Electricity and

Magnetism
(PHYS2)
L1-S2 - IAESB

February 2, 2024
Contents

1 Electrostatics 5
1.1 Electric charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Properties of electric charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Material classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Coulomb’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 Vector formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.5 Note: Comparison of electric force with other forces of nature . . . . 14
1.1.6 The principle of superposition of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2 Electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1 The electric field created by a distribution of discrete charges . . . . . 16
1.2.2 The electric field created by a distribution of continuous charges . . . 25
1.2.3 The principle of superposition of the field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3 Electric field created by a discrete distribution of charges . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.1 Application 1: The electric dipole (Case of 2 charges (-q) and (+q)) . . 27
1.3.2 Application 2: Case of 2 charges (+q) and (+q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

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1.4 Electric field created by a continuous distribution of charges . . . . . . . . . . 33

1.4.1 Application 3: Charged circular ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.2 Application 4: Charged circular disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4.3 Application 5: Continuous linear distribution of charges . . . . . . . . 39
1.4.4 Application 6: Electric field created by a uniformly charged sphere
on the surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.5 Application 7: Charged line segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.4.6 Application 8: Charged ring portion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5 Electrostatic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.5.1 Work of an electric force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.5.2 Conservative forces. Potential energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.5.3 The electric potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.5.4 The electric potential of several charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.5.5 Examples of electric potential calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.5.6 Potential energy of a system of charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.6 Field lines and equipotential regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.1 Field lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.2 Equipotential surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.3 Link between ⃗E(⃗r ) and V (⃗r ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.6.4 Examples of equipotential surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.7 Gauss’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.7.1 The flow of an electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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1.7.2 Solid angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

1.7.3 Gaussian law for a point charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.7.4 Case of several point charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.7.5 Case of a continuous charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.7.6 Electric flow of a charge outside a closed surface . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.7.7 Application 1: Case of an infinite charged line (Cylindrical symmetry) 78
1.7.8 Application 2: Case of an infinite charged plane (Plane symmetry) . . 79
1.7.9 Application 3: Case of a sphere charged on the surface (Spherical
symmetry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

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1 Electrostatics
We observe electric and magnetic phenomena everywhere in nature and in everyday life:
electrical appliances, electric heating, communications, computers, lightning, chemical
reactions, nervous system, brain, ...
We will distinguish in the rest of this course:
- electrostatics which is the study of electrical effects created by charges at rest,
- electrokinetics which is interested in the movements of these charges,
- electromagnetism which is the study of electrical and magnetic phenomena (magnetic
phenomena generally involve moving electric charges).

1.1 Electric charge

Electric charge is a property of matter which causes it to produce and undergo electrical
and magnetic effects.
Electromagnetic forces between charged particles are among the fundamental forces of
nature known and studied since antiquity.

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There are two types of electric charges in nature:

- positive charges,
- negative charges.
Experience shows that:
- two charges of the same sign repel each other,
- two charges of opposite signs attract each other.
In the international system, the unit of measurement of electric charge is the Coulomb
(denoted C). But we also use its submultiples: mC (milliCoulomb), µC (microCoulomb),
nC (nanoCoulomb), pC picoCoulomb).
Objects can be electrically charged, for example by friction:

1. Positive charges are produced, for example, on the surface of glass by friction with
a silk cloth.

2. Negative charges are produced for example on the surface of ebonite by friction with
fur.

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1.1.1 Properties of electric charge

A. Quantification of charge
Electric charge only exists in discrete quantities: it is quantified.
The elementary charge is the electric charge of a proton or, equivalently, the opposite of
the electric charge of an electron. It is denoted e.
The electric charge of a neutron is zero.
An atom is neutral, the number of its electrons is equal to that of protons in the nucleus
of the atom.
An ion can carry a positive or negative charge by adding or by removing electrons from
it.
The value of the elementary electric charge is equal to e = 1.6021764916123... · 10−19 C.
This is the electric charge of a proton (or the opposite charge of an electron).
Any electric charge Q is expressed as an integer multiple of e, it is say, Q = N e where
N is an integer (positive or negative).

B. Conservation of charge
The electrical charge is always conserved in an isolated system.
For example, the total electric charge is the same before the beginning and after the end
in a chemical (or nuclear) reaction.

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1.1.2 Material classification

In nature, we distinguish several types of materials which are classified according to their
electrical properties:

A. Conductors
The charge is free to flow in the material: metals.
A conductor is a material containing a certain concentration of free electrons capable of
moving easily under the effect of an electric field (to create a current, for example). Metals
(copper, iron, aluminum, etc.) and ionic solutions (acidic or basic) are conductive media.
An ionized gas can also be considered a conductive medium.

B. Insulators
The charge is localized.
In an insulator, there are very few free electrons. They are strongly bound to given
molecular sites (unlike a good conductor) and they must be given a lot of energy to
release them and generate an electric current. Rubber, plastics, glass, silk and wood are
insulators.

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C. Semiconductors
A semiconductor behaves like an insulator when it is very pure, but its conductive power
can be modified by doping it, that is, by adding impurities in well-determined propor-
tions. Germanium, carbon and silicon are semiconductors. These materials form the basis
of electronics (diodes, transistors, microprocessors, etc.).

D. Superconductors
Superconducting materials are characterized by the absence of electrical resistance, which
manifests itself at very low temperatures, close to absolute zero: R ∼ 0, when T = 0o K.
Superconductivity makes it possible to transport electricity without loss of energy.

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1.1.3 Coulomb’s law

Experimentally, one can distinguish two types of electric charges: positive charges and
negative charges. Two electric charges of the same sign repel each other and two charges
of opposite signs attract each other.
This electric force (attraction or repulsion) is called Coulomb force.
Thus, the electric force between two charges q1 and q2 is given by:

⃗F = k q1 q2 u⃗r
d2
Its modulus is proportional to the absolute value of the product of the two electric charges,
and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance d which separate them.
The direction is that of the right which connects the two charges.
The direction of this force depends on the sign of the charges.

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We can compare this force with Newton’s gravitational force between two masses m1
and m2 , which is always an attractive force:

⃗g = − G m1 m2 u⃗r
F
r2
where G is Newton’s universal constant.

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1.1.4 Vector formulation

If we introduce an orthonormal reference frame in space. We can identify the two charges
q1 and q2 by two vectors ⃗
r1 and ⃗
r2 .

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The electric force acting on q2 created by the charge q1 is given by:

k q1 q2 k q1 q2 (⃗r2 − ⃗r1 ) kq q
F⃗2/1 = (⃗r2 − ⃗r1 ) = · = 12 2 · u⃗r
||⃗r2 − ⃗r1 ||3 ||⃗r2 − ⃗r1 ||2 ||⃗r2 − ⃗r1 || d

Similarly, the opposing electric force acting on q1 created by the charge q2 is given by:

k q1 q2
F⃗1/2 = − F⃗2/1 = (⃗r − ⃗r2 )
||⃗r1 − ⃗r2 ||3 1
k is Coulomb’s universal constant:

k = 8.98755179 · 109 N · m2 /C2 ≃ 9 · 109 SI

we can also use ϵ0 defined by:

1
k=
4 π ϵ0
ϵ0 is called the permittivity of space (vacuum or otherwise), its value for vacuum is:

ϵ0 = 8.85418782 · 10−12 SI

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1.1.5 Note: Comparison of electric force with other forces of nature

• Consider a hydrogen atom consisting of a proton and an electron. Knowing that the
approximate radius of this atom is r = 5.3 · 10−11 m = 0.53Å (Angstrom), that the
mass of the electron is me = 9.1 · 10−31 kg and that of the proton is m p = 1.7 · 10−27 kg,
we can estimate the electric force between the proton and the electron as:

ke2
Fe = = 8.1 · 10−8 N
r2
and the gravitational force to:
Gme m p
Fe = = 3.7 · 10−47 N
r2
hence:
Fe ke2
= ∼ 1039
Fg Gme m p

• Let us also note that the ratio between the electric force and the nuclear force (short
range force, d ∼ 10−15 m) between two protons in a nucleus is approximately:
FN
∼ 1040
Fe
It is the nuclear force that holds the nucleus of the atom together (between protons
and neutrons). At greater distances, it is the electrical force that dominates.

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1.1.6 The principle of superposition of forces

When an electric charge Q is surrounded by several electric charges q1 , q2 , · · · , qn , the
electric force acting on Q will be the resultant of the electric forces created by each charge.
The principle of superposition of forces applies and we will have:
n
F⃗Q = ∑ FQ/i
⃗
i =1

with:
⃗ = k Q qi
FQ/i (⃗R − ⃗ri )
⃗
|| R − ⃗ri ||3

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1.2 Electric field

To describe the Coulomb force F⃗Q acting on a test charge Q, we can also use the electric
field ⃗E(⃗R) created by the point charge q at the point defined by the vector ⃗R where this
force acts:
⃗E(⃗R) = kq
(⃗R −⃗r )
⃗
|| R −⃗r ||3
We then write:
F⃗Q = Q · ⃗E(⃗R)

1.2.1 The electric field created by a distribution of discrete charges

If we have several discrete charges in space, we use the principle of superposition by
making a vector sum:
n
⃗E(⃗R) = ∑ k qi
(⃗R − ⃗ri )
⃗
i =1 || R − ⃗ri ||3

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Example
We place 3 electric charges (q, q, −2 q) on 3 vertices of a square as shown in the figure.
The length of one side of the square is a.

• Calculate the electric field created by these three charges at the fourth vertex of the
square (which is taken as the origin O of the coordinate system).

• We place a charge Q at the point O, calculate the Coulomb force acting on it.
Make the numerical application with:
k = 8.98 · 109 N · m2 /C2 , q = 1 nC (nanoCoulomb) , a = 1 m , Q = 1 µC(microCoulomb)

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> restart:
> with(VectorCalculus):
> assume(a>0):
>
Données: valeurs des charges et leurs positions le repère Oxyz
> q1:=+q;
r1 := <0,a,0>;
q1 := q
r1 := a~ e
y
> q2:=+q;
r2 := <a,a,0>;
q2 := q
r2 := a~ e + a~ e
x y
> q3:=-2*q;
r3 := <a,0,0>;
q3 := −2 q
r3 := a~ e
x
> R:=<0,0,0>;
R := 0 e
x
Champs électriques créés par chaque charge à l'origine de repère O
> E1:=simplify(k*q1*(R-r1)/ DotProduct(R-r1,R-r1)^(3/2));
kq
E1 := − 2 e
a~ y
> E2:=simplify(k*q2*(R-r2)/ DotProduct(R-r2,R-r2)^(3/2));
2 kq 2 kq
E2 := −
e − e
4 a~2 x 4 a~2 y
> E3:=simplify(k*q3*(R-r3)/ DotProduct(R-r3,R-r3)^(3/2));
2kq
E3 := e
a~2 x
Champ résultant au point O
> E:=E1+E2+E3;
⎛ 2 k q 2 k q ⎞⎟ ⎛ kq 2 k q ⎞⎟
E := ⎜⎜ − + ⎜
⎟ e + ⎜− − ⎟e
⎝ 4 a~2 a~2 ⎠ x ⎝ a~2 4 a~2 ⎠ y
> evalf(E,4);
1.646 k q 1.354 k q
e − e + 0. e
a~2 x a~2 y z
Angle entre l'axe Ox et le vecteur champ électrique résultant au point O
> arctan(1.354/1.646); ## en radians
evalf(%*180/Pi); ## en degrés
0.6883704661

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39.44072244
> AN:={k=8.98*10^9,q=10^(-9),a=1,Q=10^(-6)}; # en unités SI
1 1
AN := { Q = , a~ = 1, k = 0.8980000000 1010, q = }
1000000 1000000000
Vecteur champ électrique résultant au point O
> evalf(subs(AN,E)); ## en Newtons/Coulomb(N/C) ou en
Volt/mètre(V/m)
14.78509055 e − 12.15490945 e + 0. e
x y z
Force de Coulomb agissant sur une charge Q placé au point O
> F:=Q*E;
⎛ 2 k q 2 k q ⎞⎟ ⎛ kq 2 k q ⎞⎟
F := Q ⎜⎜ − + ⎜
⎟ e + Q ⎜− 2 − ⎟e
⎝ 4 a~2 a~2 ⎠ x ⎝ a~ 4 a~2 ⎠ y
> evalf(subs(AN,F)); ## en Newtons
0.00001478509055 e − 0.00001215490945 e + 0. e
x y z
>

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1.2.2 The electric field created by a distribution of continuous charges

In the case where the electric field is created by a distribution of continuous charges, we
also use the principle of superposition, by adding the contributions of all the elementary
charges present in space. We then go through an integral:

⃗E(⃗R) = k
dq (⃗R −⃗r )
Charges
⃗
|| R −⃗r ||3

The distribution of charges which is assumed to be continuous can occupy a volume, a

surface or a curve.

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We introduce in these conditions according to the case ”charge densities”:

• the volume charge density ρ = dq/dV

• the surface charge density σ = dq/dS

• the linear charge density λ = dq/dl

If these charge densities are independent of the point in space where they are calculated,
we will say that the distribution of charges is uniform: ρ, σ and λ will then be constants.
Their respective units are C/m3 , C/m2 and C/m.
Examples of electric field calculations will be given in the following.

1.2.3 The principle of superposition of the field

In the case where the electric field is created by discrete charges and continuous charges,
the general superposition principle is used:

⃗E(⃗R) = ∑ E
⃗i + d⃗E

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1.3 Electric field created by a discrete distribution of

charges
1.3.1 Application 1: The electric dipole (Case of 2 charges (-q) and
(+q))
We assume that we have two opposite electric charges ( +q and −q) placed at two points
in space as shown in the figure.
We want to calculate the electric field
- created by these two charges,
- at a point P on the bisector of the segment which joins the two charges,

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This system of two charges is called an ”electric dipole”.

The position of the point P is identified by the vector:

⃗R = x⃗ı (1.1)

The positions of the charges are identified by the vectors:

⃗r1 = a⃗ȷ, ⃗r2 = − a⃗ȷ (1.2)

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hence:

⃗R − ⃗r1 = x⃗ı − a⃗ȷ −→ ||⃗R − ⃗r1 || = ( x2 + a2 )1/2

⃗R − ⃗r2 = x⃗ı + a⃗ȷ −→ ||⃗R − ⃗r2 || = ( x2 + a2 )1/2

The resulting electric field ⃗E = E

⃗1 + E
⃗2 is then given by:

⃗E = k (+q) k (−q)
( x⃗ı − a⃗ȷ) + 2 ( x⃗ı + a⃗ȷ)
( x2 2
+a ) 3/2 ( x + a2 )3/2

which after simplification becomes:

⃗E = − 2kaq
⃗ȷ
( x2 + a2 )3/2

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Note 1: We can use l = ( x2 + a2 )1/2 which is the distance between the point P and one
of the charges, and the angle α such that sin α = a/l (see figure), to write:

⃗E = − 2 k q sin α⃗ȷ
l2
Note 2: By definition, the dipole moment of a dipole is given by:

p = charge × distance = 2 a q

We can therefore also write:

⃗E = − k p⃗ȷ
l3
Note 3: When x is very large, the electric field which tends to zero behaves as 1/x3 :

⃗E = − k p⃗ȷ
x3
where p is the ”dipole moment”.
Note 4: In the case where P is not on the bisector of the segment which joins the two
charges, the calculation must be redone with ⃗R = x⃗ı + y⃗ȷ.

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1.3.2 Application 2: Case of 2 charges (+q) and (+q)

If in the previous example we assume that the two charges are equal (+q and +q), the
resulting electric field will now be:

⃗E = k (+q) k (+q)
( x⃗ı − a⃗ȷ) + 2 ( x⃗ı + a⃗ȷ)
( x2 2
+a ) 3/2 ( x + a2 )3/2

which after simplification becomes:

⃗E = 2kqx 2 k q cos(α)
⃗ı = ⃗ı
( x2 2
+a ) 3/2 l2

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Note 1: When x is very large, the electric field which tends to zero behaves as 1/x2 :

⃗E = 2 k q⃗ı
x2
This makes sense, because at very large distances, the two charges (+q and +q) can no
longer be distinguished. They will be considered as a single charge of value equal to
(+2 q).
Note 2: If we place 2 n charges, on a circle of radius a and center O. The charges being
pairwise symmetric with respect to O, then the electric field will be written:

⃗E = k (2 n q) x ⃗ı = kQx
⃗ı
( x2 + a2 )3/2 ( x2 + a2 )3/2

with Q = 2 n q the total charge placed on the circle. This formula will remain valid even
in the case where the charges will be distributed continuously (see section 1.4.1).

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1.4 Electric field created by a continuous distribution of

charges
1.4.1 Application 3: Charged circular ring
We consider a uniformly charged circular ring of radius a, with a total charge Q, as shown
in the following figure.

The position of the point P is identified by the vector:

⃗R = x⃗ı

Using polar coordinates in the yOz plane, the position M of an elementary charge dQ is

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identified by the vector:

⃗r = a cos α⃗ȷ + a sin α⃗k

We have:
⃗
MP = ⃗R −⃗r = x⃗ı − a cos α⃗ȷ − a sin α⃗k
||⃗R −⃗r || = ( x2 + a2 )1/2 = l
The elementary electric field d⃗E created by the elementary charge dQ is written:
k dQ
d⃗E = 3 ( x⃗ı − a cos α⃗ȷ − a sin α⃗k)
l
The elementary charge dQ is obtained by an elementary variation of the angle α on the
ring:

dQ = λadα

λ being the linear charge density on the ring:

Q
λ=
2πa
We finally obtain the resulting electric field by integrating α between 0 and 2π:

⃗E = d⃗E

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 2π  2π  2π
= ⃗ı(...) dα +⃗ȷ(...) cos αdα +⃗k (...) sin αdα
0 0 0
kQx
= ⃗ı
l3
√ x
If we call l = x2 + a2 and α the angle such that cos α = ( x2 + a2 )1/2
, we will have for ⃗E:

⃗E = k cos α · Q⃗ı
l2
√
Note: When x is very large (l = x2 + a2 ∼ x), the electric field which tends towards
zero behaves as 1/x2 (Coulomb behavior):

⃗E = Q⃗ı
x2
which makes sense, because at very large distances, a charged ring will be considered a
point charge.

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1.4.2 Application 4: Charged circular disk

We want to calculate the electric field created by a circular disk of radius R, carrying a
total charge Q uniformly on its surface. The surface charge density is then σ = Q/πR2 .
We can consider that the charged disk is an infinite set of circular rings charged with
radii r varying between 0 and R and thickness dr:

The total electric field created by this disk can be obtained by taking the integral of the
formula from the previous section for a circular ring:
  R  R
⃗E( x ) = kxdQ k x (2πr dr ) σ
d⃗E( x ) = ⃗ı = ⃗ı
0 ( x2 + r2 )3/2 0 ( x2 + r2 )3/2

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We change the variable y = r2 so dy = 2r dr:

 R2
⃗E( x ) = kπσ x dy
⃗ı
0 ( x2 + y)3/2


and using the relation dy( A + y)−3/2 = −2( A + y)−1/2 , we find:
 
⃗E( x ) = 2kπσ √x − √ x ⃗ı
x2 R2 + x 2

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Note 1:
Depending on the position of the point P on the axis Ox, x can be positive or negative,
depending on the case √x 2 = +1 if x > 0 and √x 2 = −1 if x < 0.
x x
Note 2:
When x tends towards zero, we approach the center of the disk, the electric field then
tends towards:

⃗E( x ) = 2kπσ⃗ı if x > 0
−2kπσ⃗ı if x < 0

Note 3:
When the radius of the disk R tends to infinity, we obtain an infinite charged plane. The
electric field tends in this case towards:

⃗E( x ) = ±2kπσ⃗ı = ± σ ⃗ı
2ϵ0

which is a constant vector in modulus whatever x.

This formula is valid whatever the position of the point P, because the infinite disk no
longer has a center.

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1.4.3 Application 5: Continuous linear distribution of charges

We want to find the electric field at the point P created by a rod of length L, uniformly
charged with linear charge density λ (if the total charge is Q, we have λ = Q/L).

The position of the point P is identified by the vector ⃗R = x⃗ı.

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The position M of an elementary charge dQ on the axis Oy is defined by the vector

⃗r = y⃗ȷ.
We have:
⃗
MP = ⃗R −⃗r = x⃗ı − y⃗ȷ
|| R −⃗r || = ( x2 + y2 )1/2 = H
⃗

The elementary electric field d⃗E at the point P created by the elementary charge dQ is
written:
k dQ
d⃗E = ( x⃗ı − y⃗ȷ)
H3
The elementary charge dQ is obtained by an elementary variation dy of its position on
the axis Oy:
dQ = λdy
The resulting electric field at the point P will be obtained by integrating y between y A
and y B :
  yB
⃗E( P) = k λdy
d⃗E = ( x⃗ı − y⃗ȷ)
yA ( x2 + y2 )3/2
using:

x dy y
= p
( x2 2
+y ) 3/2
x x 2 + y2

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y dy 1
= −p
( x2 + y2 )3/2 x + y2
2

We finally obtain:

⃗E( P) = kλ [(sin α2 − sin α1 )⃗ı + (cos α2 − cos α1 )⃗ȷ]

x
We can also do the calculation by noting that:

Hdα kλ kλ
cos α = , d⃗E = (sin α⃗ı − cos α⃗ȷ) = d(cos α⃗ı + sin α⃗ȷ)
dy x x

Note: For a rod that is infinite on both sides, we have α1 = −π/2 and α2 = π/2, the
resulting electric field is then:

⃗E( P) = 2kλ⃗ı
x

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1.4.4 Application 6: Electric field created by a uniformly charged sphere

on the surface
We can also calculate the electric field created at a point P by a uniformly charged sphere
on the surface, carrying a total charge Q.

The result after a long calculation is as follows.

For a sphere uniformly charged on the surface, carrying a total charge Q:

⃗
⃗r = OP/OP
• if P is outside the sphere with OP = R and u

⃗E = kQ/R2 · u⃗r

exactly as if all the charge is a point electric charge placed in the center of the sphere.

• if P is inside the sphere, ⃗E = ⃗0.

We will find this rather remarkable result later using Gauss’ law.

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1.4.5 Application 7: Charged line segment

We consider a line segment carrying uniformly a total charge Q as shown in the following
figure:

Let’s calculate the resulting electric field created by the charges at point O.
The position of the point where the field is calculated (point O) is identified by the
vector ⃗R = ⃗0.
The position M of an elementary charge dQ = λ dx is identified by the vector ⃗r = x⃗ı.
We have MO ⃗ = ⃗R −⃗r = − x⃗ı and ||⃗R −⃗r || =x.
The elementary electric field d⃗E created by the elementary charge dQ is written:

k λdx
d⃗E = − 2 ⃗ı
x

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We finally obtain the resulting electric field by integrating x between R and R + L:

  R+ L   R+ L
⃗E = dx 1 −k λ L⃗ı −k Q⃗ı
d⃗E = −k λ⃗ı = k λ⃗ı = =
R x2 x R R( R + L) R( R + L)

The behavior of the electric field when R is very large compared to L is compatible with
Coulomb’s law:
⃗E = −k Q⃗ı
R2

1.4.6 Application 8: Charged ring portion

We consider a portion of a ring of radius R and angle θ carrying a total charge Q uniformly
as shown in the following figure:

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Calculate the resulting electric field created by the charges at point O.

The position of the point where the field is calculated (point O) is identified by the
vector ⃗R = ⃗0.
The position M of an elementary charge dQ = λ R dα is identified by the vector ⃗r =
− R cos α⃗ı + R sin α⃗ȷ.
We obtain the resulting electric field by integrating α between −θ/2 and θ/2:
 
⃗E = 2 k λ sin θ ⃗ı
R 2

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1.5 Electrostatic energy

1.5.1 Work of an electric force
An orthonormal reference frame is introduced into space. We place at the center O of the
frame an electric charge (+q). This charge creates an electric field at any point M in space
given by the relation:
kq
E(⃗M ) = 2 · u
⃗r
r
⃗ = r u⃗r .
with ⃗r = OM
A second charge (+ Q), placed at this point M in space, will feel an electric force created
by (+q), which will be given by the relation:

⃗F ( M) = Q · E(⃗M)

The charge (+ Q) can be moved in space from one point A to point B, following a fixed
path.

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Let’s calculate the work of the electric force during this movement:
 B  B
WA→ B (⃗F ) = d⃗l · ⃗F ( M) = Q d⃗l · ⃗E( M)
A A
 B
kq
= Q ur · d⃗l )
(⃗
A r2

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 B
1 r =r B
 
kq
= Q =
dr kqQ −
A r2 r r =r A
 
1 1
= kqQ − +
rB rA

which can be written in the form of a potential energy difference between the points A
and B:

WA→ B (⃗F ) = − E p (r B ) + E p (r A )

Note that the dot product (⃗ ur · d⃗l ) corresponds to the projection of the displacement
⃗
vector dl on the vector unitary radial, so it is equal to the variation dr of the radius when
moving.

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1.5.2 Conservative forces. Potential energy.

We then see that the work of the electric force WA→ B (⃗F ) only depends on the starting
point A and the ending point B, regardless of the path followed between A and B.
The electric force is therefore a conservative force.
⃗
We can then define an electric potential energy at the point indicated by vector ⃗r = OM,
by the relation:
kqQ
E p (r ) = + constant
r
The constant does not come into play when calculating the work of the electric force
because the work is a difference of two potential energies.
The constant is generally chosen to be equal to zero such that the potential energy at
infinity is zero.

1.5.3 The electric potential

We can write the potential energy as:

kq
E p (r ) = Q · = Q · V (r )
r
V (r ) is called the electric potential created by the charge (+q) at the point in space indicated
by the vector ⃗r = OM. ⃗
The potential at infinity is equal to zero by a good choice of former constant.

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The work of the electric force can therefore be written as the product of the charge Q
times the electric potential difference between the points A and B:

WA→ B (⃗F ) = Q (V ( A) − V ( B))

The unit used in the International System (IS) to measure the electric potential is the
Volt (V).

1.5.4 The electric potential of several charges

If we are in the presence of several charges (q1 , q2 , · · ·), we use the principle of superposi-
tion (see section (1.1.6)). This comes from the fact that the force acting on Q is the result
of the forces created by the different charges (q1 , q2 , · · ·):

WA→ B (⃗F ) = WA→ B (∑ ⃗Fi ) = ∑ WA→B (⃗Fi ) (1.3)

In the presence of several discrete electric charges, we have:

n n
kq kq
V (⃗R) = ∑ ||⃗R −i⃗r || = ∑ p(X − x )2 + (Y −i y )2 + (Z − z )2
i =1 i i =1 i i i

and in the case of a continuous distribution of charges:

 
kdq kdq
V (⃗R) = =
||⃗R − ⃗ri ||
p
Charge (X − x )2 + (Y − y ) 2 + ( Z − z ) 2

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The notations are the same as those used for the calculation of the electric field (see section
1.2):

• the vector ⃗R = X⃗ı + Y⃗ȷ + Z⃗k indicates the position where the potential is calculated,

• the vector ⃗r = x⃗ı + y⃗ȷ + z⃗k indicates the position of the charge which creates the
potential

1.5.5 Examples of electric potential calculations

1. Case of a single charge +q
A charge q placed at a point in space creates around it an electric field ⃗E( P) = kq/r2 u
⃗r
and an electric potential V ( P) = kq/r.

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Notes:

• The electric potential keeps the same value for any point that is at the same distance
r from the charge.
The potential is therefore constant on the surface of any sphere surrounding the
charge q.
These surfaces where the potential keeps a constant value are called equipotential
surfaces.

• The electric field, at any point on one of these equipotential surfaces, is always
perpendicular to this surface.

2.Case of two opposite charges ( +q and −q ): dipole

The electric potential created by two opposite charges +q and −q on a point P of the
bisector of the segment which joins the two charges (see the figure in section 1.3.1 ) is
given by:

k (+q) k (−q)
V ( P) = V1 + V2 = + =0
( x2 + a2 )1/2 ( x2 + a2 )1/2

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3. Case of two charges of the same sign ( +q and +q )

If the two charges have the same sign, we will have:

2 k (+q)
V ( P) =
( x2 + a2 )1/2

1.5.6 Potential energy of a system of charges

A - 2 electric charges
We want to bring back a charge q2 from infinity where the electric potential V (∞) is zero,
up to a point P2 where the potential is that created by a charge q1 (placed at P1 ), which is
kq
given by V ( P2 ) = r 1 .
12
The electric potential energy stored in this system of two charges q1 and q2 will be:

kq q2
E p = −W∞→ P2 (⃗F ) = E p ( P2 ) − E p (∞) = q2 −V (∞) + V ( P2 ) = 1


r12

B - 3 electric charges
Now suppose that we want to bring back three electrical charges initially at infinity to
place them one next to the other, the total potential energy will be the sum of three
potential energies: E p (q1 ) = 0 to place q1 at a point in space, E p (q2 ) to place q2 in the

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electric field created by q1 and E p (q3 ) to place q3 in the electric field created by q1 and q2 :

E p ( q1 ) = 0
k q1 q2
E p ( q2 ) = r12 q2 in the field of q1
k q1 q3 k q2 q3
E p ( q3 ) = r13 + r23 q3 in the field of q1 and q2

The stored electrical potential energy will then be:

k q1 q2 kq q kq q
E p = E p ( q1 ) + E p ( q2 ) + E p ( q3 ) = + 1 3+ 2 3
r12 r13 r23

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which we can write:

1  k qj 
2 i=∑ ∑
Ep = q i
1,...,3
r
j=1,...,3,( j̸=i ) ij
1
2 i=∑
= qi V ( qi )
1,...,3

C - n discrete electric charges

If we have n discrete charges, we will therefore have with a summation over all the charges:

1
2∑
Ep = qi V ( qi )
i

There are n(n − 1)/2 terms in the summation.

D - Continuous charge distribution

For a continuous distribution of charges, we have an integral instead of a sum:

1
Ep = dq V (q)
2

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1.6 Field lines and equipotential regions

1.6.1 Field lines
By definition, field lines are curves in space, tangents at any point in space to the vector of
the calculated electric field at this point.
The field lines are oriented in the direction of the electric field vector. They originate
from positive charges and end on negative charges (see the figures below).

1.6.2 Equipotential surfaces

By definition, the locus of all points in space where the electric potential always keeps the
same value V (⃗r ) = V0 , is called equipotential surface or region.
Field lines are always orthogonal to equipotential surfaces (see the figures below). This
comes from the fact that performing an elementary displacement d⃗l in a direction perpen-
dicular to a field line, the variation in potential is zero dV = −⃗E · d⃗l = 0.

1.6.3 Link between ⃗E(⃗r ) and V (⃗r )

We saw previously that:
 B
WA→ B (⃗F ) = q d⃗l · ⃗E(⃗r ) = q[−V ( B) + V ( A)]
A

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which gives:
 B  B
V ( B) − V ( A) = dV = − d⃗l · ⃗E(⃗r )
A A

or for an elementary displacement d⃗l:

dV = −d⃗l · ⃗E(⃗r )

In cartesian coordinates, we have:

dV = −d⃗l · ⃗E(⃗r ) = − Ex dx − Ey dy − Ez dz

using vector components:

d⃗l = dx⃗i + dy⃗j + dz⃗k
⃗E(⃗r ) = Ex⃗i + Ey⃗j + Ez⃗k
We therefore see that Ex is the partial derivative of the potential V with respect to x
(assuming y and z are constant):

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z

which gives
⃗E(⃗r ) = − ∂V⃗i − ∂V⃗j − ∂V⃗k
∂x ∂y ∂z

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which we can write:

⃗ V (⃗r )
⃗E(⃗r ) = −∇
by introducing the gradient operator:

⃗ · = ∂ · ⃗i + ∂ · ⃗j + ∂ · ⃗k
∇
∂x ∂y ∂z

The formula can also be verified directly by noting that:

∂ 1 x − xi
=− ,···
∂x ||⃗r − ⃗ri || ||⃗r − ⃗ri ||3
and using the definitions of electric field and potential.
In conclusion, we have the following relations:
 B
V ( B) − V ( A) = − d⃗l · ⃗E(⃗r )
A

⃗ V (⃗r )
⃗E = −∇

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1.6.4 Examples of equipotential surfaces

Case of a positive charge (+q)

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Case of a negative charge (−q)

Case of 2 charges (+q) and (+q)

The electric field created by two electric charges:
• +q placed at the point of coordinates (− a, 0, 0)
• +q placed at the point of coordinates (+ a, 0, 0)
is given by:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗E = kq(( x + a)i + y j + zk) + kq(( x − a)i + y j + zk)
2 2
(( x + a) + y + z ) 2 3/2 (( x − a) + y + z2 )3/2
2 2

Field lines and equipotential surfaces are shown in the following figure:

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The electric dipole: Case of 2 charges (-q) and (+q)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗E = −kq(( x + a)i + y j + zk) + kq(( x − a)i + y j + zk)
2 2
(( x + a) + y + z ) 2 3/2 (( x − a) + y + z2 )3/2
2 2

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Case of 2 charges (−q) and (+3q)

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗E = −kq(( x + a)i + y j + zk) + 3kq(( x − a)i + y j + zk)
2 2
(( x + a) + y + z ) 2 3/2 (( x − a) + y + z2 )3/2
2 2

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Multiple discrete charges

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1.7 Gauss’s Theorem

1.7.1 The flow of an electric field
The flow of an electric field ⃗E through a given surface S is defined by the integral:

ΦE = dS ⃗n · ⃗E
S

it somehow quantifies the ”number” of field lines which crosses this surface.

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The integration element d⃗S = ⃗n dS represents a vector normal (i.e. perpendicular) to the
surface S. The module dS of this vector represents the area of the associated elementary
surface. The vector ⃗n represents a unit vector normal to the surface, it is by convention
oriented towards the outside of the total surface S.
Example: Consider a uniform electric field ⃗E in the space. The flux of this field through
the next closed surface is:

  
ΦE = dS n⃗Lat · ⃗E + dS n⃗1 · ⃗E + dS n⃗2 · ⃗E
Lat S1 S2
  
= dS E cos(π/2) + dS E cos(0) + dS E cos(π ) = 0
Lat S1 S2

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1.7.2 Solid angle

Angle
Let us recall the definition of an angle (in the plane)

θ = L/r

It is measured in radians.
For a circle viewed from its center, the associated angle is 2πr/r = 2π.
In infinitesimal form, we can write dθ = dl/r.

Solid angle
We can generalize this notion in space, by defining the solid angle associated with a
surface seen from a point O:
Ω = S/r2
which is measured in steradians.
For a sphere, the closed surface seen from the center is equal at 4πr2 , the solid angle
associated is therefore:
Ω = 4πr2 /r2 = 4π
This also remains true for any closed surface whatever its shape.
In infinitesimal form, we can write dΩ = dS′ /r2 = dS cos θ/r2 :

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1.7.3 Gaussian law for a point charge

The flow of an electric field created by an electric charge q through a closed surface sur-
rounding this charge is given by:
 
Φ = d⃗S · ⃗E = dSE cos θ
Closed surface

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kq dS cos θ
= dS 2 cos θ = kq
r r2
 Closed surface

q
= kq dΩ = 4πkq =
Closed surface ϵ0

We can therefore state Gauss’s law, for a point charge, in the following form:

q
Φ= d⃗S · ⃗E =
Closed surface ϵ 0

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1.7.4 Case of several point charges

We can generalize this law when there are several charges inside of the closed surface,
using the principle of superposition of the field electric:

∑i Qi
Φ= d⃗S · ∑ E⃗ i = ϵ0
Closed surface i

We only consider in the sum the charges which are inside the closed surface.

1.7.5 Case of a continuous charge

When the charge distribution inside the surface closed is continuous, we then have an
integral:

 
dq
Φ= d⃗S · d⃗E =
Closed surface ϵ 0

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1.7.6 Electric flow of a charge outside a closed surface

  
Φ= d⃗S · ⃗E = d⃗S · ⃗E − d⃗S · ⃗E = 0 (1.4)
Closed surface S1 S2

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1.7.7 Application 1: Case of an infinite charged line (Cylindrical

symmetry)

We show by Gauss’ law that:

λ
E=
2πϵ0 r
Exercise: Find the electric field created by an infinite surface-charged cylinder with a
uniform surface charge density σ.

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1.7.8 Application 2: Case of an infinite charged plane (Plane symmetry)

We show by Gauss’ law that:

σ
E=
2ϵ0
Exercise: Find the electric field at any point in space to the following two cases:
- 2 infinite charged planes having the same positive surface densities σ,
- 2 infinite charged planes having opposite surface densities σ and −σ (Plane capacitors).

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1.7.9 Application 3: Case of a sphere charged on the surface (Spherical

symmetry)

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( )
kQ
r2
if r > R
E=
0 if r < R

Exercise: In the case of a sphere of radius R charged in its volume with a uniform
volume charge density ρ, show that the electric field is given by:

( )
kQ
r2
if r > R
E=
constant · r if r < R

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