backup protection is provided, depends upon economic and technical considerations. The cost of backup protection is justified ‘on the basis of probability of failure of individual component in protection system, cost of protected equipment, importance of protected equipment, location of protected equipment etc. LoAD LOK Fig. 15 The backup protection is normally of a form different from the main protection and should preferably be of the non-unit type, e.g., overcurrent or distance protection. It is usually for economic reasons not s0 fast or as discriminative as the main protection. Auxiliary protection is employed in separate cases to accelerate main protection operation during faults within the protected zone and to also protect what is termed the dead zone of the main protection scheme. The auxiliary protection devices usually back up the main protection scheme in the events ofits failure 1.41. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS. AC type protective relays are actuated by current and voltage supplied by current and potential (or voltage) transformers, known as instrument transformers. The main function of instrument transformers are: (®) To provide insulation against the high voltage of the power cireuit and to protect the apparatus and the operating personnels from contact with the high voltages of the power circuits. (ii) To supply protective relays with current and voltage of ‘magnitude proportional to those of the power circuit but sufficiently reduced in magnitude so that the relays can bbe made relatively small and inexpensive (iii) Possibility of different types of secondary connections to obtain the required currents and voltages. For safety purposes, the secondaries of current and potential transformers (CTs and PTs) are grounded. For the proper applications of CTs and PTs, required considerations are: Mechanical construction, type of insulation (dry or liquid), ratio in terms of primary and secondary currents or voltages, continuous thermal rating, short-time thermal and mechanical ratings, insulation class, impulse level, service conditions, accuracy and connections. 1.11.1. Current Transformers (CTs) Current transformers are connected in ac power circuits to feed the current coils of indicating and metering instruments. (ammeters, wattmeters, watt-hour meters) and protective relays. Thus the CT's broaden the limits of measurements and maintain a watch over the currents flowing in the circuits and over the power loads. In high voltage installations CTs in addition ig above, also isolate the indicating and metering instruments ang protective relays from high voltage. The current transformer (Cp) basically consists of an iron core on which are wound a primary ‘and one or two secondary windings. The primary winding ofthe CT is connected in series with the load and carries the actua power system current (normal or fault) while the secondary is connected to the measuring circuit or the relay. The primary winding is usually single turn winding and the number of tums ‘on the secondary winding depend upon the current to be carried by the power circuit. The larger the current to be carried by the power circuit, more the number of turns on the secondary. The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as transformation ratio of the CT. The current ratio of a CT is usuall high. The secondary current ratings are of the order of 5A, | A and 0.1 A the latter being used for static relays. Primary curren ratings vary from 10 A to 3,000 A or more. The current transformer in operation slightly differs from the power transformer. In case of a current transformer as the load impedance or “burden’” on the secondary is very small, so the current transformer operates on short-circuit conditions. Also the current in the secondary winding is not governed by the load impedance on the secondary but depends upon the current flowing in the primary winding (Le., power circuit current. The amount of power which the CT handles is small The product of voltage and current on the secondary side when the CT is supplying the instrument or relay with its maximum rated value of current, is known as rated bu and is measured in volt-amperes (VA). The volt-ampere rating of CTs is low (5-150 VA) as compared with that of power transformers (a few kVA to several MVA), Al types of CTs are employed for protective relaying purposes. The bushing CT is most common for hy circuits as it is less expensive than the other types. However, itis not employed for circuits below 5,000 V or in metal-clad equipment. The bushing type CT consists only of an angular shaped core with a secondary winding, Such CT is built into equipment such as circuit breakers, power transformers, generators or switchgear, the core being arranged to encircle an insulating bushing through which a power conductor passes. There is only one primary turn and the intemal diameter of the bushing CT core is large. Hence the mean length of turn of the magnetic path is greater than those in other CTS. The cross section of the core is made larger. The saturation in the core is less and a bushing CT is more accurate than other CTs at high multiples of the primary current rating. At low currents, bushing CT is usually less accurate due to its lange exciting current. Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of CTS, CTs introduces two errors—ratio error and a phase angle error. Current ratio error is mainly due to energy component excitation current and is given as Kyls—Ip i) Ip where Ip is the primary current. K, is the turn ratio and secondary current, Ratio error = Tis aSS a ? ‘Table 1.4. Characteristics of CTs Ac cording to Their Accuracy Class. acuring CTS (ay: For Me TT Permissible current ratio error in percentage ible phase angle error in ] at rated current at % rated current | =| inary 20 50 100 120 5 20 100 120 op | 207s | 035 £02 202 =30 ris Se ei 05 zis | +075 £05 £05 +90 245 Sue es | =30 £30) c 30 = Not standardised 50 +50 250 ey (By For Protective CTs “carte Porshe ervent ratio error in | Permisble phase displacement in | Permissible composite error a rated Class | Seage tated primary curcent | min, at rated primary current | accuracy lini primary current n percentage Sp +1 +60 : as lop 23 = 10 | 5p #5 = 15 to several thousand volts and secondaries always for 110 V Phase angle error is introduced on account of magnetising ‘component of excitation current and a phase angle error 5 is given in minutes of angle of departure of the secondary current from exact opposition to the primary current. For relaying purposes, the phase angle error has negligible effect on the ‘accuracy ofthe CT. The load on the secondary of the CT is usually thighly inductive so that the secondary current is practically in phase with the exciting current. ‘The CTs are rated for rated voltage of the installation, the rated currents of the primary and secondary windings and the accuracy class, The accuracy class indicates the limit ofthe error in percentage of the rated turn ratio of the given CT. Table 1.4 gives the classification of CTs according to their accuracy class and the corresponding limits of errors at different percentages of rated current. 1.11.2, Potential Transformers (PTs) ‘The potential transformers are employed for voltages above 380 V {feed the potential coils of indicating and metering instruments (voltmeters, wattmeters, watt-hour meters) and relays. These ‘ransformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high voltage and isolate them for high voltage, The primary winding of the potential transformer is ‘connected directly to the power circuits either between two phases ‘or between a phase and ground depending on the rating of the ‘ansformer and its application. To the secondary windings, Various indicating and metering instruments and relays are SSmeced. The primary winding has a large number of turns 3 the Secondary winding, which has a much smaller number ums, is coupled magnetically through the magnetic circuit to ‘the primary winding. The primaries of PT are rated from 400 V (sometimes for 110. V3 V). The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary voltage is known as turn or transformation ratio. ‘The ends of the windings of potential transformers are marked according to the same rules as used for power transformers to ensure correct connection of the windings to each other, o the high-voltage power circuit and to various indicating and metering instruments and relays they serve to supply. The theory of operation of a potential transformer (PT) is essentially the same as that of the power transformer. The main difference between a PT and a power transformer is due to the fact thatthe load current ofthe former is ofthe order of its exciting current and secondary impedance of the PT is mostly resistive being made up of the potential circuit of the instrument. The PT is rated in terms of the maximum burden (volt-ampere output) it delivers without exceeding specified limits of error, whereas the power transformer is rated by the secondary output it delivers without exceeding a specified temperature rise. The output of PTs is usually limited to a few hundred volt-amperes while the output of a power transformer may be of the order of several MVA. Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of PTS. \deally a PT should give secondary voltage exactly proportional to the primary voltage and exactly in phase opposition. This cannot obviously be achieved in practice due to primary and secondary vollage drops. Thus both the ratio and phase angle errors are introduced by aPT. The voltage ratio error is generally expressed in terms of the measured voltage and is given as KyVs=Ve 5.100 (1.9) v Percentage ratio error = a12 x where Kys the nominal ratio — the ratio of rated primary voltage and rated secondary voltage. The phase angle error 8 is usually given in minutes and indicates by what small ange the secondary voltage V departs from exact opposition tothe applied primary voltage Vp ‘With the inerease in the number of instruments and relays connected to the secondary of a PT, ie, with the increase in burden of the secondary circuit, both ofthe erors will increase ‘The ‘burden’ is the total extemal volt-ampere load on the secondary at rated secondary voltage. Where several loads (instruments and relays) ae connected in parallel, itis usually Sulficient to add their individual voltamperes arithmetically to determine the total vot-ampere burden ‘The ratio and phase angle errors are also influenced by the primary voltage. Operation in excess of 10% overvoltage may ‘cause increased errors and excessive heating. However, ifa PT has acceptable accuracy at its rated voltage itis suitable over the range from zero to 110% of rated voltage. The ratio and phase angle erors of any standard ASA PT are so small that they may be neglected forthe protective relaying purpose ifthe burden is within the ‘thermal volt-ampere rating of the PT. This thermal VA rating corresponds to the full-toad rating of the power transformer. ‘The rated burden of a PT isthe VA burden which must not bbe exceeded if the transformer so operate with its rated accuracy (this burden is indicated on the name plate and inthe datasheet) ‘The limiting or maximum burden is the greatest VA load at ‘hich the PT will operate continuously without overheating its ‘windings beyond the permissible limits. This burden is several times greater than the rated burden. In practice, use is made of single-phase and three-phase potential transformers, the latter being of the two-winding ot three-winding type. ‘Table 1.5 gives the classification of PTs according to their accuracy class and the corresponding limits of errors. ‘Table 1.5. Characteristics of Potential ‘Transformers ‘According to Their Accuracy Class ‘Accuracy | Permissible voltage Permissible phase ‘class | ratio error in percentage | angle error in minutes, 02 202 +10 05 £05 220 10 210 240 30 230 +120 30 250 £300 There are two types of potential transformers; the conventional wound type (or electromagnetic type) and the ‘capacitor voltage (potential) transformer. For voltages exceeding 100 KV (phase) the conventional type of potential transformer becomes extremely expensive owing to the insulation requirements. For voltages above 100 kV a capacitor potential ey ‘Switchgear and Protection transformer, a combination of a capacitor potential divider ang ‘a magnetic potential transformer (known as the intermedi transformer) of relatively smal ratio is used. is shown in Fig. 1,6. A stack of high-voltage the potential divider, the capacitors of the two sections being C ‘and C, respectively and Z is the burden, The voltage applied the primary of the intermediate transformer T is usually abou 1OKV. Both the potential divider and the intermediate transformer will have ratios and insulation requirements which are suitable for economical construction. The intermediate transformer must bbe of very small ratio error and phase angle to give satisfactor performance of the complete unit. sas Hvguerty 1.6. Capacitor Potential Transformer Citeuit Diagram Ifthe current flowing in the output or secondary circuit is negligible then eo ‘ 25 Exercises 1, Explain why fault currents are more than load currenis What are the harmful effects of faults” What is meant by fault level or fault MVA ? Explain, 2. Classify the different faults which occur in power systems Which of these are more frequent ? 43. Differentiate between symmetrical and unsymmetrical fauis Explain different types of faults and discuss which is th ‘most common amongst them. 4. Which types of faults are taken into account while determi the rating of the circuit breaker? What is symmetrical fault current and unsymmetscal fa carrent ? Which type of fault causes them ? ‘5. What are the principal types of faults in a power system Tn what way a fault may be harmful to the power system [G.B, Technical Univ. Switchgear and Protection 2011 66. Explain clearly the sources of short-circuit power in a P* system and the nature of such power Explain briefly the role of protection in a power 94 Describe the essential features of a protective rely reference to reliability, selectivity, speed of operation discrimination, 2 cae