Republic of the Philippines

Commission on Higher Education

Romblon State University
Odiongan, Romblon

MODULE 3

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Unit 2 – Text, Context, and Subject

“The most effective way to destroy people is to deny and obligate

their own understanding of their history.” – George Orwell

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, the student is expected to:
1. Analyze the context, content, and perspective of different kinds of primary
sources;
2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding
the Philippine history;
3. Development critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary sources.

Suggested Further Readings:

1. Antonio Pegafetta, First Voyage Around the World, (pp. 23-48) [Chronicle]
2. Juan de Plasencia, Customs of the Tagalogs (Garcia 1979, pp.221-234)
3. Emilio Jacinto, “Kartilla ng Katipunan” (Richardson, 2013, pp.131-137)
4. Emilio Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan. (pp. 78-82; 95-100; 177-188; 212-
227) [Memoirs]
 5. National Historical Institute (1997). Documents of the 1989 Declaration of
Philippine Independence, the Malolos Constitution and the First Philippine
Republic. Manila: National Historical Institute (pp. 19-23) [Proclamation]
6. Alfred McCoy, Political Caricatures of the American Era (Editorial cartoons)
7. Commission on Independence, Filipino Grievances Against Governor Wood
(Zaide, 1990, vol. 11, pp. 230-234). [Petition Letter]
8. Corazon Aquino, President Corazon Aquino’s Speech before the U.S Congress
Sept. 18, 1986 [Speech]
9. Raiders of the Sulu Sea (Film)
10. Works of Luna and Amorsolo (Paintings)

Suggested Activities:
1. Lecture/ Discussion
2. Library research
3. Textual Analysis
4. Small group discussion
5. Reporting
6. Film analysis

Suggested Assignment:
1. Graded Reporting
2. Quizzes
3. Critical Essay about a particular primary source; students are to discuss the
Importance of the text, the authors background, the context of the document, and
its contribution to understanding Philippine history
 Chapter 3

Content and Contextual Analysis

“Study the past if you would define the future.” – Confucius

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:
1. Analyze the context, content, and the perspective of different kinds of primary
sources;
2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding
Philippine history;
3. Develop critical and analytical skill with exposure to primary sources.

Chapter Outline:
1. Content/ Textual Analysis
2. Contextual Analysis
Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation
by Grace Fleming
3. Subtext
Content, Contextual, and Subtext Analyses are methods of data analysis
in historical research

1. Content/ Textual Analysis

Content analysis is a research method for studying documents and communication

artifacts, which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video.
Social scientists use content analysis to quantify patterns in communication, in a
replicable and systematic manner. One of the key advantages of this research method
is to analyze social phenomena in a non-invasive way, in contrast to simulating social
experiences or collecting survey answers.
 Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between scholarly
communities. They all involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts
which are assigned labels or codes set of media, a researcher is able to statistically
estimate the proportions of patterns in the texts, as well as correlations between
patterns.

Computers are increasingly used in content analysis, to automate the labeling (or
coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide descriptive data
such as word frequencies and document length. (Wikipedia, 2018)

a. Goals of Content Analysis

Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective

researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions.
That said, according to Klaus Kripendorff, six questions must be addressed in every
content analysis:
1. Which data are analyzed?
2. How are the data defined?
3. From what population are data drawn?
4. What are the boundaries of the analysis?
5. What is to be measured?

The Simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous
characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area taken by a
newspaper column, or the duration of a radio or television program. Analysis of simple
word frequencies is limited because the meaning of a word depends on surrounding
text.

A further step in analysis is the distinction between dictionary-based (quantitative)

approaches and qualitative approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of
categories derived from the frequency list of words and control the distribution of words
and their respective categories over the texts. While methods in quantitative content
analysis in this way transform observations of found categories into quantitative
statistical data, the qualitative content analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its
implications. There are strong parallels between qualitative content analysis and
thematic analysis. (Wikipedia, 2018)

b. Kinds of Texts

There are five types of texts in content analysis:

1. Written text, such as books and papers

2. Oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance
3. Iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons
4. Audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos
5. Hypertexts, which are text found on the internet
c. Types of Content Analysis
 There are two general categories of content analysis: Conceptual analysis and
Relational Analysis.

1. Conceptual analysis can be thought of establishing the existence and

frequency of concepts in a text.

2. Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts in the text.

1. Conceptual Analysis

Traditionally, content analysis has most often been through of in terms of

conceptual analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and
the number of its occurrence within the text recorded. Because terms may be implicit as
well as explicit, it is important to clearly define implicit terms before the beginning of the
counting process. To limit the subjectivity in the definitions of concepts, specialized
dictionaries are used.

As with most other research methods, conceptual analysis begins with identifying
research questions and choosing a sample or samples. Once chosen, the text must be
coded into manageable content categories. The process of coding is basically one of
selective reduction, which is central idea in content analysis. By breaking down the
contents of material into meaningful and pertinent units of information, certain
characteristics of the message may be analyzed and interpreted.

An example of conceptual analysis would be to examine a text and to code it for the
existence of certain words. In looking at this text, the research question might involve
examining the number of positive words used to describe an argument, as opposed to
the number of negative words used to describe a current status or opposing argument.
The researcher would be interested only in quantifying these words, not in examining
how they are related, which is a function of relational analysis. In conceptual analysis,
the researcher simply wants to examine presence of positive or negative words used
with respect to a specific argument or respective arguments.

2. Relational Analysis

As stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining

the relationships among concepts in text. And as with other sorts of inquiry, initial
choices with regard to what is being studied and/ or coded for often determine the
possibilities of that particular study. For relational analysis, it is important to first decide
which concept type(s) will be explored in the analysis. Studies have been conducted
with as few as one and as many as 500 concept categories. Obviously, too many
categories may obscure your results and too few can lead to unreliable and potentially
invalid conclusions. Therefore, it is important to allow the context and necessities of
your research to guide your coding procedure.

There are many techniques of relational analysis available and this flexibility
makes for its popularity. Researchers can device their own procedures according to the
nature of their project. Once the procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and
compared across population over time. The process of relational analysis has achieved
a higher degree of computer automation but still is, like most forms of research, time
consuming. Perhaps the strongest claim that can be made is that it maintains a high
degree of statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in even more
qualitative methods.

d. How to Use Content Analysis

1. The first step involves preparing a coding schedule. This consist of a table where
each row is a unit for which data is being collected (e.g. an assignment or
discussion contribution might be a unit of data collection). Each column is a
dimension or theme for the analysis that will depend on your evaluation
questions. For a discussion contribution for example these dimensions might be
the type of contribution, the contributor, the timing of the contribution. There
should be no overlap in dimensions. Themes are therefore predefined, unlike the
qualitative approach of template analysis where themes may emerge during the
analysis.

2. A coding manual is then produced to accompany the coding schedule, listing the
codes for each of the categories that are valid for each dimension to ensure
reliability and consistency in the coding. For example, for the contributor
dimension, valid codes and categories might be 1-student, 2-tutor. There should
be no overlap in the categories. Codes for each observation of category are
entered into the appropriate cells in the schedule.

3. Elements of the content are described and organized using these categories.
This process is called coding and, particularly if appropriate software is used to
aid the process, enables more efficient sorting and retrieval of data by each
category.

4. Categories are used to describe the information that is emerging from this data.
The unit of analysis may be different than that used for data collection. This is the
level at which data is analyzed and findings reported. In the example of the
discussion forum already used, the purpose of the analysis is to provide insight
into the interaction between the participants and therefore analysis at the level of
a single contribution would be meaningless. The unit of analysis would be need
to be the whole discussion.

5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relationships,

similarities, differences, etc. This may suggest further avenues of inquiry using
qualitative approaches that seek insight into possible reasons for these
relationships and trends. (University of sheffields, 2014)

e. Issues of Reliability and Validity

The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other
research methods. The reliability of content analysis study refers to its stability, or the
tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a
period of time; reproducibility, or the tendency for a group of coders to classify
categories membership in the same way; and accuracy, or the extent to which the
classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically.

The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable

nature of conclusions reached by its inferential procedures. The question lies in what
level of implication is allowed, i.e. do the conclusions follow from the date or are they
explainable due to some other phenomenon? For occurrence-specific studies, for
example, can the second occurrence of a word carry equal weight as the ninety-ninth?
Reasonable conclusion can be drawn from substantive amounts of quantitative data,
but the question of proof may still remain unanswered.

The generalizability of one’s conclusions, then, is very dependent on how one

determines concepts categories, as well as on how reliable those categories are. It is
imperative that one defines categories that accurately measures the idea and/ or items
one is seeking to measure. Akin to this is construction of rules. Developing rules that
allow one, and other, to categorize and code the same data in the same way over a
period of time, referred to as stability, is essential to the success of a conceptual
analysis. Reproducibility, not only of specific categories, but of general methods applied
to establishing all sets of categories, makes a study, and is subsequent conclusion and
result, more sound.

f. Advantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis offers several advantages to researchers who consider using it.
In particular, content analysis:

a. Looks directly at communication via text or transcript, and hence gets at the
central aspect of social interaction.
b. Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
c. Can provides valuable historical/ cultural insights over time through analysis
of texts
d. Allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories
and relationships and also statistically analyze the coded form of the text
e. Can be used to interpret texts for purpose such as the development of expert
systems (since knowledge and rules can be both be coded in terms of explicit
statements about the relationships among concepts)
f. Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
g. Provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
h. When done well, is considered as a relatively “exact” research method (based
on hard facts, as oppose to Discourse analysis).

g. Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis suffers from several advantages, both theoretical and

procedural. In particular, content analysis:

a. Can be extremely time consuming

b. Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to
attain a higher value of interpretation
 c. Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts to liberally to draw meaningful
inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
d. Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
e. Tends too often to simply consist of word counts
f. Often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of
things after the text is produced
g. Can be difficult to autotune or computerize

2 Contextual Analysis

A contextual analysis is an analysis of text (in whatever medium, including

multi-media) that helps us to assess that text within the context of its historical and
cultural setting, and also in terms of textuality – or the qualities that characterize the text
as a text.

A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of

“cultural archeology,” or the systematic study of social, political, economic,
philosophical, religious, and the aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed to
have been) in place at the time and place when the text was created.

While this may sound complicated, it is in reality deceptively simple: it means

“situating” the text within the milieu of its times and assessing the roles of author,
readers (intended and actual), and “commentators” (critics, both professional and
otherwise) in the reception of the text. (Behrendt, 2008)

a. How to Use Contextual Analysis

A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how
complex one wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key
questions:

1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?

 Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or vocabulary) and the
rhetoric (how the words are arranged in order to achieve some purpose).
These are the primary components of style.

2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?

 What sort of readers does the author seem to have envisioned, as

demonstrated by the text’s language and rhetoric?
 What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its intended
reader(s)? how can we tell?
 What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text’s intended
audiences? How can we tell?
 Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audiences?
3. What seems to have been the author’s intention?

 Why did the author write this text? And why did the author write this text in this
particular way, as opposed to other ways in which the text might have been
written?
 Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decision by the author. The
author has chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with these particular words
and has therefore chosen not to use other words that she or he might have
used. So, we need to consider:
 What the author said (the words that have been selected);
 What the author did not say (the words not were not selected); and
 How the author said it (as opposed to other ways it might or could have
been said).

4. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:

 Some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?

 Some more “general” observation by the author about human affairs and/ or
experiences?
 Some definable set of cultural circumstances?

5. Is that the text intended as some sort of call to – or for – action?

 If so, by whom? And why?

 And also, if so, what action(s) does the author want the reader(s) to take?

6. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to – or for – reflection or

consideration rather than direct action?

 If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and to
conclude or decide?
 Why does the author wish the readers to do this?
 What is to be gained, and by whom?

7. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation and
reception of the text?

 Such circumstances include the historical and political events, economic

factors, cultural practices, and intellectual or aesthetic issues, as well as the
particular circumstances of the author’s own life. (Behrendt, 2008)

Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation

by Grace Fleming, edited by Stacy Jagodowski
January 2008

Historical context is an important part of life and literature and without it,
memories, stories and characters have less meaning.
 But what exactly is historical context? It’s essentially the details that surround an
occurrence. In more technical terms, historical context refers to the social, religious,
economic, and political condition that existed during a certain time and place.

Basically, it’s all the details of the time and place in which a situation occurs, and
those details are what enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or
even the future, rather than merely judge them by contemporary standards.

A strong understanding of the historical context behind a work’s creation can give
us a better understanding of and appreciation for the narrative. In analyzing historical
events, context can help us understand what motivates people to behave as they did.

Put another way, context is what gives meaning to the details. It’s important,
however, that you don’t confuse context with cause. “cause” is the action that creates
an outcome; “context” is the environment in which that action and outcome occur.
(Fleming, 2010)

…Whether dealing with fact or fiction, historical context is important when

interpreting behavior and speech. (Fleming, 2010)

…No work of literature can be fully appreciated or understood without historical

context. What may seem nonsensical or even offensive to contemporary sensibilities,
might actually be interpreted in a completely different manner by considering the era it is
from. (Fleming, 2010)

…Scholars and educators rely on historical context to analyze and interpret

works of art, literature, music, dance, and poetry. Architects and builders rely on it when
designing new structures and restoring existing buildings. Judges may use it to interpret
the law, historians to understand the past. Any time critical analysis is required, you may
need to consider historical context as well.

Without historical, we are only seeing a piece of the scene and not fully
understanding the influence of the time and place in which a situation occurred.
(Fleming, 201)

3. Subtext

The subtext of a document or object refers to its secondary and implied

meanings. The subtext embraces the emotional or intellectual messages embedded in,
or implied by the document or object.

The epic poems of the ancient Greeks, for instance, which glorify prowess and
physical courage in battle, suggest that such virtues are exclusively male. The state
portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte carry subtext of unassailable and absolute power. Andy
Warhol’s serial adaptation of soup cans and Coca-Cola bottles offer why commentary
on the supermarket mentality of postmodern American culture. Identifying the implicit
message of an artwork helps us to determine the values and customs of the age in
which it was produced and to assess those values against others.
 Chapter 4

Identification of the Historical Importance of the Text

“Let us study things that are no more. It is necessary to understand them, if

only to avoid them.” – Victor Hugo

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:
1. Analyze the context, content, and perspective of different kinds of primary
sources;
2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding
Philippine History
3. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure to primary sources.

Chapter Outline:
Historical significance
a. Criteria on assessing the historical significances of sources
b. Issues on assessing the Historical Significance

Historical Significance

What is historical significance? Historical significance is the processed used to

evaluate what was significant about selected events, people, and the development in
the past. Historians use different sets of criteria to help them make judgements about
significance.

Significance has been called the forgotten concept in history, no doubt because it
can be challenging for teacher and students. (Northern Ireland Council for Integrated
Education, n.d.)

“Teachers often tell students what is important instead of asking them to consider
what is significant. The key to understanding significance is to understand the distinction
between teaching significant history and asking students to make judgements about
significance.” (Bradshaw, 2004)

The past consists of everything that ever happened to everyone, everywhere, but
there is much too much history to remember or to learn. Consequently, at the core of
the study of history are questions about what events and people from the past are
important and why they are important. In other words, in considering historical
significance we ask: What and who should be remembered, research and taught?
Historians, authors and educators must select what and whom to study. Decide the
details to include in their descriptions and determine how important these events and
people are in relation to other aspects of the past.

So how do we make choices about what is worth remembering?

a. Criteria on Assessing the Historical Significance of Sources

There are number of criteria that historians’ use that can be applied to establish
the significance of events. These criteria are interrelated to each other.

Is it important/ relevant to people leaving

at the time?
Relevance Is it something still relevant to our present
lives even if it had only a passing
importance?

Who were/ have been affected by the

event? Why was it important to them?
How were people’s lives affected? Do
Resonance people like to make analogies with it?
Is it possible to connect with experience,
beliefs or attitudes across time and
place?

Was the event marked on by people at

Remarkable
the time or since?

Was the event/ development important at

Remembered some stage within the collective memory
of a group or groups?
Revealing Does it reveal some other aspects of the
 past?
Does it have consequences for the
Resulting in change
future?

For how long have people’s live have

Durability been affected? A day, a week, a year, or
all their lives?

How many people were affected? Did the

event affect many, everyone, or just a
Quantity
few? A whole barrio, a town, a province,
a country, or the entire race?

Was the event superficial or deeply

affecting? How deeply people’s lives
Profundity
were affected? How were people’s live
affected?

b. Issues on Assessing the Historical Significance

1. Our views about historical significance are often shaped by contemporary

contexts and can be dependent upon our own values, interest, and
knowledge.
2. History is written by the victor. Historical significance is how we define past
events that the current writer of history deems important/ relevant
3. Historical significance is relative and varies from location to location,
generation to generation or sometimes to ideological orientation or political
affiliation of the one doing the evaluation or assessment.