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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

3 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

1. INTRODUCTION

Traffic engineering is the application of scientific principles, tools, techniques and findings for
safe, rapid, convenient and economic movement of people and goods. The objective of traffic
engineering is to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic while ensuring safety.
Traffic characteristics are quite complicated, and the human psychology needs to be given
attention. Apart from this, various studies needed to be carried out on the actual traffic include
speed, volume, capacity, travel patterns, origin and destination, parking etc. Traffic
engineering is implemented with the help of 3Es,
E1: Engineering
E2: Enforcement → traffic laws and regulations
E3: Education
1.1. Traffic characteristics
1.1.1 Road User Characteristics
(i) Physical: vision and hearing.
(a) Vision: Minimum standards for acuity of vision are laid down by licensing authorities.
Field of clearest and cute vision is within a cone whose angle is only 3°, though the vision
is quite sensitive within a visual cone of 6°.
(b) Hearing: It helps drivers in a way, though it is more important for pedestrians and
cyclists.
(ii) Mental: knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience.
(iii) Psychological: attentiveness, impatience, distraction
(iv) Environmental: weather, visibility etc.
1.1.2 Vehicular Characteristics
The basic criterion is to design for the needs of existing and anticipated traffic. It will not
be economical to keep on increasing the geometric standards from time to time to meet
the need of new vehicles whose dimensions are increased.
Hence, the vehicle standards should be uniform at least within the country.
The various vehicular characteristics are,
(i) Dimension
(ii) Loaded Weight
(iii) Power
(iv) Speed

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(v) Braking capacity
Out of which, dimension and weight are static characteristics while power and speed are
dynamic characteristics.
(i) Dimensions (According to IRC)
Dimension Detail Maximum Dimension, (m)
Width ---- 2.44
Height (a) Single decked vehicle 3.81
(b) Double decked vehicle 4.72
Length (a) Single unit 2 axle 10.67
(b) Single unit more than 2 axle 12.19
(c) Semi trailer-tractor 15.24
(d) Tractor and trailer 18.29

(ii) Weight of loaded vehicle (According to IRC)

(a) No axle load should exceed 8165 kg ≈ 8200 kg
(b) Gross load of any vehicle or combination of vehicles should not exceed the value that
is given by,
w = 1525 (h + 7.3) –14.7h2
Where,
w = gross weight of vehicle (kg)
h = the distance in ‘m’ between extreme axle when it is greater than 2.44 m.
(c) When h is less than 2.44 m, the gross weight of the vehicle should not exceed 14515
kg.
(iii) Power of the vehicle
The power of the heaviest vehicles and their loaded weights govern the permissible and
limiting value of gradient on roads.
(iv) Speed of the vehicle
The vehicle speed affects
(i) Sight distance
(ii) Super elevation, length of transition curve and limiting radius on horizontal curves.
(iii) Length of transition curve on summit or valley curve
(iv) Width of pavement and shoulders on straight and horizontal curves
(v) Design gradient
(vi) Capacity of traffic lane
(vii) Design and control measures on intersections.

2. TRAFFIC STUDIES

2.1. Traffic Volume Study

Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any
selected period.

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• It is the true measure of relative importance of roads and it helps in deciding the
priorities for improvement and expansion.
• It is used in planning and designing phase.
• It is used in analysis of traffic patterns and trends since when there is variation in traffic
volume, the hourly traffic volume should be known along with patterns of hourly, daily
and seasonal variations.
2.1.1. Counting of Traffic Volume
It can be done mechanically or manually.
(i) Mechanical Counter
• It may be either fixed or portable type.
• It can automatically record the total number of vehicles crossing a section of the road
in a desired period.
• The working may be by the effects of impulses caused by traffic movements. The
impulse caused by light weight vehicles may not be enough to actuate the counter, also
it is not easy to record pedestrian traffic by this method.
• Another method working is by photo electric cells or magnetic detectors.
• The main advantage of mechanical counter is that it can work throughout the day and
night for a desired period.
• The main drawback of mechanical counter is that it is not possible to get the traffic
volumes of various classes of traffic in the stream and the details of turning movements.
(ii) Manual Counting
• It is possible to obtain data which cannot be collected by mechanical counters such as
vehicle classification, turning movements etc.
• The drawback is that it is not possible to record the data 24 hours.
• By statistical analysis, the peak hourly traffic volume as well as the average daily traffic
volumes are calculated.
(iii) Moving Car Method
At test car is run along the traffic stream at a particular speed counting
(a) the number of oncoming vehicles,
(b) the vehicles overtaking and overtaken and,
(c) the travel time.
The traffic volume in a section of the route is found from the formula.
𝑛𝑎 +𝑛𝑦
Traffic volume, 𝑞 =
𝑡𝑎 +𝑡𝑦

𝑛𝑦
And average journey time, 𝑡̄ = 𝑡𝑦 −
𝑞

Here,

q = vehicle/minute in one direction

na = number of vehicles met in travelling against the stream

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ny = number of vehicles overtaking the test car minus number of vehicles overtaken by
the test car.
ta = travel time of test vehicle travelling against the stream in minutes
ty = travel time of the test vehicle travelling with the stream in minutes
The accuracy of computed value may be improved by increasing the number of test runs.
The method is likely to be costly.
2.1.2. Presentation of Traffic Volume Data
The data calculated during the traffic volume studies are sorted out and are presented in
any of the following form according to the requirement.
(a) Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) of total traffic is calculated. This helps in deciding
the relative importance of a route.
(b) Trend charts are useful for planning future expansion, design and regulation.
(c) Variation charts showing hourly, daily and seasonal variations which help in deciding
facilities and regulations needed during peak demand. These can also help in finding the
traffic volume distribution at a glance.
(e) Volume flow diagram at intersection for intersection design.
(f) Thirtieth highest hourly volume for consideration of usability and economic design. It
is found from the graph plot between hourly volume (y-axis) and the number of hours in
one year with traffic volume that is exceeded (x-axis).
• This is the hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year and all other
hourly volumes of the year will be less than this value.
• The highest (peak) hourly volume of the year will be too high that it will not be
economical to design the facilities according to this. The average hourly volume found
from AADT will not be sufficient for a considerable period of the year.

2.2. Speed Studies

Types of speeds,
(i) Spot speed
(ii) Average speed
(iii) Running speed

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(iv) Overall or travel speed.
There are two types of speed studies carried out,
(i) Spot speed study
(ii) Speed and delay study
2.2.1. Spot Speed Study
• The spot speed may be obtained either by finding the running speed of a vehicle over
a short distance of less than 50 meters or by finding instantaneous speed.
• One of the simplest methods is by using enoscope observer. At t1 stopwatch is turned
on and at t2 stopwatch is stopped, by calculation we get spot speed in kmph.

• Other equipment used for spot speed measurement are

(a) Graphic recorder
(b) Electronic meter
(c) Photo-electric meter
(d) Radar speed meter
(e) Photographic methods
Out of these, radar is the most efficient because it records instantaneous speeds and
works automatically but it is very costly.
2.2.2. Presentation of spot speed data
(a) Average speed of vehicle
• Frequency distribution tables are prepared for various speed ranges and number of
vehicles in each range.
• This table gives the general information of speeds maintained on the section.
(b) Cumulative speed distribution curve

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• For design purpose, 98th percentile speed is taken.
• For maximum safe speed, 85th percentile speed is taken.
• For minimum speed (to avoid congestion), 15th percentile speed is taken.
(c) Modal average:
• A frequency distribution curve of spot speed is plotted. This graph is called speed
distribution curve. The curve will have a definite peak indicating the speed at which
maximum number of vehicle travel across the section and this speed is denoted as modal
speed.

2.2.3. Speed and Delay Study

• The results of speed and delay study are useful in detecting the spots of congestion,
their causes, and in arriving at suitable remedial measures.
• Methods of speed and delay study.
(a) Floating car or riding check method: In floating car method, an observer is seated
in the floating car with two stop watches. One of the stop watches is used to record the
times at various control points like intersections, bridges or only other fixed points. The
other stopwatch is used to find the duration of individual delays. The time, location and
cause of these delays are recorded by another observer.
(b) Interview technique: In the interview technique the work can be completed in a
short time by interviewing and collecting details from road users on the spot.
(c) Elevated observations and Photographic technique: Elevated observation and
photographic techniques are useful for studying short test sections like an intersection.
2.3. Origin and Destination Studies
• O & D studies give data like actual direction of travel, selections of route, and length of
the trips.
• This study is most essential in planning new highway facilities and in improving those
of the existing systems.
• Expressway, bye-pass, new bridges, terminals, planning.
2.3.1. Methods for Collecting O and D Data: The selection of method for collecting O
and D data depends upon the objective and the location.
(a) Roadside interview method
(b) License plate method
(c) Return post card method

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(d) Tag on car method
(e) Home interview method
2.3.2. Desire Lines
Desire lines are plotted which are a graphical representation prepared in almost all O and
D surveys. Desire lines are straight the connecting the origin points with destinations.
The width of such desire line is drawn proportional to the number of trips in both
directions.
2.4. Traffic Flow Characteristics

2.5. Traffic Capacity Study

2.5.1. Traffic Density: The number of vehicles occupying a unit length of a lane of the roadway at a
given instant, expressed as veh/km.
1000
Traffic density, 𝑘 =
𝑆(𝑚)

Traffic volume, q = k × V
2.5.2. Traffic Capacity: Ability of a road to accommodate traffic volume. It is expressed as maximum
traffic volume.
Qmax = C veh/hr/lane
Maximum capacity of a single lane is given as
1000𝑉
𝐶=
𝑆
Here,
C = capacity of a single lane (veh/hr)
V = speed (km/hr)
S = space headway = SSD + h = 0.7v + L
L = length of vehicle (if not given, assume L = 6 m)
𝑣2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 +
2𝑔𝑓
⏟
0

Where, v in m/s, t is in seconds, and f=0.35.

Braking distance is to be neglected because it has been assumed that after applying
brakes, both vehicles have the same braking distance since they’re moving in the same
direction.
In this case, the driver remains alert because the vehicle ahead can stop anytime. So,
reaction time is considered as 0.7 sec instead of 2.5 sec.

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2.6. Traffic Operations
The various types of conflicts are (a) Crossing conflict, (b) Merging Conflict and, (c)
Diverging conflict. Crossing is a major conflict while the other two are minor conflicts.
2.6.1. Double Lane One-Way Road

2.6.2. Double Lane Two-Way Road

Number of lanes Number of potential conflicts

Both roads A:1-way, Both roads
Road A Road B
two way B:2-way two way
2 2 24 11 6
2 3 24 11 8
2 4 32 17 10
3 3 24 13 11
4 4 44 25 18

3. TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

(a) Signs
(b) Signals

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(c) Markings
(d) Islands
3.1. Signs
According to Indian Motor Vehicle Act, there are three kinds of signs,
(i) Mandatory Signs: These are regulatory signs, the non-compliance of which is an
offence. The size, shape and details of the signs have been standardised by IRC.
A mandatory sign is provided with white background with red boundaries 60 cm diameter
plate, 2.8 m height from ground to centre of circular plate.
Example: Speed limit, weight limit, no parking, overtaking prohibited, use of sound is
prohibited. The speed limit and dead slow sign should be installed at 120 m in advance
on NH and SH
(ii) Cautionary Signs: These signs warn road users of hazardous conditions either on
or adjacent to the road.
The cautionary signs are standardised by IRC as an equilateral triangle of size 45 cm.
Example: Crossroads, zig zag, turn right and left, dead end, rough road, steep hill,
narrow bridge, level crossing.
(iii) Informatory Signs: These signs guide the road user and give such information as
may be of interest during travel. These are rectangular boards with a yellow background
or blue and green in some cases.
Example: End of speed limit, parking sign, direction and distance of city, parking limit.
Only exception in signs is STOP sign. It has red background with white border. Shape of
STOP sign is Octagonal.

4. TRAFFIC SIGNALS

At intersections where there is a large number of crossing and right turning traffic, traffic
signals are installed.
4.1. Types of traffic signals
(i) Traffic control signals: Timing of each phase is predetermined.
(a) Fixed time signal, (b) Manually operated and, (c) Automatic
(ii) Pedestrian signal
(iii) Special traffic signal

4.2. Cycle Length: It is the one complete cycle of different signals on a road. The cycle
lengths are normally 40 to 60 seconds for two phase signals.

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C = G + A + R (R.G.A.R.G.A.R) …
Interval: It is a time gap between two signal timings. It is of two types.
(i) Change Interval: It is also called yellow time or amber time and it indicates time
gap between red and green signal. Usually 2.0 to 4.0 seconds are suitable for the amber
phase.
(ii) Clearance Interval: It is also called all red time and it is included after each yellow
interval indicating a period during which all signals show red and it is generally used for
clearing vehicles at an intersection.
GA = f (traffic volume on road A)
GB = f (traffic volume on road B)
R A = G B + AB
RB = GA + AA

4.3. Explanation of Amber Time Required

Whenever a vehicle approaches an intersection, it has two options. Either it will stop or
pass the intersection and this factor will depend on the position of the vehicle at the time
when traffic light turns yellow.
(i) If the vehicle is at a position which lies outside the SSD zone, it will stop at intersection
and the amber time required will be given as,
𝑣2
Braking distance = h =
2𝑔𝑓
𝑣
∴ 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑔𝑓

(ii) If the vehicle is inside the SSD zone then it is not possible for driver to stop at the
intersection, therefore, he will have to cross the road. So, in that case the amber time
required can be given as,

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𝑆𝑆𝐷 + 𝑤 + ℎ
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑣
Total distance to cover = SSD + W + h
Maximum of two amber time discussed above is taken.
• It tAmber, provided < tAmber, req, the dilemma zone exists.
4.4. Phases
It is a part of cycle length allocated in the traffic for its movement.
R A = G B + AB
RB = GA + AA
P1+ P2 = C

4-phase signal is provided where straight and right turning traffic both are significant,
whereas 2-phase signal is provided where straight traffic is much more than right turning
traffic.
Time Lost: It is the time for which intersection is not efficiently used or utilized for any
movement. Some time is lost during initial phase of green and last phase of amber time.
P1 = G + A – tSL – tCL

Effective green time, g = G + A – tL = G + A – (tSL + tCL)

It not given in the question then assume tSL = tCL
Effective red time = R + tL

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Start-up lost time (tSL): When signal turns from red to green, the driver standing very
near to the intersection usually takes some time to react due to change in signal which is
known as start-up lost time.
Clearance last time (tCL): Generally, the later portion of amber is not utilized by the
driver for the movement due to coming of red signal.
4.5. Calculation of Critical Lane Volume
If time lost at starting of one phased signal = tSL
So, total time lost for ‘n’ phases = n tSL
Assume C = cycle length
3600
Total number of cycles in 1 hr =
𝐶
3600
Total time lost in one hour = × 𝑛 × 𝑡𝑆𝐿
𝐶
3600
So, Time remaining for movement of vehicles, vch = 3600 − ( × 𝑛 × 𝑡𝑆𝐿 )
𝐶

If Vc is critical lane volume, then

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 3600
𝑉𝑐 = - 3600 − × 𝑛 × 𝑡𝑆𝐿
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝐶
3600 3600 𝑛𝑡𝑆𝐿
⇒ 𝑉𝐶 = − ×
𝐻𝑡 𝐻𝑡 𝐶

3600 𝑛𝑡𝑆𝐿
⇒ 𝑉𝐶 = [1 − ]
𝐻𝑡 𝐶

3600
∴ 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑠) =
𝐻𝑡
or maximum capacity of road.
𝑛𝑡𝑆𝐿
⇒ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑆 (1 − )
𝐶
𝑛𝑡𝑆𝐿
Or, Cycle length, 𝐶 = 𝑉
1− 𝑐
𝑆

𝑉𝑐
(𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 < 1, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶 𝑐𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. )
𝑆
This formula is applicable only when Ht is uniform. If Ht is non-uniform, then replace ‘S’
by ‘S×PHF’. Where,
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
PHF(Peak Hourly Factor)= 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙.𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Example: For 5 minute intervals, 𝑃𝐻𝐹5 = 60
( )× 𝑚𝑎𝑥 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐
5

Example: For a 2-phase signal, tSL is given as 3s. If average time headway is 2.3s, then
find the cycle length and critical lane volume.

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Solution: We know that,
𝑛𝑡𝑆𝐿
𝐶=
𝑉
1− 𝑐
𝑆
Given,
n=2
tSL = 3 sec
Ht = 2.3 s
3600
Also, Saturation = S = = 1,565
2.3

Here, 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 1800

𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 1150
∴ Vc = 1800 + 1150 = 2950
vc 2950
So, = = 1.88 / 1
s 1565

Assuming four lanes,

Now, 𝑣𝐶𝐴 = 900
𝑣𝐶𝐵 = 575
∴ vc = 900 + 575 = 1475
𝑣𝑐 1475
Now, = = 0.97 < 1 (𝑂𝐾)
𝑆 1565

2×3
∴ 𝑐= = 100 seconds
1 − 0.94
4.6. Methods of Signal Design
4.6.1. Trial Cycle Method
Step I: Assume first trial cycle length. (Always assume 50 seconds)
Step II: 15 minutes count on both the roads are done to count number of vehicles.
Step III: Assume time headway of 2.5 sec and calculate g1 and g2.
Total number of vehicles on road 1 in 15 min = n1
15×60 900
Number of cycles in 15 mins = =
𝑐1 𝑐1

For passing of 1 vehicle, 2.5 seconds are required.

𝑛1 𝑐1 𝑛1
Number of vehicles in one cycle length = 900 =
900
𝑐1

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𝑐1 𝑛1
𝑔1 = × 2.5
900
Similarly, for road (2),
𝑐2 𝑛2
𝑔2 = × 2.5
900
Also, C1 = C2 = C
G1 = g1 + amber time on road 1
G2 = g2 + amber time on road 2
So, C′ = G1 + G2
→ If C′ = C, provide cycle length of C
→ If C < C′, assume higher value of C
→ If C > C′, assume lower value of C
Example: The 15 min traffic counts on crossroads A and B during peak hours are
observed as 178 and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection. If
amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively, design signal timings by trial
cycle method. Assume average time headway of 2.5 seconds during green phase.
Sol.
Trial 1: Assume cycle length, C1 = 50 sec
15×60
Number of cycles in 15 min = = 18
50

Green time for road 1, allowing an average time headway of 2.5 second per vehicle, 𝐺1 =
178×2.5
= 24.7 𝑠𝑒𝑐
18
142×2.5
Similarly, 𝐺2 = = 19.7 𝑠𝑒𝑐
18

Total cycle length = 24.7 + 19.7 + 3 + 2 = 49.4 sec

As this is lower than the assumed value, now assume lesser value of cycle length.
Trial 2: Assume cycle length, C2= 45 sec
900
Number of cycles in 15 minutes = = 20
45
178
Green time for road 1= = 22.25 𝑠𝑒𝑐
20
142×2.5
Green time for road 2 = = 17.75 𝑠𝑒𝑐
20

Total cycle length = 22 + 25 sec + 17.75 + 3 + 2 = 45 sec

∴ G1 = 22.25 sec, G2 = 17.7 sec,
A1 = 3 sec, A2 = 2 sec
Cycle length 45 sec.

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4.6.2. Webster Method
In this, the optimum cycle length is calculated based on total time lost. Optimum cycle
length is one in which average delay is minimum. This is a rational approach.
The field work consists of finding
(i) The saturation flow, S per unit time.
(ii) The normal flow, q
1.5𝐿+5
Optimum cycle length, 𝐶0 =
1−𝑦

Where,
L = total time lost in a cycle length = n.tSL + All red time
n = number of phases
Assume tSL = 2 sec, if not provided.
L = 2n + All red time.
and, y = y1 + y2 + y3 +…… + yn
𝑞1 𝑞2
where, 𝑦1 = , 𝑦2 = …
𝑠1 𝑠2
𝑦1 𝑦2
And, 𝐺1 = (𝐶0 − 𝐿), 𝐺2 = (𝐶0 − 𝐿)
𝑦 𝑦2

In the case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to convert all the normal flow and saturation
flow values in terms of suitable Passenger Car Units (PCU) value.
Example: The average normal flow of traffic on crossroads A and B during design period
are 400 and 250 PCU per hour; the saturations flow values of these roads are estimated
as 1250 and 1000 PCU per hour respectively. The all red time required for pedestrian
crossing is 12 secs. Design a two-phase traffic signal by webster’s method.
Sol.
𝑞𝐴 400
𝑦𝐴 = = = 0.32
𝑆𝐴 1250
𝑞𝐵 250
𝑦𝐵 = = = 0.25
𝑆𝐵 1000
y = yA + yB = 0.32 + 0.25 = 0.57
L = 2n + R = 2 × 2 + 12 = 16 seconds
We know that,

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1.5L + 5 1.5  16 + 5
C0 = =
1−y 1 − 0.57
= 67.4 67.5 sec
Now,
yA
GA = (C0 − L)
y
0.32
= (67.5 − 16) = 29 sec
0.57
y
GB = B (C0 − L)
y
0.25
= (67.5 − 16) = 22.5 sec
0.57
All red time for pedestrian traffic = 12 secs
Providing amber time of 2 secs for each clearance,
Total cycle time = 29 + 22.5 + 12 + 4 = 67.5 secs
Note: In absence of data the approximate value of saturation flow is estimated assuming
160 PCU per 0.3 metre width of approach.
4.6.3. Approximate Method
The minimum green time, g is the function of pedestrian crossing time and traffic volume,
g = f (pedestrian crossing time, traffic volume]
𝑤
Step I: Minimum pedestrian crossing time, 𝐺𝑃𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝐺𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴 =
1.2 𝑚/𝑠
𝑤
Step II: Minimum g is required for pedestrian to cross the road. It is equal to +
1.2
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑.
If no pedestrian signal is installed, initial walking period = 5 sec
If pedestrian signal is installed, initial walking period = 7 sec
If not provided in problem, assume 7 seconds.
𝑤𝐴
𝐺𝑃𝐴 = + (5 𝑜𝑟 7)
1.2
and, 𝐺𝑃𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 = 𝐺𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵
Similarly,
𝑤𝐵
𝐺𝑃𝐵 = + (5 𝑜𝑟 7)
1.2
and, 𝐺𝑃𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵 = 𝐺𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴
If not given, assume amber time 3 secs.
𝐺𝐴 𝑛𝐴 𝑣𝑐𝐴
Step III: = =
𝐺𝐵 𝑛𝐵 𝑣𝑐𝐵

Step IV: Calculate cycle length, C = GA + AA + GB + AB

Example: An isolated signal with pedestrian indication is to be installed on a right-angled
intersection with road A, 18 m wide and road B, 12 m wide. The heaviest volume per
hour of each lane of road A and road B are 275 and 225 respectively. The approach
speeds are 55 and 40 kmph for road A and B respectively. Design the timings of traffic
signal.
Sol.
(i) Based on approach speed, assume amber period as,

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For road A with 55 kmph, AA = 4 secs
For road B with 40 kmph, AB = 3 secs.
(ii) Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m/s minimum time required for pedestrian
to cross the road.
18
𝑔𝐴 = + 7 = 22 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.2
12
𝑔𝐵 = + 7 = 17 𝑠𝑒𝑐
12
(iii) Minimum green time based on pedestrian criteria
Road B = 22 – 3 = 19 sec = GB
Road A = 17 – 4 = 13 sec = GA
(iv) Based on approach volume, clearly road A need more green time than road B
(v) Taking GB as 19 secs only, calculate GA on volume per lane basis. We know,
𝐺𝐴 𝑛𝐴 275
= ⇒ 𝐺𝐴 = × 19 = 23.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠
𝐺𝐵 𝑛𝐵 225
(vi) Total cycle length = 23.2 + 19 + 4 +3 = 49.2 sec = 50 sec
4.6.4. IRC Method
Step I: Calculate cycle length by approximate method.
Step II: Check by IRC method. IRC has assumed an Ht of 6 sec for 1st vehicle and 2 sec
for other remaining vehicles.
𝐺𝐴 = [1 × 6 + (𝑛𝐴 − 1) × 2] < | 16 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠
𝐺𝐵 = [1 × 6 + (𝑛𝐵 − 1) × 2] < | 16 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠
Step III: Check and design by Websters method.
1.5𝐿 + 5
𝐶0 =
1−𝑦

5. MARKINGS

Road or traffic marking are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols, or reflectors on the
pavement, kerb, sides of islands etc.
The various types of markings are
(i) Pavement marking
(ii) Kerb marking
(iii) Object marking
(iv) Reflector unit marking

6. ROTARY
In this, crossing operations are converted into weaving operations.
Types of rotary:
(i) Circular

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(ii) Elliptical

(iii) Turbine

(iv) Tangent

6.1. Design Elements of a Rotary

IRC has recommended to take Vdesign as 40 kmph for rural roads and important roads, 30
kmph for urban areas and non-important areas. Coefficient of friction can be taken as
0.43 for speed of 40 kmph and 0.47 for speed of 30 kmph.

Here,
L = length of weaving section
e1 = width of entry

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e2 = width of exit
w = width of rotary
α = weaving angle
Super elevation is not provided at a rotary and thus stability is only provided by coefficient
of friction. So,
𝑣2
Rentry =
127𝑓

Rexit = (1.5 to 2) × Rentry

For central island,
4
RCI= × 𝑅
3

If not provided, take e1 = e2

𝑒1 + 𝑒2
𝑒=
2
w = e + 3.5
If not provided,
l=w×4
Practical capacity of rotary is given by,
𝑒 𝑝
280𝑤 (1 + ) (1 − )
𝑃= 𝜔 3
𝜔
(1 + )
𝐿
Here,
w = width of weaving section (6 to 18 m)
𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑏+𝑐
p= = , in the range of 0.4 to 1.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑏+𝑐+𝑎+𝑑

a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane

b = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane
c = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while entering the rotary
d = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary

Example: The width of the carriage way approaching an intersection is given as 15 m.

The entry and exit width at the rotary are 10 m. The traffic approaching the intersection
from four sides is shown below. Find capacity of rotary.

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Sol.
(i) Weaving width, w = e + 3.5 m
𝑒1 +𝑒2 10+10
Here = e = = = 10 𝑚
2 2

∴ w = 10 + 3.5 = 13.5 m.
(ii) Weaving length = w × 4 = 13.5 × 4 = 54 m
(ii) Calculate maximum value of p, by take 4 direction, i.e. pNE, pES, pSW
and pWN
375+650+505+370
(a) 𝑝𝑁𝐸 = = 0.674
375+650+505+370+408+510
500+600+650+510
(b) 𝑝𝐸𝑆 = = 0.783
500+600+650+510+250+375
350+370+500+375
(c) 𝑝𝑆𝑊 = = 0.6099
350+370+500+375+420+600
550+510+350+600
(d) 𝑝𝑊𝑁 = = 0.718
505+510+350+600+400+370

∴ pES is max, take this value

 e  p
280w 1 +  1 − 
(e)  w 3
P=
 w
1 + L 
 
 10   0.783 
280  13.5 1 + 1−
 13.5   3 
=
13.5
1+
54
⇒ P = 2161.16 veh/hr
6.2. IRC Recommendations
(i) According to IRC, maximum traffic that a rotary can efficiently handle is 3000 veh/hr
and the minimum is 500 veh/hr.
(ii) Generally rotary is provided when 4 to 7 roads are meeting at an intersection.
(iii) In view of mixed traffic conditions, it is suggested by the IRC that rotary must be
provided if intersecting traffic is about 50% of total traffic or fast turning traffic towards
right is at least 30% of total traffic.
(iv) Entry width is kept smaller than approach width to forcefully reduce the speed of the
driver while entering and to increase it while exiting. Minimum entry width is 5 m.
(v) According to IRC,
Approach width (w) Entry width (e1)
7.0 6.5
10.5 7
14 8
21 13
(vi) The formula for practical capacity is applicable only when
(a) 6 m ≤ w ≤ 18 m
𝑒
(b) = 0.4 𝑡𝑜 1.0
𝜔
𝜔
(c) = 0.12 𝑡𝑜 0.4
𝐿

(d) p = 0.4 to 1.0

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7. INTERSECTION AT SEPARATED GRADES

7.1. Ramp

Ramp Diverging Merging

towards from

Direct R R

Semi Direct h R

Indirect h H

7.2. Interchanges
7.2.1. Diamond Interchange

7.2.2. Partial Clover Interchange

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7.2.3. Full Clover Interchange

8. PARKING

Two types: (i) On street or kerb parking, (ii) Off street parking
Number of parking spaces can be calculated as:
𝐿
(i) For parallel parking: 𝑁 =
5.9

L = length of kerb in m

𝐿
(ii) For 30° parking: 𝑁 =
2.5

𝐿−2.16
(iii) For 60° parking: 𝑁 =
2.89
𝐿−1.77
(iv) For 45° parking: 𝑁 =
3.54
𝐿
(v) For 90° parking: 𝑁 =
2.5

9. LIGHTING

𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛 × 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑀𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑢𝑥 × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑝 → 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛

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𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ → 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Coefficient of utilization depends upon the ratio of width of road and mounting height.

10. TRAFFIC DISTRIBUTION

Relationship between traffic density (k) and traffic velocity (V).

10.1.Greenshield’s Distribution Model
It assumes a linear variation between k and V, i.e., V = a + b k

at k = 0, V = VSF
∴ VSF = a
at k = kj, V = 0
𝑉𝑆𝐹
∴ VSF + b kj = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = −
𝑘𝑗

𝑉𝑆𝐹
So, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 − ⋅𝑘
𝑘𝑗

𝑘
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 [1 − ]
𝑘𝑗

We know that q = k × V
𝑘
∴ 𝑞 = 𝑘 × 𝑉𝑆𝐹 [1 − ]
𝑘𝑗

𝑘2
𝑞 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 [𝑘 − ]
𝑘𝑗
𝑑𝑞 2𝑘
for 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 , = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 [1 − ]=0
𝑑𝑘 𝑘𝑗

2𝑘 2𝑘 𝑘𝑗
𝑂𝑟, 1 − =0⇒ =1⇒ 𝑘=
𝑘𝑗 𝑘𝑗 2
𝑉𝑆𝐹 ×𝑘𝑗
Now, 𝑞 =
4 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑘𝑗 /2 𝑉𝑆𝐹
Also, at qmax, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 [1 − ]=
𝑘 2

Example: The relationship between speed and density is given by v = 60 – 0.4k. Then
find,

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(i) Free mean speed
(ii) Mean speed
(iii) Mean density
(iv) Maximum traffic volume
Sol.
Given, V = 60 – 0.4k

0.4ℎ ℎ
𝑉 = 60 [1 − ] = 60 [1 − ]
60 60
0.4
60
𝑂𝑟, 𝑘𝑗 = = 150 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚
0.4
(i) VSF = 60 km/hr
0+𝑉𝑆𝐹 60
(ii) Mean speed = v = = = 30 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟
2 2
0+𝑘𝑗 150
(iii) Mean density = k = = = 75 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑘𝑚
2 2
𝑉𝑆𝐼 ×𝑘𝑗 60×150
(iv) 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2250 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ𝑟.
4 4

10.2. Greenberg’s Distribution Model

𝑘𝑗
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑙𝑛
𝑘
𝑘𝑗
𝑞 = 𝑘 × 𝑣 = 𝑘 × 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑙𝑛
𝑘
𝑘𝑗
at 𝑘 = , 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑆𝐹
𝑒

10.3. Exponential Model

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝐹 𝑒 −𝑘/𝑘𝑗
Break down occurs at k = kj
At k = kj ⇒ V = VSF /e, but at k = kj, V should be zero.
q = kV ⇒ q = k VSF 𝑒 −𝑘/𝑘𝑗
for 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝑆𝐹
⇒ k = kj and at k = kj ⇒ 𝑉 =
𝑒
𝑉𝑆𝐹 × 𝑘𝑗
∴ 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑒

10.4. Vehicle Arrival Rate Distribution

10.4.1. Exponential Distribution
f(t) = λe–λt
where, λ = vehicle arrival rate vehicle/time

∞
∞ ∞ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃[0 ≤ 𝐻𝑡 ≤ ∞] = ∫0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 [ ] =1
–𝜆 0

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→ Find the probability that t ≥ h sec.
∞
∞
–𝜆𝑡
𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃[ℎ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ ∞] = ∫ 𝜆𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 [ ] = 𝑒 −𝜆ℎ
ℎ −𝜆 ℎ

P[0 ≤ t ≤ h] = 1 – e–λh
Example: Find the probability that ht lies between 2 and 5 sec.
Sol.
5
5 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃[2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5] = ∫2 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆 [ ] = e–2λ – e–5λ
−𝜆 2

Example: If 160 vehicles arrive in 20 min then find the probability that time headway of
vehicles will be between 2 to 4 sec.
Sol.
160
Vehicle arrival rate= 𝜆 = = 0.133 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
20×60
4
𝑃[2 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4] = ∫ 𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 −2𝜆 − 𝑒 −4𝜆 = 0.179 ≅ 0.18
2

10.4.2. Poisson Distribution

Probability of passing of ‘n’ vehicle in ‘t’ time is
(𝜆𝑡)𝑛 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑃(𝑛, 𝑡) =
𝑛!
Probability of passing of zero vehicles in ‘t 1’ is
(𝜆𝑡1 )0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1
𝑃(0, 𝑡1 ) = = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1
1!
i.e. probability that time headway is greater that t1 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡1
Note: Generally, exponential distribution is applicable for roads having low traffic for
medium while high traffic volume vehicle arrival rate follows Poisson’s distribution.

11. TRAFFIC SPEED STUDY

Average or mean speed: It is the average spot speed of all vehicles moving on the road. It

can be measured as.

11.1. Space Mean Speed: In this method, we use harmonic mean speed.
𝛴𝑛
Space Mean Speed = 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛3 𝑛𝑛
+ + +
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 𝑣𝑛

n = total number of vehicles.

11.2. Time Mean Speed: In this method, we use arithmetic mean speed.
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝑣𝑖
Time Mean Speed =
𝑛

Note: Space mean speed is harmonic mean of all speeds whereas time mean speed is

arithmetic mean of all speeds and AM ≥ HM

If speed of all the vehicle is same, then space mean speed = time mean speed.

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Example: For a traffic velocity count conducted on a road, following result are observed:
Speed Frequency %frequency Cumulative %frequency
10 2 1 1
20 6 3 4
30 10 5 9
40 12 6 15
50 24 12 27
60 42 21 48
70 36 18 66
90 18 19 85
100 26 13 98
110 3 1.5 99.5
120 1 0.5 100
Sum 200 100% -
Find space mean speed, time mean speed, also find design speed, maximum and
minimum speed limit.
Sol.
200
(i) Space mean speed = 2 6 10 1 = 56 kmph
+ + +....+
10 20 30 120

2×10+6×20∗10×30+...+1×120
(ii) Time mean speed = = 67.15 kmph
200

(iii) Design speed (98 percentile) = 100 kmph

(iv) Maximum speed limit (85 percentile) = 90 kmph
(v) Minimum speed limit (15 percentile) = 40 kmph
(70−60)(50−48)
Median speed = V50= 60 + = 61.11 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
(66−48)

Modal speed = 60 kmph (maximum frequency)

Example: Data collected from moving car method on a road 3 kms gave the following
results for North-South direction. Find
(i) Average journey time
(ii) Average speed
(iii) Running speed

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Sol.
For N – S direction,
Time Delay Overtaking Overtaken Opp. direction
Total 14 2 9 10 300
Mean 7 1 4.5 5 150
For S – N direction,
Total 16 2 7 4 380
Mean 8 1 3.5 2 190
∴ ty = 7, ta = 8, na = 190,
ny = 4.5 – 5 = – 0.5
190 − 0.5
∴ 𝑞= = 12.63 𝑣𝑒ℎ/𝑚𝑖𝑛
7+8
𝑛𝑦 0.5
(i) 𝑡̄ = 𝑡𝑦 − =7+ = 7.039 𝑚𝑖𝑛
9 12.63
3×60
(ii) Average speed = = 25.57 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
7.039

(iii) Running time = 𝑡̄ − 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 7.04 − 1 = 6.04 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠

3
Running speed = × 60 = 29.8 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ
6.04

12. ACCIDENT STUDIES

It is of following types:
(i) Moving vehicle collides with parked vehicle
(ii) Two moving vehicles from different directions collide at an intersection.
(iii) Head on collision.
12.1. When Moving Vehicle Collides with Parked Vehicle/Object

1 1
Before collision: 𝑚𝐴 𝑣12 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑣22 = 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔𝑠1 ⇒ 𝑉12 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑠1 + 𝑉22
2 2

At collision: (Assumption → Collision is purely elastic)

Initial momentum = final momentum
MA V2 = MB × 0 = MAV3 + MBVB
MAV2 = (MA + MB) V3
𝑚𝐴 +𝑚𝐵 𝑀𝐵
⇒ 𝑉2 = ( ) 𝑉3 = (1 + ) 𝑉3
𝑚𝐴 𝑀𝐴
1
After collision: (𝑀𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 )𝑉32 − 0 = 𝑓(𝑚𝐴 + 𝑀𝐵 )𝑔𝑆2 ⇒ 𝑉3 = √2𝑔𝑓𝑠2
2

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12.2. Two Vehicles from Different Directions Collide at An Intersection
Before collision: In E-W direction,
1 1
𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴21 − 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴22 = 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑠𝐴1
2 2

𝑉𝐴21 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐴1 + 𝑉𝐴22

in N–S direction,
1 1
𝑀 𝑉 2 − 𝑀 𝑉 2 = 𝑓𝑀𝐵 𝑔𝑆𝐵1
2 𝐵 𝐵1 2 𝐵 𝐵2
𝑉𝐵21 = 2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑉𝐵22

After collision: Momentum is conserved in E-W direction,

M A  VA2 + 0 = mA VA3 cos A + mB VB3 sin B
𝑚𝐵
𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑉𝐴3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐴 + ( ) 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐴 𝐵3
Momentum is conserved in N-S direction,
0 + 𝑀𝐵 𝑉𝐵2 = 𝑚𝐴 𝑉𝐴3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐵2 = ( ) 𝑉𝐴3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐵
𝑚𝐵
1
For vehicle 𝐴: 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝐴23 − 0 = 𝑓𝑚𝐴 𝑔𝑆𝐴2 ⇒ 𝑉𝐴3 = √2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐴2
2
1
for vehicle 𝐵: 𝑚𝐵 𝑣𝐵23 − 0 = 𝑓𝑚𝐵 𝑔𝑆𝐵2 ⇒ 𝑉𝐵3 = √2𝑓𝑔𝑆𝐵2
2

Example: A moving vehicle of twice the weight of a parked vehicle collides with the
parked vehicle. The skid distance measured before and after collision were found to be
30 m and 15 m respectively. Find the speed of the moving vehicle. Assume f = 0.7
Sol.
𝑉3 = √2𝑓 × 15

𝑉3 = √2 × 9.51 × 0.7 × 15 = 14.34 𝑚/𝑠

𝑚𝐵 𝑚
𝑉2 = (1 + ) 𝑉3 = (1 + ) 14.34
𝑚𝐴 2𝑚
V2 = 21.15 m/s
𝑉12 = 2 × 0.7 × 9.81 × 30 + 21.152
V1 = 29.81 m/s

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13. PROBLEMS

Problem 1: How do traffic characteristics affect traffic planning? Describe the various road
user characteristics.
Problem 2: Which aspects of the traffic engineering and planning are affected by the speed of
the vehicle.
Problem 3: Describe the various methods of calculating traffic volume.
Problem 4: Describe the importance of (a) 30 th highest hourly volume, (b) AADT, (c)98 th
percentile speed.
Problem 5: Differentiate between traffic density and capacity.
Problem 6: Calculate the capacity of a one-way road with traffic speed of 40kmph. Assume
the relevant values.
Problem 7: Sketch the number of conflict zones in a two-way, two-lane road.
Problem 8: What are mandatory signs in traffic engineering? Sketch three cautionary signs.
Problem 9: At an intersection of roads P and Q, the average flow of traffic is 480 and 560
vehicles per hour, while the saturation flow values are given as 1680 and 1750 vehicles per
hour respectively. Design a two-phase traffic signal by the Webster’s method, if the all red time
required is 14 secs.
Ans. Cycle Length = 79.37s
Problem 10: Describe various kinds of road markings.
Problem 11: Calculate the spacing between the lighting units to produce a lux equal to 6.0 if
the width of road is 15m, mounting height is 7.5m and lamp size is 7000 lumens. Assume
coefficient of utilization to be 0.44 and maintenance factor to be 0.8.
Ans. 23.2 m.
Problem 12: Sketch a rotary and describe its important features.
Problem 13: What are the advantages of a grade separated intersection? Sketch a full clover
leaf interchange.
Problem 14: Sketch various types of parking plans. Which type of parking plan is the most
convenient from the passing traffic standpoint.

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