MA2002 CALCULUS

Tan Ser Peou

May 17, 2023

mattansponus edu sg
email : . .

Office : S1706-07

Introduction 2
Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Chapter 0: Functions 5
Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
What is a Function?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Graph of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Examples of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Special Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

1
Introduction 2 / 30

What will we learn in MA2002?

✔ Functions:
√
✘ f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x2 + 1, h(x) = xx .
✔ Limits: (Intuitive Definition & Precise Definition)
x2 − 1 sin x
✘ lim , lim , lim+ xx .
x→1 x − 1 x→0 x x→0
✔ Derivatives:
d d x d! √
✘ sin x, e , x + x.
dx dx dx
✔ Application of Derivatives:
✘ Mean Value Theorem,
✘ Increasing/Decreasing Test & Concavity Test,
✘ Optimization Problem,
✘ ···············
3 / 30

What will we learn in MA2002?

✔ Integrals:
" 2 ∞
1
"
2
✘ dx, xe−x dx.
1 1+x+x
2
0
✔ Application of Integrals:
✘ Techniques of integration,
✘ Logarithmic function ln x, exponential function ex ,
✘ The inverse functions,
✘ Computation of arc length, surface area & volume,
✘ ···············
✔ Ordinary Differential Equations:
✘ f $ (x) = f (x) and f (0) = 1,
✘ y $ + P (x)y + Q(x) = 0,
✘ Applications of ordinary differential equations.
4 / 30

2
Chapter 0: Functions 5 / 30

What is a Set?
✔ A set is a collection of objects.
✔ A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . . . . The objects a, b, c, . . . contained in
A are called the elements of the set A. We can write

A = {a, b, c, . . .}.

✘ For example, {1, −1}, {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . .}

✔ We can also write a set using description:

A = {x | properties of x}

✘ For example, {x | x2 = 1}, {x | x is a prime number}.

6 / 30

What is a Set?
✔ If a is an element of A, we write a ∈ A.
If a is not an element of A, we write a ∈/ A.
✘ Example: 1 ∈ {1, 2}, 0 ∈
/ {1, 2}.
✔ If every element of A is also an element of B, we say A is a subset of B, denoted by
A ⊆ B.
We write A ! B if A is not a subset of B.
✘ Example: {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}, {0, 1} ! {1, 2, 3}.
✔ Two sets are equal if they have the same collection of elements, regardless of order.
In order words, A = B ⇔ “A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A”.
✘ Example:
✓ {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1},
✓ {x | x2 = 1} = {1, −1}.
7 / 30

Is the empty set a subset of A?

cannot find element

Yes
, be
an
you
set that is not in A
in the empty .

3
Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations. "

>
- mathematical " or
! Union: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A O
or x ∈ B}; ↓
① in A

② in B

⑤ in both
>!
-

A B

✔ Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then

✘ A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}, B ∪ A = {1, 2, 3}.
8 / 30

Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
! Intersection: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B};

A I 23 B

✔ Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then

✘ A ∩ B = {2}, B ∩ A = {2}.
9 / 30

4
Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
! Difference: A \ B = {x | x ∈ A but x ∈
/ B};

A B

✔ Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then

✘ A \ B = {1}, B \ A = {3}.
10 / 30

Some Notations of Sets

✔ We use the following notations for some special sets: Z
✘ Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3 . . .}: the set of integers.
✘ Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}: the set of positive integers.
N = Z+ , the set of natural numbers.
✘ Q = {m/n | m, n ∈ Z, n "= 0}:
the set of rational numbers.
✘ R: the set of real numbers.
✘ ∅: the empty set, the set containing no element.
✘ Similarly we can use Z− , Q+ , Q− , R+ , R− , . . .
✘ Intervals:
✓ Closed interval: [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}, (a ≤ b);
✓ Open intervals: (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}, (a < b);
✓ (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}; [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b};
✓ (a, ∞) = {x | a < x}; (−∞, b] = {x | x ≤ b}.

11 / 30

The irrational numbers is the set IR Q

Note that the rationals are dense in IR

the irrationals are also dense in IR
5
set of
NE Z E Q EIR EG IRI Qe irrationalnumbers
 Éta t.im silR
there exists ceca b n Q Q are

What is a Function?
✔ Let A and B be two sets.

f
a x
b y
A c z B
d w
.. ..
. .

✘ A function is a rule which assigns each element in A to a unique element in B.

✘ Such a function is denoted by f : A → B, or simply f .
✘ The unique element in B that a ∈ A is assigned by f is called the image of a, denoted
by f (a).
12 / 30

What is a Function?
✔ Two key points for a function f : A → B:
✘ Existence: for each a ∈ A, f (a) is an element of B.
✘ Uniqueness: each a ∈ A has only one image in B.
✔ Example. Let A be the set of students participating a competition. For each student
a ∈ A, consider the rule
loves 270


 gold medal, if a scores ≥ 80,
I 7
bitgo
silver medal, if a scores ≥ 70 but < 80,
not unique

f (a) =

 bronze medal, if a scores ≥ 60 but < 70,
certificate, if a scores < 60.


Each student will get exactly one from “gold medal”, “silver medal”, “bronze medal” or
“certificate” according to one’s score.
Therefore, the rule f defined above is a function.
13 / 30

6
Domain and Range
✔ Let f : A → B be a function. Then we say
✘ A is the domain of f ,
✘ B is the codomain (correlation-domain) of f .
In MA2002, A and B are always taken to be subsets of the set of real numbers R.
✔ We make the following convention:
-

✘ If A is not stated, the domain of f is taken to be the largest possible set (⊆ R) on

which f is defined.
✘ If B is not stated, take B = R.
✔ the range is the set of all f (x) as x taken from the domain:
range of “f : A → B” = {f (x) | x ∈ A}.

By definition, the range is a subset of the codomain. 14 / 30

codomain
range

Example
2x
✔ Find the domain and range of g(x) = .
3x − 1
✘ As a fraction, the function is defined at every real x except when 3x − 1 = 0, i.e.,
except when x = 31 .
✓ Then domain = R \ { 31 }.
✘ y is in the range of the function g if and only if y is of the form g(x) for some x in the
domain.
2x
Solve y = and see if we can find such an x:
3x − 1
y
⇒ y(3x − 1) = 2x ⇒ x(3y − 2) = y ⇒ x = .
3y − 2
There is always an x in the domain with y = g(x) except when 3y − 2 = 0, i.e., except
when y = 32 .
✓ Then range = R \ { 32 }.

Cartesian coordinates IRXIR E(a b) /a

15 / 30
EIRY
: =
,
,
b

Cordered pairs of real nos) can be represented

of
by set
points on the plane
using Cartesian
coordinates just like IR be
, can
represented by
set of points on the real line .

7
Graph of Functions
✔ Let f : A → B be a function. The graph of f is the set

G(f ) := {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ A}.

✘ If A, B ⊆ R, then G(f ) ⊆ A × B ⊆ R × R.
Each element of G(f ) thus represents a point on the Cartesian plane R2 .
✔ Example. f (x) = sin x:
y

−2π −π O π 2π x

−1

✘ domain = R,
✘ range = [−1, 1].
16 / 30

Algebra of Functions
✔ Let f, g be functions with domain A and B respectively.
We can define the operations on functions:
✘
✓ domain of f + g:
O
Addition: (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x)
A∩B is defined as

✘ Subtraction: (f − g)(x) := f (x) − g(x)

✓ domain of f − g: A ∩ B
✘ Multiplication: (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x)
✓ domain of f g: A ∩ B
✘ Division: (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x)
✓ domain of f /g: {x ∈ A ∩ B | g(x) += 0}
✔ Warning! f g = f · g is the product, it is not the composite.
17 / 30

8
Algebra of Functions
✔ Let f and g be functions with domain A and B respectively.
We can define the operations on functions:
✘ The composite of f and g is the function

(f ◦ g)(x) := f (g(x)).

in put
D
domain of f ◦ g: {x | x ∈ B and g(x) ∈ A}
f ◦g -
> input to f

to
g

x g(x) f (g(x))
g f

✘ Note: In general, f ◦ g += g ◦ f .
18 / 30

Example
√ √
✔ Let f (x) = x, g(x) = 2 − x and h(x) = 1/x. Find the the following composite and
their domain.
✘ domain of f : {x | x ≥ 0} of
x E Domain g

-
domain of g: {x | 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2} and
✘ domain of h: {x | x += 0} of f
g (x)
E Domain
√
✘ f ◦ g(x) = f!(g(x)) = f ( 2 − x)
√ √
= 2−x= 42−x
√
✓ {x | x ≤ 2 and 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2}
√ ! √
✘ g ◦ f (x) = g( x) = 2 − x
√
✓ {x | x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 2} = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 4}
1
✘ h ◦ h(x) = h(h(x)) = h(1/x) = = x.
1/x
1
✓ {x | x += 0 and x
+= 0} = {x | x += 0}.
↳ vacuous truth 19 / 30
- can never be equal to 0

9
Examples of Functions
✔ The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is defined by
#
x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.
y

x
O

✘ domain = R
✘ range = {x ∈ R | x ≥ 0} = R+ ∪ {0} = [0, ∞)
20 / 30

Examples of Functions
✔ A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R) of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 . O

an
✘ If an += 0, we say P (x) has degree n.
A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function.
y
2x
P (x) = 1 − 3

21 / 30
Q(x) = 2x2 + 2x

x
O

10
Examples of Functions
✔ A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R) of the form

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

A polynomial of degree 3 is a cubic function.

A polynomial of degree 4 is a quartic function.
A polynomial of degree 5 is a quintic function. not solvable !
-

y 22 / 30
R(x) = x5 + 0.3x4 − 2.8x3 − 0.3x2 + 1.8x
P (x) = x3 − x + 1
End of Lecture I
O x

Q(x) = x4 − 3x2 + x

Examples of Functions
rational
✔ A rational function R(x) is a function of the form polynomial E
functions functions
P (x)
R(x) =
Q(x)
,
↓
when Q(x) = /
where P, Q are polynomials, Q(x) is not identically zero.
y

O x
2x x2
f (x) = g(x) =
x−1 x2 − 1

✔ Every polynomial is a rational function (set Q(x) = 1).

23 / 30

11
Examples of Functions
D
✔ An algebraic function is a function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations:
✘ addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
taking roots, composite
√ x3 + 1 √
✘ f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = + (x − 2) 5 x3 − 1
x+2
y

O x

24 / 30

Examples of Function
✔ The trigonometric functions
✘ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

1
tan x

sin x
x
O cos x 1

25 / 30

12
Examples of Function
✔ The trigonometric functions
✘ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.
y

y = tan x

y = sin x y = cos x

x
O

26 / 30

Special Classes of Functions

✔ A function f is said to be increasing on a set I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 ∈ I.

A function f is said to be decreasing on a set I if

x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 ∈ I.

y

27 / 30
f (x) = x3

x
O

f (x) = −x3 + 2

13
Special Classes of Functions
✔ A function f is said to be an even function if

f (−x) = f (x) for all x.

y f (x) = x2 − 10

O x

g(x) = x2 cos x

D
✘ The graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
28 / 30

always passes
Special Classes of Functions - through origin
If flip
✔ A function f is said to be an odd function if you
either the right
f (−x) = −f (x) for all x. or leftside of

y graph vertically
,

~
an
you get
even
function

L
O x
3
f (x) = x8

g(x) = x2 sin x

✘ The graph is symmetric about the origin O.

↳if you
state about
29 / 30
1800
the origin , you get
back same graph

14
Special Classes of Functions
✔ Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function
#
n an odd function, if n is odd,
✘ x is
an even function, if n is even.
y y
= xx19
yy = 11
13
15
17
1
3
5
7
9

O x

O x
= xx20
yy = 10
12
14
16
18
2
4
6
8

✔ P (x) = 3x6 + x5 − 2x4 + 7x3 + 2x2 − x − 1.

function
✘ g(x) = 3x6 − 2x4 + 2x2 − 1, > still even
-

✘ h(x) = x5 + 7x3 − x. > still odd function

-

✘ g(x) is even, h(x) is odd, and P (x) = g(x) + h(x).

✔ In general, any function defined on R can be decomposed into the sum of an even function
and an odd function. Moreover, such a decomposition is unique. (Can you prove it?)

S
~
30 / 30

f(x) g(x) + h(x) * where

Suppose = g is even

and his odd .

Then f(-x) = g( x) -
+ h( -

x)

f( x)-
=
g(x) -
h(x)

k and
is even

h(x)
is .
odd

QED .

15