value in a set
of data occurs. A histogram is the most commonly used graph to show frequency
distributions. It looks very much like a bar chart, but there are important
differences between them. A histogram is a common data analysis tool in the
business world. It’s a column chart that shows the frequency of the occurrence of
a variable in the specified range.
Histogram is a graphical representation, similar to a bar chart in structure, that
organizes a group of data points into user-specified ranges. The histogram
condenses a data series into an easily interpreted visual by taking many data points
and grouping them into logical ranges or bins.
A simple example of a histogram is the distribution of marks scored in a subject.
You can easily create a histogram and see how many students scored less than 35,
how many were between 35-50, how many between 50-60 and so on.

Here are some of the things you can do to customize this histogram chart:
1. By Category: This option is used when you have text categories. This could
be useful when you have repetitions in categories and you want to know
the sum or count of the categories. For example, if you have sales data for
items such as Printer, Laptop, Mouse, and Scanner, and you want to know
the total sales of each of these items, you can use the By Category option.
It isn’t helpful in our example as all our categories are different (Student 1,
Student 2, Student3, and so on.)

2. Automatic: This option automatically decides what bins to create in the

Histogram. For example, in our chart, it decided that there should be four
bins. You can change this by using the ‘Bin Width/Number of Bins’ options
(covered below).

3. Bin Width: Here you can define how big the bin should be. If I enter 20
here, it will create bins such as 36-56, 56-76, 76-96, 96-116.

4. Number of Bins: Here you can specify how many bins you want. It will
automatically create a chart with that many bins. For example, if I specify
7 here, it will create a chart as shown below. At a given point, you can either
specify Bin Width or Number of Bins (not both).

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5. Overflow Bin: Use this bin if you want all the values above a certain value
clubbed together in the Histogram chart. For example, if I want to know the
number of students that have scored more than 75, I can enter 75 as the
Overflow Bin value. It will show me something as shown.

6. Underflow Bin: Similar to Overflow Bin, if I want to know the number of

students that have scored less than 40, I can enter 4o as the value and
show a chart as shown below.

8) Box plot: A boxplot (box plot, or whisker plot) is a compact, but efficient way to
represent a dataset using descriptive stats. This “little diagram” combines
informative, standard values such as the first and third quartiles (the bottom and
top of the box, respectively), the median (the flat line inside the box) and sometimes
the mean (a second flat line inside the box). The whiskers are often used to
represent the minimum and maximum values, but some use other parameters such
as: one standard deviation above and below the mean of the data OR the lowest and
highest values contained in the range defined by the 1st quartile minus 1,5 times
the interquartile range and the 3rd quartile plus 1,5 times the interquartile range
(cf. “Tukey plot”) OR the 5th and 95th percentiles, etc. Anyway, because the
whiskers are defined by the user (and not by convention), it is important, when
creating the boxplot, to mention what they represent in the legend of the chart.

9) Stem and leaf plot:

A stem-and-leaf display (also known as a stem plot) is a diagram designed to allow
you to quickly assess the distribution of a given dataset. Basically, the plot splits
two-digit numbers in half:
Stems – The first digit
Leaves – The second digit

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