Unit- III

Characteristics of Sound:

Sound waves are also called as acoustic pulses. Sound waves are defined as rapid fluctuations
in air pressure above and below the normal atmospheric pressure. We can observe fluctuations as a
function of time and as a function of spatial position. Sound waves propagate through air at 343m/sec.
Sound waves have alternating high- and low-pressure phases. Pure tones go from maximum pressure
to minimum pressure and back to maximum pressure this is called one cycle or one wave period.

Sound may be described by 3 perceptual (as perceived by human senses – auditory)

characteristics: pitch, quality, and loudness. These 3 characteristics correspond to 3 physical
(scientific) characteristics: frequency, waveform, and intensity

Pitch: PITCH refers to the highness or lowness of a sound, and therefore depends on the frequency
of the sounding object. It is also related to the wavelength and the energy that it carries. Figure
shows the frequencies of some common sounds.

Figure: Frequency and Wavelength of Everyday Sound

A pure tone is the sound of only one frequency, such as that given by a tuning fork or electronic signal
generator.

The fundamental note has the greatest amplitude and is heard predominantly because it has a
larger intensity. The other frequencies such as 2fo, 3fo, 4fo, are called overtones or harmonics and
they determine the quality of the sound.

High pitch -- high frequency -- short waves -- high energy

Low pitch --- low frequency --- long waves --- low energy

Loudness: This is scientifically described as sound intensity, the greater the intensity, the louder the
sound, measured in decibels.

▫ Threshold of hearing – 0 db

▫ Threshold of pain – 120 db

Sound Intensity (I) refers to the energy the sound delivers to a unit area of a surface per unit
time. It is proportional to amplitude and inversely proportional to distance from source.

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 Quality: QUALITY, also known as timbre, is the property of a tone that distinguishes it from
another tone of the same pitch and loudness produced by a different musical instrument. It is
described by the kind of waveform that resulted from the impositions of its component frequencies

Measurement of Sound:

Sound is measured as Sound Pressure, Sound Power and Sound Intensity.

Sound Pressure Level (SPL):

In a sound wave there are extremely small periodic variations in atmospheric pressure to which our
ears respond in a rather complex manner. The minimum pressure fluctuation to which the ear can
respond is less than one-billionth ( 109 ) of atmospheric pressure.

Because of the wide range of pressure stimuli, it is convenient to measure sound pressures on a
logarithmic scale, called the decibel (dB) scale. Although a decibel scale is actually a means for
comparing two sounds, we can define a decibel scale of sound level by comparing sounds to a
reference sound with pressure amplitude Pref  2 10 N / m  20  Pa  0.00002 Pa assigned a
5 2

sound pressure level of 0 dB.

Thus, we define sound pressure level (SPL) as a logarithmic measure of the effective sound
pressure of a sound relative to a reference value and is mathematically given by

 P2   P 
SPL  10 log10  2   20 log10   dB
 Pref   Pref 
Where
P  Sound Pr essure Level
Pref  Reference Pressure Level
Note:The threshold of hearing(0.00002 N/m 2 or Pa) is taken as the reference pressure.
 P 
 SPL  20 log10  dB
 0.00002 
Where P is measured in N/m 2

Sound level meter is used to measure SPL.

Addition of Sound Pressure Level:

Suppose if there are two or more sources radiating noise, the total sound pressure level may
be determined from the individual sound pressure levels of sources.

Consider two SPLs of (SPLA) dB and (SPLB) dB by two sources. Then the total SPL is given
by,

  SPLA   SPLB  
Total SPL  10 log10  Anti log    Anti log  
  10   10  

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 Suppose if there are two sources of equal SPL i.e SPLA  SPLB then

  SPLA  
Total SPL  10 log10  2. Anti log  
  10  

 SPLA 
 10 log10  2  10 
 10 
 10  0.301  SPLA
  SPLA  3 dB

This implies that if we have sound pressure level of 50 dB each, then the total SPL would be (50+3)
=53 dB.

Similarly, if there are several sources with SPL’s as SPLA, SPLB, SPLC ……In this case the total SPL
is

  SPLA   SPLB   SPLC  

Total SPL  10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log    ............
  10   10   10  

Problems

1. If the pressure of sound measured from a motor cycle horn is to be 6 N/m2.Determine the
corresponding sound pressure level in decibels, Pref is 0.00002 N/m2.

Solution:

The sound pressure level SPL is given as,

 P   P 
SPL  20 log10   dB  20 log10  dB
 Pref   0.00002 
 6 
 SPL  20 log10   109.54dB
 0.00002 

2. Given two machines producing 80 dB noises each, what is the total SPL?

Solution:

Total SPL= (SPL+3) dB= (80+3) =83.dB.

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3. Two machines are working in noisy environment. The background noise when the machines
are inoperative is 65 dB. If the two machines having individual sound pressure levels of 84 dB and 88
dB are switched on simultaneously, determine the combined sound pressure level of the machines
along with the background noise.

Solution:

  SPLA   SPLB   SPLC  

Total SPL  10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log    ............
  10   10   10  
  SPLA   SPLB   SPLC  
=10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log  
  10   10   10  
  65   84   88  
=10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log   
  10   10   10  
= 10 log10 106.5  108.4  108.8 
= 89.47dB

4. Given four machines producing 100 dB, 91 dB, 90 dB and 89 dB respectively, what is the
total sound pressure level?

Solution:

  SPLA   SPLB   SPLC  

Total SPL  10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log    ............
  10   10   10  
  100   91   90   89  
=10 log10  Anti log    Anti log    Anti log    Anti log   
  10   10   10   10  
= 10 log10 1010  109.1  109  108.9 
= 101.2 dB

5. The sound pressure level measured at 10 m from an automobile horn is 10 dB. Determine the
sound pressure level at a distance of 20 m.

Solution: Note: SPL=LI

1
According to inverse square law I 
d2

Where I=Intensity, d= distance

If d doubles, I become one forth.

At 10 m

 I 
SPL  10 log10   dB  10 dB
 I ref 

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 At 20 m

 I 
 
SPL  10 log10  4 
 I ref 
 
 I 1
 10 log10  . 
 I ref 4 
 I  1
 10 log10    10 log10  
 I ref  4
=10-6.03=3.97 dB

Sound Power Level (SWL):

Sound always has a source. The source could be a musical instrument, people talking, a stereo
system or a jet taking off. Different sources produce sounds with different qualities such as pitch and
timbre. What concerns us here is the amount of sound energy they produce. Sound waves, like other
waves, transport energy.

For a sound wave, the amount of energy transported is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of the wave. We have indicated this amplitude as P, because it corresponds to the amount
of pressure oscillation in the air caused by the sound wave.

Where does the sound energy come from? The answer is that some object has converted
energy of a different kind into sound energy. Typically, there is some sort of mechanical motion; a
vibration of some sort, so mechanical energy is converted into sound energy. How loud a sound is
depending on how rapidly the object converts energy into sound energy. So, the relevant physical
quantity to relate to loudness is the sound power produced by the source, or the rate at which sound
energy is produced versus time.

Power is the rate of change of energy with respect to time and has units of Joules per second.
We give a new name to this unit: 1 Watt = 1 Joule/second. The Watt is the unit of power.

We will introduce a logarithmic scale for sound power, just like we did for sound pressure,
because our perception of sound loudness is logarithmic.

We define the Sound Power Level (PWL) from a source as the total sound energy radiated by
a sound source per unit time and is mathematically given by

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  W 
Sound Power Level  PWL   10 log10 
 W 
 ref 
Where
W  Sound Power of the source
Wref  Re ference Sound Power  1012 W
 W 
 PWL  10 log10  12 
= 10 log10W  120  dB
 10 
Where W in watts.

Sound Intensity:

We haven't yet made contact with loudness. To do so, we need a receiver of the sound energy
produced from the source. Before we get there, we have to ask the question where the sound power
produced from the source goes. The simple answer is, everywhere. Most sources of sound send sound
waves out uniformly in all directions. What this means is that if we are at a certain distance from a
source of sound, say a jet taking off, we will hear the same loudness sound independent of where we
listen: either in front of the jet or behind the jet or to the side of the jet. The loudness of the noise we
hear depends only on how far we are from the source of sound.

The geometrical shape that has all points equal distance away from a source is a sphere. The
loudness we hear depends on the ratio of the area of our sound collector to the total area of the sphere
surrounding the sound source. This motivates the introduction of another physical quantity associated
with sound waves: intensity. The intensity of a sound wave is the amount of power in the wave per
unit area and has units of W/m2. The intensity of a sound wave depends on how far we are from a
source. If we label that distance as R, then the sound intensity is

sound power
Sound intensity 
4  R2

This says that on the surface of a sphere centered on the sound source, all points get equal
intensity which agrees with our intuition. The sound intensity is just the ratio of the sound power to
the surface area of a sphere of radius R (surface area of sphere = 4 R ), where R is the distance, we
2

are from the sound source.

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 We now have something that relates to our perception of loudness. This means that we should
introduce a logarithmic scale, once again.

The Sound Intensity Level (LI) at any location in a sound field in a specified direction is
defined as the average sound power passing through a unit area for which the level is being specified.

Sound intensity level is denoted as LI and is defined as:

 I 
Sound Intensity Level  LI  10 log10   dB
 I ref 
Where
I  The sound intensity by a source.
I ref =The reference intensity = 1012 W / m 2
 I 
 LI  10 log10  12  dB  10 log10  I   120  dB
10 

Microphone Types and Designs

Definition:

A device that converts sound waves into analogous electrical waves. Usually called a "mic" or "mike,"
it contains a flexible diaphragm composed of film or foil that vibrates as it makes contact with the
sound. The diaphragm movement modulates an electrical current by various methods. Based on this
we have various types of microphones namely

 Carbon Button Microphone

 Ribbon Microphone
 Dynamic Microphone
 Condenser Microphone

The following factors are considered for selecting a microphone.

 High Selectivity
 Good frequency response
 Large dynamic pressure range
 Excellent linearity

Carbon Button Microphone:

Thomas Alva Edison and Sir Emile Berliner filled patents for Carbon Button Microphone in
1877.This is a popular microphone for telephones as well as early radio and speeches.

 Diaphragm: Thin Metal Plate.

 The diaphragm is connected to a button full of carbon powder.

 A voltage is applied across the button.

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  Sound pressure changes the resistance through the button by compressing/decompressing the
carbon by pushing the plate.

Carbon Button—Design Diagram

Ribbon Microphone

 Diaphragm: Thin piece of metal foil suspended in a magnetic field.

 Vibrations in ribbon produce a small voltage which is then stepped up by a transformer.

 Diaphragm is very easily damaged by wind or loud incoming sounds

Ribbon Microphone—Design Diagram

Dynamic Microphone

 Diaphragm: Plastic

 Diaphragm pushes a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field.

 Durable design and versatile use.

 A reverse of a loudspeaker

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Dynamic Microphone—Design Diagram

Condenser Microphone

 Diaphragm: Thin metal strip suspended next to a charged electric plate.

 This creates a capacitor.

 Diaphragm moves in and out and changes electrical capacitance.

 Requires a power source for the charged plate.

Distorts easily and has a flat frequency response

Condenser Microphone--Design Diagram

Temperature Measurement

The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This property is utilized in
temperature transducers for the measurement of temperature. Temperature transducers can be divided
into four main categories.

1. Resistance Thermometers (or) Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD).

2. Thermistors.
3. Thermocouples.
4. Ultrasonic thermometer.

Resistance Thermometers or Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD):

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The Resistance Thermometer is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of
temperature i.e it uses the change in the electrical resistance of the conductor to determine the
temperature.

The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be calculated from the
equation.

Where

R = the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (°C)

Ro= the resistance at the reference temperature, usually 20°C

 = The temperature coefficient of resistance

T= the difference between the operating and the reference temperature

Resistance of metal increase with increases in temperature. Therefore, metals are said to have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistivity. The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing
element. The characteristics of sensing element determine the sensitivity and operating temperature
range of the instrument. Platinum, copper and nickel are the most commonly used metals to measure
temperature. Platinum is the most commonly used material for resistance thermometer.

Resistance Thermometers are generally of the probe type for immersion in the medium whose
temperature is to be measured. Fig. shows the simplest type of open wire construction of platinum
resistance thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in the form of spirals on an insulating material
such as mica or ceramic. This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe. This wire is in direct contact
with the gas or liquid whose temperature is to be measured.

The Change in the resistance caused by change in temperature is determined by a Wheatstone bridge.

Semiconductor Thermometers or Thermistor:

A thermistor (Thermally sensitive resistor) is a nonmetallic resistor (semiconductor material) made by

sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, and
uranium. Thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient i.e their resistance decreases as their
temperature rises. Resistance at 25oC for typical commercial units ranges from 100 Ω to 10 M Ω. A
graph showing resistance versus temperature for a family of Thermistors is given in Fig.
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In addition to the choice of resistance values, choices of power rating, physical size and shape,
resistance tolerance, and thermal time constant are also available. The thermistor may be in the form
of beads, rods and discs. The thermistor provides a large change in resistance for small change in
temperature. In some cases, the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may decreases as much
as 5% for each 1ºC rise in temperature.

Various Configurations of Thermistors: Disc Type, Rod Type, Bead Type, Washer Type

Disc Type:

 1.25-25mm diameter
 0.25-0.75mm thick
 Resistance ranges from 1Ω to 1M Ω
 Self-supporting or mounted on a small plate
 Coated with silver on two flat surfaces

Rod Type:

 Available in 1.25,2.75 and 4.25mm in diameter and 12.5 -50mm long

 Resistance varies from 1-50k Ω

Bead Type:

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  0.15mm diameter
 Sealed in the tip of glass probe
 2.5mm diameter
 6-50mm length
 Resistance ranges from 300 Ω -100M Ω

Washer Type:

Like Disc Thermistors but a hole is formed in the center in order to make them for mounting on bolt.

Thermocouple:

A thermocouple is a temperature sensor that has a pair of dissimilar metals joined together at one end
and terminated at the other end. The joined end is called the sensing junction or hot junction and the
terminated end is called the reference junction or cold junction. The temperature at the reference
junction is called reference temperature and is always maintained constant. When the sensing
junction and the reference junction are at different temperatures, a potential difference is obtained and
this causes a flow of current in the circuit. The thermoelectric voltage produced is due to the different
binding energies of the electrons to the metal ions. This voltage depends on the metals themselves,
and in addition on the temperature. The thermal voltage is produced only because of the closed circuit
between the two metals. This phenomenon is called “See beck Effect”.

The wires must be electrically separated beyond the measuring junction. If the reference junction is
kept at a standard temperature, usually 32°F, then a given pair of metals will have a unique variation
of EMF as the measuring-junction temperature is changed (note that at 32o F there is no EMF
generated). This variation can also be called thermocouple calibration, and is shown in the figure
below.

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Humidity

It is defined as the water-vapor content of the air. It is expressed in various ways. Normal atmospheric
air in most of the cases is humid. Humid air is also called moist air. The capacity of air to hold
moisture increases with temperature. But one should not be in confusion that in summer; air should be
more humid compared to other seasons. This is because air may have more capacity to hold water, but
we require source of water as well. Also, even if air has high water content at higher temperature, but
it may not be saturated or have higher relative humid compared to air having low water vapor content
but more relative humidity at lesser temperature.

Different Ways of Expressing Humidity:

Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of water vapor actually present in the air to water vapor
required for saturation at a given temperature. It is represented in percentage.

Absolute Humidity: It is defined as the amount of water vapor present in a unit volume of air, usually
expressed in kilograms per cubic meter.

Dew Point: It is defined as the temperature at which air attains saturation and a further addition of
water vapor leads to dew formation because of condensation of water vapor. The relative humidity at
dew point is 100%.

Hygrometer

A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the humidity directly. Usually, humidity is
measured as relative humidity. Hygrometer uses the property that some materials change their
electrical properties due to humidity. Various types of hygrometers are:

 Resistive Hygrometer
 Capacitive Hygrometer
 Aluminum Oxide Hygrometer
 Crystal Hygrometer

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