Plant Cells, Chloroplasts, and Cell Walls

Plant cells have several structures not found in other eukaryotes. In particular, organelles
called chloroplasts allow plants to capture the energy of the Sun in energy-rich molecules; cell walls
allow plants to have rigid structures as varied as wood trunks and supple leaves; and vacuoles allow
plant cells to change size.
What Is the Origin of Chloroplasts?
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts likely originated from an ancient symbiosis, in this case when a
nucleated cell engulfed a photosynthetic prokaryote. Indeed, chloroplasts resemble modern
cyanobacteria, which remain similar to the cyanobacteria of 3 million years ago. However, the
evolution of photosynthesis goes back even further, to the earliest cells that evolved the ability to
capture light energy and use it to produce energy-rich molecules. When these organisms developed
the ability to split water molecules and use the electrons from these molecules, photosynthetic cells
started generating oxygen — an event that had dramatic consequences for the evolution of all living
things on Earth (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts

Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely evolved from engulfed prokaryotes that once lived as
independent organisms. At some point, a eukaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic prokaryote, which
then formed an endosymbiotic relationship with the host eukaryote, gradually developing into a
mitochondrion. Eukaryotic cells containing mitochondria then engulfed photosynthetic
prokaryotes, which evolved to become specialized chloroplast organelles.

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Today, chloroplasts retain small, circular genomes that resemble those of cyanobacteria, although
they are much smaller. (Mitochondrial genomes are even smaller than the genomes of chloroplasts.)
Coding sequences for the majority of chloroplast proteins have been lost, so these proteins are now
encoded by the nuclear genome, synthesized in the cytoplasm, and transported from the cytoplasm
into the chloroplast.
What Is the Function of Chloroplast Membranes?
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes. The outer membrane is
permeable to small organic molecules, whereas the inner membrane is less permeable and studded
with transport proteins. The innermost matrix of chloroplasts, called the stroma, contains
metabolic enzymes and multiple copies of the chloroplast genome.
Chloroplasts also have a third internal membrane called the thylakoid membrane, which is
extensively folded and appears as stacks of flattened disks in electron micrographs. The thylakoids
contain the light-harvesting complex, including pigments such as chlorophyll, as well as the electron
transport chains used in photosynthesis (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Structure of a chloroplast

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What Is the Cell Wall?

Figure 3 : Plant plasma membrane and cell-wall structure

A plant cell wall is arranged in layers and contains cellulose microfibrils, hemicellulose, pectin,
lignin, and soluble protein. These components are organized into three major layers: the primary
cell wall, the middle lamella, and the secondary cell wall (not pictured). The cell wall surrounds the
plasma membrane and provides the cell tensile strength and protection.

© 2008 Nature Publishing Group Sticklen, M. B. Plant genetic engineering for biofuel production:
towards affordable cellulosic ethanol. Nature Reviews Genetics 9, 433-443 (2008). All rights
reserved.
Figure Detail
Besides the presence of chloroplasts, another major difference between plant and animal cells is the
presence of a cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells and provides
tensile strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic stress. It also allows cells to
develop turgor pressure, which is the pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall. Plant cells
have high concentrations of molecules dissolved in their cytoplasm, which causes water to come into
the cell under normal conditions and makes the cell's central vacuole swell and press against the
cell wall. With a healthy supply of water, turgor pressure keeps a plant from wilting. In drought, a
plant may wilt, but its cell walls help maintain the structural integrity of its stems, leaves, and other
structures, despite a shrinking, less turgid vacuole.
Plant cell walls are primarily made of cellulose, which is the most abundant macromolecule on
Earth. Cellulose fibers are long, linear polymers of hundreds of glucose molecules. These fibers
aggregate into bundles of about 40, which are called microfibrils. Microfibrils are embedded in a
hydrated network of other polysaccharides. The cell wall is assembled in place. Precursor
components are synthesized inside the cell and then assembled by enzymes associated with the cell
membrane (Figure 3).
What Are Vacuoles?
Plant cells additionally possess large, fluid-filled vesicles called vacuoles within their cytoplasm.
Vacuoles typically compose about 30 percent of a cell's volume, but they can fill as much as 90
percent of the intracellular space. Plant cells use vacuoles to adjust their size and turgor pressure.
Vacuoles usually account for changes in cell size when the cytoplasmic volume stays constant.
Some vacuoles have specialized functions, and plant cells can have more than one type of vacuole.
Vacuoles are related to lysosomes and share some functions with these structures; for instance, both
contain degradative enzymes for breaking down macromolecules. Vacuoles can also serve as storage
compartments for nutrients and metabolites. For instance, proteins are stored in the vacuoles of
seeds, and rubber and opium are metabolites that are stored in plant vacuoles.
Conclusion
Plant cells have certain distinguishing features, including chloroplasts, cell walls, and intracellular
vacuoles. Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts; cell walls allow plants to have strong, upright
structures; and vacuoles help regulate how cells handle water and storage of other molecules.
A cell is the smallest living organism and the basic unit of life on earth. Together, trillions of cells make
up the human body. Cells have three parts: the membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.
People can think of cells as tiny packages that contain minute factories, warehouses, transport systems,
and power plants. They function on their own, creating their own energy and self-replicating — the cell is
the smallest unit of life that can replicate. Cells are the basic units of life.
The body contains around 50—100 trillionTrusted Source cells, and they vary widely in size, number,
structure, and use.
Cells also communicate with each other. Whether in plants, humans, or animals, they connect to create a
solid, well formed organism. In humans, cells build tissues, tissues form organs, and organs work together
to keep the body alive.
Robert Hooke first discovered cells in the 1600s. He gave them their name because they resembled the
“cella,” the Latin term for “small rooms” where monks lived in monasteries.
Inside the cell

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Experts estimate that there are around 200Trusted Source cell types in the human body.
Cell types can look different, and carry out distinct roles within the body.
For instance, a sperm cell resembles a tadpole, a female egg cell is spherical, and nerve cells are
essentially thin tubes.
Despite their differences, cells often share certain structures. These are known as organelles or mini-
organs. Below are some of the most important:
Nucleus
The nucleus represents the cell’s headquarters. There is typically one nucleus per cell. However, this is
not always the case. Skeletal muscle cells, for instance, have two.
The nucleus contains the majority of the cell’s DNA, and the mitochondria house a small amount. The
nucleus sends out messages to tell the cell to grow, divide, or die.
A membrane called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell. Nuclear pores
within the membrane allow small molecules and ions to cross back and forth, while larger molecules need
to transport proteins to help them through.
Plasma membrane
To ensure each cell remains separate from its neighbor, a special membrane, known as the plasma
membrane, envelops the cell. Phospholipids make most of this membrane and prevent water-based
substances from entering the cell. The plasma membrane contains a range of receptors, which carry out a
number of tasks, including being:
 Gatekeepers: Some receptors allow certain molecules through and stop others.
 Markers: These receptors act as name badges, informing the immune system that they are part of
the organism and not foreign invaders.
 Communicators: Some receptors help the cell communicate with other cells and the
environment.
 Fasteners: Some receptors help bind the cell to its neighbors.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the interior of the cell that surrounds the nucleus. It includes the organelles and a jelly-
like fluid called the cytosol. Many of the important reactions that take place in the cell occur in the
cytoplasm.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton forms the scaffolding within the cytoplasm of the human cell. It helps the cell maintain
the correct shape. However, unlike regular scaffolding, the cytoskeleton is flexible. It plays a role in cell
division and cell motility — the ability of some cells to move, such as sperm cells, for instance.
The cytoskeleton also helps with cell signaling through the uptake of material from the endocytosis, or the
area outside the cell, and moving materials within the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) processes molecules within the cell and helps transport them to their
final destinations. In particular, it synthesizes, folds, modifies, and transports proteins.
Cisternae are long sacs that make the ER. The cytoskeleton holds them together. There are two ER types:
rough ER and smooth ER.
Golgi apparatus
Once the ER processes the molecules, they travel to the Golgi apparatus. People tend to consider the
Golgi apparatus the post office of the cell, where items go through packaging and labeling. Once
materials leave, they may be useful inside or outside the cell.
Mitochondria
People may often refer to mitochondria as the powerhouses of cells. They help turn energy from food into
energy that the cell can use — adenosine triphosphate. However, mitochondria have a number of other
jobs, including calcium storage and a role in cell death.
Ribosomes
The nucleus transcribes segments of DNA into ribonucleic acid (RNA), a molecule similar to DNA,
which directs the translation of RNA into proteins. Ribosomes read the RNA and translate it into proteins
by sticking together amino acids in the order the RNA defines.
Some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm while others attach to the ER.
Cell division
The human body constantly replaces cells. Cells need to divide for a number of reasons, including the
growth of an organism and to fill gaps that dead and destroyed cells leave after an injury, for instance.
There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is how most of the cells in the body divide. The “parent” cell splits into two “daughter” cells.
Both daughter cells have the same chromosomes as each other and the parent. People refer to them as
diploid because they have two complete copies of the chromosomes.
Meiosis
In meiosis, the body produces sperm cells and egg cells.
In males, meiosis occurs after puberty.
Diploid cells within the testes undergo meiosis to produce haploid sperm cells with 23 chromosomes. A
single diploid cell yields four haploidsperm cells. They contain one complete set of 23 chromosomes.
In females, meiosis begins during the fetal stage, before the individual is born. It happens in stages.
A series of diploid future egg cells enter meiosis. At the end of the first stage of meiosis the process stops,
and the cells gather in the ovaries.
At puberty, one female egg cell resumes meiosis each month. As meiosis completes, it yields a single
haploid egg cell each monthly cycle.
During human reproduction, the haploid sperm and haploid egg combine. This temporarily doubles the
number of chromosomes. A small portion of each chromosome breaks off and reattaches to its partner
chromosome before fertilization finishes.
Cell types
More than 200Trusted Source different types of cells are present in the human body. Below is a small
selection of human cell types:
Stem cells
Stem cells are cells that must choose what they are going to become. Some differentiate to become a
certain cell type, and others divide to produce more stem cells. The embryo and some adult tissues, such
as bone marrow, house them.
Bone cells
There are at least threeTrusted Source main types of bone cells:
 osteoclasts, which dissolve bone
 osteoblasts, which form new bone
 osteocytes, which help communicate with other bone cells
Blood cells
There are many types of blood cells, including:
 red blood cells, which carry oxygen around the body
 white blood cells, which are part of the immune system
 platelets, which help blood clot to prevent blood loss after injury
 neutrophils and basophils, and other types of white blood cells
Muscle cells
Also called myocytes, muscle cells are long, tubular cells. Muscle cells are important for a range of
functions, including movement, support, and internal functions, such as peristalsis — the movement of
food along the gut.
Sperm cells
These tadpole-shaped cells are the smallest in the human body.
They are motile, meaning that they can move. They achieve this movement by using their tail, which
contains energy-giving mitochondria.
Sperm cells cannot divide. They only carry one haploid, unlike the majority of cells, which carry diploids.
Female egg cell
Compared with the sperm cell, the female egg cell is a giant. It is the largest human cell. The egg cell is
also haploid so that the chromosomes from the sperm and egg can combine to create a diploid cell during
the process of fertilization.
Fat cells
Fat cells are also called adipocytes, the main adipose tissue constituents. They contain stored fats called
triglycerides that the body can use as energy. Once the body uses the triglycerides, the fat cells shrink.
Adipocytes also produce some hormones.
Nerve cells
Nerves cells form the communication system of the body. Also called neurons, they consist of two major
parts — the cell body and nerve processes, known as axons and dendrites.
The central body contains the nucleus and other organelles, and the nerve processes run like long fingers,
carrying messages far and wide. Some of the axons are around 1 meterTrusted Source long.