Functions overview

MODULE 2 Essential functions

Linear functions
Polynomials
Rational functions
Power functions
FUNCTIONS Algebraic functions
Exponentials and logarithmic functions
Trigonometric functions
Courtesy: Calculus 8th Edition by James Stewart (Cengage Learning 2015).
Hyperbolic functions and their inverses

The limit of a function

Continuity
Practice problems

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Function: Definition

Functions • A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D (Domain)

exactly one element, called f (x), in a set E (Range or co-domain).
A function is a process that accepts an input, processes the input and • All functions are single-valued.
produces an output. If the input number is labelled x and the function is
labelled f then the output can be labelled f (x) – the effect of f acting on x.

Arrow diagram to illustrate a function.

• Examples:
Here the action of the function f is described as ^2 – raising to the power 2. y  x2 rule is single-valued for all x and hence is a function.
f ( x)  x 2 y   x is not single-valued and hence is not a function.

• Representing the domain elements x.

e.g., {x | x  0}, {x | x  2)},{x | x  (,0)}

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 Representation of functions Identifying a graph of a function
There are four possible ways to represent a function:
• verbally (by a description in words) Simply apply the Vertical Line Test:
• numerically (by a table of values) A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical
line intersects the curve more than once.
• visually (by a graph)
• algebraically (by an explicit formula)

Graphical representations of functions.

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Piecewise defined functions Symmetry of a function

The functions in the following two examples are defined by different formulas in • Even function: If a function f satisfies f (− x) = f (x) for every number x in its
different parts of their domains. Such functions are called piecewise defined domain, then f is called an even function. For instance, the function f (x)=x2 is
functions. even because .
a. A function f is defined by

• Odd function: If a function f satisfies f (− x) = − f (x) for every number x in its

domain, then f is called an odd function. For instance, the function f (x)=x3 is
b. A function f is defined by even because .

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 Inverse functions Inverse functions
• Definition: • Example
Let f be a one-to-one and onto function with domain
A and range B. Then its inverse function f 1 has
domain B and range A and is defined by
x y
for x in A and y in B.

• Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal

line intersects its graph more than once. y x

• Note that the co-domain of the function becomes the domain of the inverse function.
Therefore, we can reverse the roles of x and y when considering the inverse function
and we get the following two cancellation equations.

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Inverse functions
Graphs of inverses
• Example: Find the inverse function of f(x)=x3.
Solution: The principle of interchanging x and y to find the inverse function also gives
We know that and hence f1(x3 )=x. Then f1(x)= x1/3. us the method for obtaining the graph of f 1from the graph of f. Since f (a)= b
if and only if f 1(b)= a, the point (a, b) is on the graph of f if and only if the
• Example: Find the inverse function of f(x)= x3 + 2. point (b, a) is on the graph of f 1. We can get the point (b, a) from (a, b) by
Solution: reflecting about the line y = x.

We can write f(x)=y and,

Left: Reflection of the point (a,b) about the line y = x.

Right: Reflection of the graph of f about the line y = x, which is the graph of f 1.
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 Mathematical Models

A mathematical model is a mathematical description (often by means of a function or

an equation) of a real-world phenomenon such as the size of a population, the demand
for a product, the speed of a falling object, the concentration of a product in a chemical
reaction, the life expectancy of a person at birth, or the cost of emission reductions.

Mathematical Models: Essential Functions The purpose of the model is to understand the phenomenon and perhaps to make
predictions about future behavior.

Modeling process.

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Mathematical Models Linear Models

A mathematical model is never a completely accurate representation of a physical When we say that y is a linear function of x, we mean that the graph of the function is
situation—it is an idealization. A good model simplifies reality enough to permit a line, so we can use the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line to write a
mathematical calculations but is accurate enough to provide valuable conclusions. formula for the function as

It is important to realize the limitations of the model. In the end, Mother Nature has the y = f (x) = mx + b
final say.
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
There are many different types of functions that can be used to model relationships
observed in the real world. In what follows, we discuss the behavior and graphs of these
functions and give examples of situations appropriately modeled by such functions.

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 Linear models: Example

Linear Models (a) As dry air moves upward, it expands and cools. If the ground temperature is 20C
A characteristic feature of linear functions is that they grow at a constant rate. and the temperature at a height of 1 km is 10C, express the temperature T (in °C) as a
function of the height h (in kilometers), assuming that a linear model is appropriate.
For instance, following figure shows a graph of the linear function f (x) = 3x – 2 and a
(b) Draw the graph of the function in part (a). What does the slope represent?
table of sample values. Note that the slope is 3 and the intercept is –2.
(c) What is the temperature at a height of 2.5 km?
Solution:
(a)
Because we are assuming that T is a linear function of h, we can write T = mh + b.

We are given that T = 20 when h = 0, so 20 = m • 0 + b = b.

In other words, the y-intercept is b = 20.

We are also given that T = 10 when h = 1, so 10 = m • 1 + 20.

The slope of the line is therefore m = 10 – 20 = –10 and the required linear function is
T = –10h + 20.
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Linear models: Example Linear Models

If there is no physical law or principle to help us formulate a model, we construct an
Solution:
empirical model, which is based entirely on collected data.
(b)

The graph is sketched as shown. The slope is –10C/km, Then, we seek a line that “best-fit” the data points. This can be accurately achieved by
and this represents the rate of change of temperature with using linear regression method for the model y = mx + b.
respect to height.
Example:

(c)
At a height of h = 2.5 km, the temperature T = –10(2.5) + 20 = –5C.

Best-fit straight (red) line is drawn for the data in

the table using the linear regression method.
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 Types of polynomials
Polynomials
• General polynomial formula • Constant polynomial functions
n 1 – f(x) = a
P( x)  an x  an 1 x
n
 ...  a1 x  a0
• Linear polynomial functions
– a0, a1, … ,an are constant coefficients – f(x) = m x + b
– n is the degree of the polynomial • Quadratic polynomial functions
– Standard form is for descending powers of x – f(x) = a x2 + b x + c
– anxn is said to be the “leading term”
• Cubic polynomial functions
• Note that each term is a power function
– f(x) = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d
– Degree 3 polynomial
• Quartic polynomial functions
– f(x) = a x4 + b x3 + c x2+ d x + e
– Degree 4 polynomial

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Properties of polynomials functions

Properties of polynomials functions

• If the degree is n then it will have at most • Even degree

n – 1 turning points • – Leading coefficient positive
•
•
• End behavior – Leading coefficient negative
– Even degree
or • Odd degree
– Leading coefficient positive

– Odd degree
or
– Leading coefficient negative

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 Parts of polynomial graph Polynomial graphs
Turning point of a graph: a point at which the graph changes direction from
increasing to decreasing or decreasing to increasing. A polynomial of degree n
will have, at most, n x-intercepts and n − 1 turning points.
y-intercept: the point at which the function has an input value of zero.
x-intercepts: the points at which the output value is zero.

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Rational functions: Definition Rational functions: The long-run behaviour

• A rational function is a function R(x) which is the quotient of two an x n  an 1 x n1  ...  a1 x  a0
• Given R ( x) 
polynomials P(x), Q(x). The domain consists of all values of x such that bm x m  bm1 x m1  ...  b1 x  b0
Q(x)  0.

P ( x) • The long run (end) behavior is determined by the quotient of the leading
R( x)  terms
Q( x)
an x n
bm x m
x2  2 x  5
• Example: R ( x)  in the domain {x | x  +2}
x2 – Leading term dominates for large values of x for polynomial
– Leading terms dominate for the quotient for extreme x

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 Rational functions: Example 1
Rational functions: Example 2
3x 2  8 x 5x
• Given R ( x )  2 • Consider R ( x) 
5x  2 x  1 2x2  6
• Graph • Which terms dominate as x gets large?
– for -50 < x < 50, -1 < y < 4

5x
• What happens to as x gets large?
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Rational functions : Example 3

Rational functions: Asymptotes
2 x2  6
• Try R( x) 
5x Given a rational function with an x n
leading terms bm x m
• As x gets large, R(x) also gets large.
• When m = n
a
2 – Horizontal asymptote at b
• It is asymptotic to the line y  x
5 • When m > n
– Horizontal asymptote at 0
• When n – m = 1
a
– Diagonal asymptote y  x
b

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 Rational functions: Asymptotes Rational functions: Asymptotes

• A vertical asymptote happens when the function R(x) is not defined • Finding the roots of x2  9
R ( x) 
– This happens when the denominator is zero the denominator x  5x  6
2

P( x)
• Thus, we look for the roots of the denominator  R( x)
Q( x )
x2  5x  6  0
• Where does this happen for R(x)?
( x  6)( x  1)  0
x2  9 x  6 or x  1
R( x) 
x  5x  6
2

• View the graph to verify.

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Power functions

Power functions: Definition

A function of the form f (x) = xa, where a is a constant, is called a power function.
Consider the following cases.

(i) a = n, where n is a positive integer

The graphs of f (x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are shown in the next slide. (These
are polynomials with only one term.)

We already know the shape of the graphs of y = x (a line through the origin with
slope 1) and y = x2 (a parabola).

Graphs of f(x) = xn for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

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 Power functions: Examples Power functions

Function Power Is it a Power The general shape of the graph of f (x) = xn depends on whether n is even or
odd.
Function? Yes/No
0 Yes
If n is even, then f (x) = xn is an even function and its graph looks similar to the
1 Yes parabola y = x2.
2 Yes
If n is odd, then f (x) = xn is an odd function and its graph looks similar to that
3 No of y = x3.
-1 Yes

Yes

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Power functions Power functions

As n increases, the graph of y = xn becomes flatter near 0 and steeper when | x |  1.
(If x is small, then x2 is smaller, x3 is even smaller, x4 is smaller still, and so on.) (ii) a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer

The function is a root function. For n = 2 it is the square

root function

whose domain is [0, ) and whose graph is the upper half of the parabola x = y2.

Graph of root function

Families of power functions

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 Power functions Power functions

For other even values of n, the graph of is similar to that of (iii) a = –1

The graph of the reciprocal function f (x) = x –1 = 1/x is shown below. Its graph has the
For n = 3 we have the cube root function whose domain is (recall equation y = 1/x and is a hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its asymptotes.
that every real number has a cube root) and whose graph is shown below. The graph of
for n odd (n > 3) is similar to that of

Graph of root function The reciprocal function

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Algebraic functions Algebraic functions

A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed using algebraic
operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots) The graphs of algebraic functions can assume a variety of shapes as shown below.
starting with polynomials. Any rational function is automatically an algebraic function.

Here are two more examples:

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 Exponential functions Exponential functions

• 2x
The function f (x) = is called an exponential function because the variable, x, is • If x = 0, then b0 = 1, and if x = –n, where n is a positive integer, then
the exponent. It should not be confused with the power function g (x) = x2, in which
the variable is the base.

• In general, an exponential function is a function of the form f (x) = bx where b is a

positive constant. Let’s recall what this means. • If x is a rational number, x = p /q, where p and q are integers and q > 0, then

• If x = n, a positive integer, then

• what is the meaning of bx if x is an irrational number? For instance, what is meant

by or 5 ?

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Exponential functions Exponential functions

• Since the irrational number satisfies • It can be shown that there is exactly one number that is greater than all the numbers

21.7, 21.73, 21.732, 21.7320, 21.73205, …

• we must have
• and less than all the numbers

• Similarly, if we use better approximations for we obtain better approximations for 21.8, 21.74, 21.733, 21.7321, 21.73206, …

• We define to be this number. Using the preceding approximation process we

can compute it correct to six decimal places:

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 Exponential functions
Exponential functions
• Notice that all of these graphs pass through the same point (0, 1) because b0 = 1 for
• The graphs of members of the family of functions y = bx are shown in the following b  0.
figure for various values of the base b. • Notice also that as the base b gets larger, the exponential function grows more rapidly
for x > 0.
• You can see (see figure below) that there are basically three kinds of exponential
functions y = bx.
• If 0 < b < 1, the exponential function decreases; if b = 1, it is a constant; and if b > 1, it
increases.

(a) y = bx, 0 < b < 1 (b) y = 1x (c) y = bx, b > 1

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Exponential functions Exponential functions

Example
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 – 2x and determine its domain and range.
Solution:
First, we reflect the graph of y = 2x about the x-axis to get the graph of y = –2x (see the
figures below).

y = 2x, x real y = 2x y = –2x

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 Exponential functions Exponential functions: Examples

• Human population growth

Solution cont’d • Bacterial growth
Then we shift the graph of y = –2x upward 3 units to obtain the graph of y = 3 – 2x as • Virus spread
shown below.
• Nuclear chain reactions and nuclear decay
• Capacitor charging and discharging
• Moor’s law

y = 3 – 2x

The domain is and the range is ( , 3). Exponential model for population growth

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Exponential functions: The number “e” Exponential functions: Natural exponential function

• The tangent lines to the graphs of y = 2x and y = 3x at the point (0, 1) are shown • The natural exponential function is expressed by the equation: y  e x or y  exp( x).
below. If we measure the slopes of these tangent lines at (0, 1), we find that m  0.7
for y = 2x and m  1.1 for y = 3x. The value of ex can be found to any level of precision desired from the series
expansion:
x 2 x3 x 4
e x 1 x    
2! 3! 4!

• The graphs of ex and e–x are:

• What is the exponential function that gives

slope =1 at the point (0, 1)?
It is the function y = ex with e being e  2.71828.
Also, ex is called the natural exponential function.
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 Logarithmic functions Logarithmic functions

If b > 0 and b ≠ 1, the exponential function f (x) = bx is either increasing or decreasing Thus, if x > 0, then logb x is the exponent to which the base b must be raised to give x.
and so it is one-to-one by the Horizontal Line Test. It therefore has an inverse
function f –1, which is called the logarithmic function with base b and is denoted by For example, log10 0.001 = –3 because 10–3 = 0.001.
logb.
The cancellation equations, when applied to the functions f (x) = bx and f –1(x) = logb x,
become
If we use the formulation of an inverse function given by,

y = f (x) x= f –1(y)

we get
y = bx x=log 𝑦

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Logarithmic functions Logarithmic functions

The logarithmic function logb has domain (0, ) and range . Its graph is the Following figure shows the graphs of y = logb x with various values of the base b > 1.
reflection of the graph of y = bx about the line y = x.
Since logb 1 = 0, the graphs of all logarithmic functions pass through the point (1, 0).
The following figure shows the case where b > 1. (The most important logarithmic
functions have base b > 1.)

The fact that y = bx is a very rapidly increasing

Function for x > 0 is reflected in the fact that
y = logb x is a very slowly increasing function
for x > 1.

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 Logarithmic functions Logarithmic functions

The following properties of logarithmic functions follow from the corresponding Example
properties of exponential functions. Use the laws of logarithms to evaluate log2 80 – log2 5.

Solution:
Using Law 2, we have

log2 80 – log2 5 = log2

= log2 16

=4

because 24 = 16.

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Logarithmic functions: Natural logarithms

Logarithmic functions: Natural logarithms
Of all possible bases b for logarithms, we will see that the most convenient choice of a
base is the number e. Example
Find x if ln(x) = 5.
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and has a special notation:
Solution 1:
ln(x) = 5 means e 5 = x.
Then, the following relations hold. Therefore x = e 5.

(If you have trouble working with the “ln” notation, just replace it by loge. Then the
equation becomes loge x = 5; so, by the definition of logarithm, e5 = x.)

In particular, if we set x = 1, we get

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 Logarithmic functions: Graph and growth of natural logarithm

Logarithmic functions: Natural logarithms The graphs of the exponential function y = ex and its inverse function, the natural
logarithm function, are shown in the following figure.
The following formula shows that logarithms with any base can be expressed in terms
of the natural logarithm. Because the curve y = e x crosses the y-axis with a slope of 1, it follows that the
reflected curve y = ln x crosses the x-axis with a slope of 1.

In common with all other logarithmic functions with base greater than 1, the natural
logarithm is an increasing function defined on (0, ) and the y-axis is a vertical
asymptote

Example
Evaluate log8 5 correct to six decimal places.

Solution:
Formula 10 gives

log8 5 =
The graph of y = ln x is the reflection
of the graph of y = ex about the line y = x.
 0.773976
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Logarithmic functions: Graph and growth of natural logarithm Trigonometric functions

Sketch the graph of the function y = ln(x – 2) – 1. There are three main trigonometric functions names sine, cosine, and tangent.

Solution: These functions take and angle given either in radians or degrees, and in calculus
We start with the graph of y = ln x as given in the following figure. the convention is that radian measure is always used represent angles.
For example, when we use the function f(x) = sin (x), it is understood that sin(x)
We shift it 2 units to the right to get the graph of y = ln(x – 2) and then we shift it 1 means the sine of the angle whose radian measure is x.
unit downward to get the graph of y = ln(x – 2) – 1. (See Figure 14.)
Thus, the graphs of the sine and cosine functions are as shown below.

Notice that for both the sine and cosine functions the domain is ( , ) and
the range is the closed interval [–1, 1]. Thus, for all values of x, we have
–1  sin x  1 –1  cos x  1
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 Trigonometric functions Trigonometric functions

Also, the zeros of the sine function occur at the integer multiples of  ; that is, The tangent function is related to the sine and cosine functions by the equation
sin x = 0 when x = n where n is an integer. sin 
tan 
An important property of the sine and cosine functions is that they are periodic functions cos 
and have period 2.
and its graph is shown in the figure. It is undefined
This means that, for all values of x, whenever cos x = 0, that is, when x =  /2, 3 /2, . . . .

Its range is ( , ).

Note:
Note that the tangent function has period  :
- Any function whose output repeats itself over a regular interval is called a periodic
function, the regular interval being called the period of the function. tan(x + ) = tan x for all x. y = tan x

- Every periodic function possesses an amplitude that is given as the difference between
the maximum value and the average value of the output taken over a period. The remaining three trigonometric functions (cosecant, secant, and cotangent) are
the reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.
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Hyperbolic functions: Introduction

Trigonometric functions
Given that:
cos  j sin  e j and cos  j sin  e j
Rotation then:
j  j
By continuing to rotate the radius of cos  e  e
and so, if   jx 2
a unit circle the trigonometric ratios
 jjx
cos jx  e  e  e  e
jjx x x
can extended into the trigonometric
functions, valid for any angle. 2 2
This is the even part of the exponential function and is defined to be the
hyperbolic cosine:
cosh x  e  e
Phase difference x x
2
The phase difference of a periodic
function is the interval of the input The odd part of the exponential function and is defined to be the hyperbolic sine:
by which the output leads or lags
sinh x  e  e
x x
behind the reference function.
2
y  sin( x   / 4) leads y  sin x by  / 4 radians The ratio of the hyperbolic sine to the hyperbolic cosine is the hyperbolic tangent
sinh x e x  e x
tanh x  
cosh x ex  e x
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 Hyperbolic functions: Introduction Hyperbolic functions: Summary of equations

The power series expansions of the exponential function are:

2 3 4 2 3 4
e x 1 x  x  x  x  ... and e x  1 x  x  x  x  ...
2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!

2 4 6 3 5 7
and so: cosh x  1 x  x  x  ... and sinh x  x  x  x  x  ...
2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7!

The graphs of the hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, and hyperbolic

tangent are shown below.

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Evaluation of hyperbolic functions Inverse hyperbolic functions

The values of the hyperbolic sine, cosine and tangent can be found using a
calculator.
To find the value of sinh-11.475 it is required to find the value of x such
If your calculator does not possess these facilities, then their values can be that sinh x = 1.475. That is:
found using the exponential key instead. 1
ex   2.950 so that e2 x  2.950e x 1  0
Hence:
ex
For example:

e x  3.257 or  0.307 so x 1.1808

1.275  e1.275 3.579 0.279
sinh1.275  e   1.65
2 2

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 Relationship between trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
Log form of the inverse hyperbolic functions

If y = sinh-1x then x = sinh y. That is: Since: j  j j  j

cos  e  e and j sin  e  e
2 2
y
e  e  2 x so that e  2xe 1  0
y 2y y

therefore: it is clear that for   jx

e y  x  x 2 1 cos jx  cosh x
So that
j sin x  sinh jx
 
y  sinh-1 x  ln x  x 2 1 for x .
Similarly:
Similarly: cosh jx  cos x
y  cosh-1 x  ln x 2

x 1 for x  1.
And further:
sin jx  j sinh x

and
tanh jx  j tan x
1 1 x 
y  tanh -1 x  ln   for 1  x 1.
2 1 x  tan jx  j tanh x

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The limit of a function: Definition The limit of a function

The following figure shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in part (c), f (a) is
In general, we use the following definition to represent the limit of a function. not defined and in part (b), f (a)  L.

However, in each case, regardless of what happens at a, it is true that limxa f (x) = L.

This says that the values of f (x) approach L as x approaches a. In other words, the in all three cases
values of f (x) tend to get closer and closer to the number L as x gets closer and closer
to the number a (from either side of a) but x  a.

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 The limit of a function The limit of a function
Example
The function H is defined by
Guess the value of
Solution:
H (t) approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the left and H (t) approaches 1 as t
Notice that the function f (x) = (x – 1)(x2 – 1) is not defined when x = 1, but that approaches 0 from the right.
doesn’t matter because the definition of limxa f (x) says that we consider values of x
that are close to a but not equal to a. We indicate this situation symbolically by writing
The tables below give values of f (x) for values of x that approach 1.
and

The notation t  0– indicates that we consider only values of t that are less than 0.
Likewise, t  0+ indicates that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.

Based on the values in the tables, we make the guess that

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The limit of a function: One-sided limits The limit of a function: One-sided limits

Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we get “the right-hand limit of f (x) as
x approaches a is equal to L” and we write

Thus, the notation x  a+ means that we consider only x greater than a. These
definitions are illustrated in the following figure..

Notice that Definition 2 differs from Definition 1 only in that we require x to be less
than a.

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 The limit of a function The limit of a function: Exercise
The graph of a function g is shown in the following figure. Use it to state the values (if
By comparing Definition 1 with the definitions of one-sided limits, we see that the they exist) of the following:
following is true.

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The limit of a function: Infinite limits

The limit of a function: Infinite limits

Again, the symbol  is not a number, but the expression limxa f (x) =  is often read
as “the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is infinity”.
Graphical representation:

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 The limit of a function: Example
The limit of a function: Example cont’d

Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x. This shows that the line x =  /2 is a vertical asymptote. Similar reasoning shows that
the lines x =  /2 + n, where n is an integer, are all vertical asymptotes of f (x) = tan x.
Solution:
Because

there are potential vertical asymptotes where cos x = 0.

In fact, since cos x  0+ as x  ( /2)– and cos x  0– as x  ( /2)+, whereas sin x is

positive (near 1) when x is near  /2, we have

y = tan x

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Continuity of a function Continuity of a function

The limit of a function as x approaches a can often be found simply by calculating the Notice that Definition 1 implicitly requires three things if f is continuous at a:
value of the function at a. Functions with this property are called continuous at a.
1. f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )
We will see that the mathematical definition of continuity corresponds closely with the
meaning of the word continuity in everyday language. (A continuous process is one that
2. exists
takes place gradually, without interruption or abrupt change.)

3.

The definition says that f is continuous at a if f (x) approaches f (a) as x approaches a.

Thus, a continuous function f has the property that a small change in x produces only a
small change in f (x).

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 Continuity of a function Continuity of a function: Example 1

In fact, the change in f (x) can be kept as small as we please by keeping the change in x Following is a graph of a function f. At which numbers is f discontinuous? Why?
sufficiently small.

If f is defined near a (in other words, f is defined on an open interval containing a,

except perhaps at a), we say that f is discontinuous at a (or f has a discontinuity at a)
if f is not continuous at a.

Physical phenomena are usually continuous. For instance, the displacement or velocity
of a vehicle varies continuously with time, as does a person’s height. But
discontinuities do occur in such situations as electric currents.
Solution:
Geometrically, you can think of a function that is continuous at every number in an It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a = 1 because the graph has a break there.
interval as a function whose graph has no break in it: the graph can be drawn without The official reason that f is discontinuous at 1 is that f (1) is not defined.
removing your pen from the paper.

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Continuity of a function: Example 1 cont’d Continuity of a function: Example 2

The graph also has a break when a = 3, but the reason for the discontinuity is different. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?
Here, f (3) is defined, but limx3 f (x) does not exist (because the left and right limits
are different). So, f is discontinuous at 3.

What about a = 5? Here, f (5) is defined and limx5 f (x) exists (because the left and
right limits are the same).

But

So, f is discontinuous at 5.
• Solution:
(a) Notice that f (2) is not defined, so f is discontinuous at 2.
Later we’ll see why f is continuous at all other numbers.

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 Continuity of a function: Example 2 cont’d cont’d Continuity of a function: Example 2 cont’d

(b) Here f (0) = 1 is defined but does not exist. So, f is

discontinuous at 0. The kind of discontinuity illustrated in
parts (a) and (c) is called removable
because we could remove the discontinuity
by redefining f at just the single number 2.
(c) Here f (2) = 1 is defined and

= 3 exists.

However, . So, f is not continuous at 2. The discontinuity in part (b) is called an

infinite discontinuity. The discontinuities
in part (d) are called jump discontinuities
(d) The greatest integer function f (x) = has discontinuities at all of the integer because the function “jumps” from one
value to another.
because does not exist if n is an integer.

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Continuity of a function
Continuity of a function Instead of always using Definitions 1, 2, and 3 to verify the continuity of a function, it
is often convenient to use the next theorem, which shows how to build up complicated
continuous functions from simple ones.

It follows from Theorem 4 and Definition 3 that if f and g are continuous on an interval,
then so are the functions f + g, f – g, cf, fg, and (if g is never 0) f/g. The following
theorem was stated as the Direct Substitution Property.

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 Continuity of a function Continuity of a function
As an illustration of Theorem 5, observe that the volume of a sphere varies continuously
with its radius because the formula V (r) =  r 3 shows that V is a polynomial function
of r.
Likewise, if a ball is thrown vertically into the air with a velocity of 50 ft/s, then the
height of the ball in feet t seconds later is given by the formula h = 50t – 16t2.
Again, this is a polynomial function, so the height is a continuous function of the
elapsed time.
Another way of combining continuous functions f and g to get a new continuous function
It turns out that most of the familiar functions are continuous at every number in their
is to form the composite function f  g. This fact is a consequence of the following
domains. From the appearance of the graphs of the sine and cosine functions, we would theorem.
certainly guess that they are continuous.

We know from the definitions of

sin  and cos  that the coordinates
of the point P in the figure are
(cos , sin  ). As   0, we see
that P approaches the point (1, 0)
and cos   1 and sin   0.
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Continuity of a function Continuity of a function

Intuitively, Theorem 8 is reasonable because if x is close to a, then g(x) is close to b, The Intermediate Value Theorem states that a continuous function takes on every
and since f is continuous at b, if g(x) is close to b, then f (g(x)) is close to f (b). intermediate value between the function values f (a) and f (b). It is illustrated by the
following figure.

Note that the value N can be taken on once or more than once.
An important property of continuous functions is expressed by the following theorem,
whose proof is found in more advanced books on calculus.

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 Continuity of a function
Practice problems (from the textbook)
It is important that the function f in Theorem 10 be continuous. The Intermediate Value  Questions from 1.1 Exercises: 1,2,3,9,11,22,31,46,73,79.
Theorem is not true in general for discontinuous functions.
 Questions from 1.2 Exercises: 2,3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, 21, 23, 26.
 Questions from 1.5 Exercises: 1,3,4,11, 14, 28, 29, 32, 40, 45, 48.
We can use a graphing calculator or computer to illustrate the use of the Intermediate
Value Theorem.  Questions from 1.8 Exercises: 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 16, 17, 25, 33, 59, 62.
 Questions from 6.1 Exercises: 2, 3, 7, 10, 15, 17, 20, 21, 23, 25, 29, 35.
Following figure shows the graph of f in the  Questions from 6.2 Exercises: 1, 2, 4, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 64.
viewing rectangle [–1, 3] by [–3, 3] and  Questions from 6.3 Exercises: 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 13, 19, 20, 25, 42.
you can see that the graph crosses the  Questions from 6.7 Exercises: 1, 5, 7, 9, 19, 20, 21, 23, 49, 50.
x-axis between 1 and 2.

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