1.1 Recapitulation of number system ‘A mathematical value which is used for counting, measuring objects, and for performing led a number. There are various types of Numbers such as Natural arithmetic calculations is cal Real numbers and so on. A system numbers, Whole numbers, Rational and Irrational numbers, orasetof values representing numbers is called a number system. et of Natural numbers: The counting numbers 1, 2,3, 4 5. | are called the natural see ety ay srl abe Ths tof ar mbes Send NS (1,2,3,4,5,...--} It is noted that to each pair @ b of natural numbers, there corresponds natural number denoted by i (a+ b) and called the sum of a and band fi, ab and called the product of a and b. This process of associating (a + b)to each pair of natural numbers is called Addition MNERME Pi ot ssn (00-6 ech jo si en > Mahe Capen inh ot of slr! nani. Bees of te coer of °°B.Sc. Mathematics-Il (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swan sae Qnmewetinns itr the set NV of natural numbers, we say that N possesses an Algebra Srectare, The following properties are satisfied by these two compositions in N: Furthe’ i. Commutativity of addition and multiplication multip atb=b+a; ab = ba vabe N. ii. Associativity of addition and multiplication exists at+(b+c) = (atb)+c a(be) = (ab)e, va,b,ce N cil iii, Cancellation Laws atc=btc>a=b; ac = be» a= b. oe iv. Distributivity of addition with respect to multiplication — a(b+c)= ab+ ac, va,b,ce N. wo y. Multiplication property of 1 aa a:l=a, VaeN. oe Because of this property, 1 is called the Multiplicative Identity. Set nu Limitations of set of natural numbers: a ‘Subtraction in N: Given two members a, b of N, does there exist x € N such that mw atx=b? - If b > a we can write b=a+y forsomey € N so that the above equation become a+x= a+y. Then by cancellation law we have x= y. It is easy to see that x, if it exists, 'H unique. Thus, it is to be noted that the above equation can be solved only if b > a. Further wip denote this x by b — a. This symbol b - a denotes the natural number which when added to ‘4 gives b. t On the other hand if b < a, for example if a = 8 and b = 5, there exists no x such tho’ 8 +x =5 in the set of natural numbers. Division in N: Given two members a, b of N, does there exist x € N such thatax = b? If ais a divisor of b we can write b = ay for some y € N so that the above equation become ax = ay. Then by cancellation law we have x = y. It is easy to see that x, if it exists. | unique. Thus, it is to be noted that the above equation can be solved only if a is a divisor of |ay my "SA. geal Number System 3 bey mies ts, is r we mes 3, is fb, Further We denote this x by b + @, This symbol b + @ denotes the natural number which when multiplied to @ gives b. On the other hand if @ is not a divisor of b, for example if a = 3 and b = 10, there exists NOX such that 3x = 10 in the set of natural numbers. Set of Whole Numbers: The set of natural numbers together with zero is called the set of whole numbers. It is denoted by W = {0, 1,2, 3, ...}. The set of whole numbers possesses all the above properties of natural numbers along with the additive identity property: a+0=a, Vaew. Here 0 is called the Additive Identity element. The set of whole number also faces the same drawbacks which were reported in the case of set of natural numbers, i.e, the existence of negative numbers and numbers with fractional part. Set of Integers: The set of natural numbers together with their additive inverses (the natural numbers with negative sign) and zero is called the set of Integers. It is denoted by I or Z = {or-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}. The set of integers possesses all the above properties of whole numbers along with the additive inverse property, viz., Va €/ there exists a unique element aI such that a a+(-a)= 0=(-a)+a Here —a is called the additive inverse of a. Thus, one can say that subtraction is always possible in J, ie. , given any two members, a,b of I, a- b is again a member of! for all a,b I, Further it will be seen that the division is not always possible in the set of integers, because if a is not a divisor of b, for example if a = 3 and b = 10, there exists no x such that 3x = 10 in the set of integers. This is one of the limitations of I. Set of Rational Numbers: The numbers ofthe form =, where p and q are integers with q + 0 are called the rational numbers. The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q. Since each integer can be written as a ‘we can say that each integer is a rational number but not conversely (as the rational number +s not an integer).4 antes S. Swat 1Se, Mathemation tt (hy De Mala Algebrate struc ¥ braie structure of Q: Ax in 1, the set Q of rational numbers admits of two compost Me. Addition and Multiplication, We give below the basic propertion of these | Compositions, Va, b,c € Q we have © The Pan additive id axkhtion composition ix commutative, associative, asinity oF v and each eleme . é - We. Oand each clement a admits ofan additive inverse, vies = 4 The multiplication composition is commutative, associative, adinits oF @ multip i of multiplicative im identity, viz., 1 and each non-zero element p/q admit a/p. * Multiplication distributes addition In view of the above, one can say that the operations of subtraction and division: Possible in the set of rational numbers Q. However we cunnot solve an equation of —2=0 in Q. That is there is no rational number whose square is 2. This is be fact that Q does not contain the members of the form V2. Set of Irrational Numbers: The numbers which are not rational are called i For example, V2 , V8 , m and e etc. are irrational numbers. = 1.2 Set of Real Numbers The union of set of rational numbers and irrational numbers is, called a it is denoted by R. a Field Structure of R: Addition Composition ; The process of associating to each ordered pair Y real number called their sum, denoted by a +b is called Addition’ following properties: Al:a+(b+c) = (atb)+c¢, Va,b, ce R ‘A2: There exists a real number, viz., at+0=a, VaeR. a+(-a)=0=(-a)+a — A4:at b = bt+a, Vabe Rtion, ayy m ns _> ©» Real Number System "multiplication Composition : The process of associating to each ordered pair of real numbers a,b, @ real number called their product, denoted by ab is called Multiplication Composition. It has the following properties: MI: a(bc) = (ab)c, Va,b,cE R (Associativity) M2: There exists a real number, viz., ‘0’ such that al=a, VaeR. (Existence of multiplicative identity) M3: To each real number a ¥ 0 in R, there exists 1/a € R such that a(1/a) = 1=(1/a)a (Existence of multiplicative inverse) M4: ab = ba, Va,be R. (Commutativity) There is also a law known as Distributive Law which relates the above two compositions. It is defined by AMI: a (b+ c).=,ab + ac, ¥ab,c € Re Thus the set of real numbers admitting of two compositions satisfying the nine properties mentioned above is referred to possess a field structure. Order Structure of R: = = ‘Greater than’ relation: Given any two different real numbers a, b we have either a > bor b >a. This ‘Greater than’ relation has the following property : Ol:a>bandb>c >a>c _ Transitivity) 2 O2:a>b »ate>bte O3:a>bandc>0>ac>be | s “Thus the set of real numbers admitting of two compositions (addition and multiplication) and a ‘Greater than’ relation satisfying the twelve properties mentioned above is referred to as order field. 1.3 Intervals Closed interval: If, b be two given real numbers such that a < b, then the set , {xi asxs b} a, b]. is called a closed interval. It is denoted by the symbol [ Open interval: If a, b be two given real numbers such that a < b, then the set {xi ad. () fying (1) unbounde E S such the Bounded below: , . A subset S of R is said to be bounded below if there exists a real number a, 1c necessarily a member of S, such that xESSx2zaVxes The number a is called a lower bound of S. If there exists no real number A Satisfying (2), thes the set S is said to be not hounded or unbounded below. Thus, set S is unbounded below i! however small areal number a may be chosen, there exists at least one x € S such that x Ms = Mz Hence the supremum (or 1u.b,) of S is unique. @) Theorem 2, Infimum (or g..b.) of a non-empty set $ of real numbers, whenever it exists, is unique. Proof: (Please try yourself)8 B.Sc. Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh 8. Swam, Theorem 3, A real number M is supremum of a bounded above set $ if and only if Msatisfes , following conditions : (xs MVxES (ii) For each positive real number € , there exists a real number x € S$ such thatx > M-e. Proof: First suppose that M is supremum of a set S. = M is an upper bound of S SxXSMVxES Further, if € > 0 be given, then M — ¢ is smaller than the supremum M of S. = M~—e isnot an upper bound of S. Hence there exists at least one element x € S such that x > M - é. Conversely suppose that a real number M satisfies the conditions (i) and (ii) of the statement of the theorem. By the condition (), ie. x < Mx € S, it implies that M is an upper bound of S. Now to show that Mis the supremum of. ‘5, we must prove that no real number less than M can be an upper bound of S. Let ifpossible, M’ be another real number such that M! 0. Lete=M—M'sothate>0,° 9 : Hence, by the condition (ii), there exists some x € S such that x> M-¢i.e.,x>M—-(M—M’)i.e.,.x>M’ This shows that M’ is not an upper bond of S. | , Thus we proved that M is an upper bound of S and no real number less than M isan upper bound of S. Hence, by definition, M is the supremum of S. Theorem 4, A real number m is infimum of a bounded below set S if and only if msatisfies the following conditions : : | @x2zmvxes 7 (ii) For each Positive Teal number € , there exists a real number x € S such that x < m+e. Proof (Please try yourself) Note: * A set may or may not have the Supremum or/and infimum. Of course, the supremum and infimum, if they exist are unique. * The supremum and infimum of a set may or may not belong to the setRae eC ee eee ok ga Number Sytem ie, S° th, Bounded sets ‘A set S of real numbers is said to be bounded, if it is bounded above as well as below. EB ‘Thus, when S is bounded, there exist two real numbers m and M such that msSxsM,WxES On the other hand a set Sis said to be unbounded if it is not bounded. For example : The set N of natural numbers is bounded below but not bounded above. Further, inf N= 1. The sets J,@ are neither bounded above nor bounded below. Fach of the intervals Ja, b[, ]a,5], [a, b[, [a,b] is bounded set. o For]a, b[, the Supremum = b, the Infimum = a. Both do not belong to Ja, bl o For /a, bj, the Supremum = b, the Infimum = a. Only b € Ja,b] o Fora, bf, the Supremum = b, the Infimum = a. Only a € [a,b[ © For[a, bj, the Supremum = b, the Infimum = a. Botha and b belong to [a, b]. WORKED EXAMPLES Example 1. sup S then what can be said about the set Ss. he If S is a bounded non-empty sub-set of R, then prove that inf SS supS.If inf S= Solution: Since S is non-empty sub-set of R we can choose some x € S. Then by the definition of Supremum and Infimum we have inf S y, Vy € T. SineSST,xES=> x ET. So,M2> x, Vx €S, = M is an upper bound of S and hence sup S< M. Thus, sup $< supT,asM = supT. Gi) Letinf T= m. Then, by definition, m < y, Vy eT. SinceSST,x€S= x ET. So,m< x, Vx€T, = mis a lower bound of S and hence m < inf S, Thus, inf T < inf $,asm= inf T. i ole ice Example 3. 1S and T be two sub-sets of R such that S&T and $ + $. Then, prove that inf inf Ss supS < supT. Solution: From the part (ii) of above Example 2, we have inf T < inf s. From the Example 1, we have inf S< sups. @ Q)Real Number, ‘System. From the part (i) of above Example 2, we have sup SS supT Combining (1), (2) and (3) we get a inf T-< inf S Hts eiby oe er tint boc infS and supS € S. (ii)Let $= ((-1)"2:n € N} S=(-1, 2-34-5 6-3 $= (0-5-3124 6,0} Clearly, 5 is neither bounded above nor bounded below.12 B.Sc. Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh 5. Sway Hence the given set 5 is unbounded and Sup S and inf S do not exist. (ivy Lets = (**8:n € N} ” Ss {4+ 2: née N} 5=[08), 545,42 4.) Clearly, 4S x <7, VxES.” = Sis bounded, Further we have, infS = 4 and supS = 7. Itis easy to say that infS ¢ S while supS € S. @Let $= {2 :ne n} s-(22.4.) Clearly, #and sup S = 1. It is easy to say that inf S € S while supS¢5S. (vii) Set of all real numbers R is unbounded. Thus R does not have supremum « infimum. es 1H Sand Tare bounded sub-sets of R, then prove that SAT and $ UT ar 2 bounded. : Solution; Since S is bounded, there exist two real numbers m, and M, such that MmSasM, Vaes, Also since Tis bounded, there exist two real numbers my and My. such that ™msSbsM, Wher, Letm = min{m,,m,} and M = min{M,, M2}. Then clearly, MSxSM, WxeSnTand MSxSM, VWxreSuUT Hence ST andS U T are boundedReal ‘Number System B EXERCISE 1 Determine whether the following sets are bounded or not. Also find their supremum and infimum, if exist. @ {+Cnr:nen} a fico ts tor. (iii) Set of all integers. 2. IfSandT are any two non-empty bounded sub-sets of R, then show that @ sup(S U T) = max(supS, supT) (i) Inf(S N T) = min(infS, inf T) 3, Prove that every sub-set of a set bounded above is ee aboye. 4, Prove that every sub-set ofa set bounded below is bounded below. 5, Prove that every sub-set of a bounded set is bounded .. Answers: 1. Bounded, inf = 1, sup = 3/2. 2. Bounded, inf = 1, sup = 2 3. Unbounded.14 B.Sc. Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swam, 1.7 Completeness property of R It is seen that the set R of real numbers is an ordered field and hence the set Q of ration; numbers is also an ordered field. Now we will state a property which establishes a dissimilar, between these two ordered fields. Order-completeness of R: The order-completeness property of R can be stated as every non-empty set of re, numbers which is bounded above admits of a least upper bound (i.e., supremum). This property states that if § be a set of real numbers which is bounded above, the; exists the smallest of the upper bounds of S. If a number b is the smallest of the upper boung of S it must satisfy the following two properties: (@ The number b is an upper bound of S, ie. , no member of S is greater than j ie. ,xx b’. Thus, we have accomplished the explanation of the set of real numbers as a complete orderei field. To establish a distinction between Q and R, we have the following theorem. Theorem 5. The ordered field of rational numbers is not order-complete. The Proof is beyond the scope of this Book. Hence, the set of rational numbers is not order-complete. Note: * As a consequence order-completeness of the system of real numbers, we observe th existence of a real number with square 2.— teal Number Sytem 9 As the square of no rational murniiey ye 1 (1) 19 Wh aren ccnnpherey, it fotlows that the eal number K whine square in 2 16 10d rational The real number k whose square ie 2 iy briny as npaicmeal trecibver. This establishes the existence of inational nuuibers Lent description of order completeness fH) ‘Theorem 6. (Fquival A non-empty sub-set of RK which is hounded tulow has the greatest lower bound (infimum) in R Proof: Let S$ be anon-empty sub-set of R which is hounded below. We define a set T as T= (-x1 x€ S}. w Then, clearly T is also a non-empty sub-set of real numbers. Fint, we shall prove that 7 is bounded above. Since S is bounded below, there exists a lower bound a for S such that xza, wxes e-xs-a, wes v(—-x) ET (byl) 4) as its upper bound. et T of real numbers must have the a-xs-4, =T is bounded above with (— Now, by the order-completeness property of R, the sub-st least upper bound (supremum), say, ¢ We shall now show that inf =~ ¢- Since tis the lub, of T, = tis the upper bound of i = (- £) isa lower bound of iS Let b be any lower bound of 5. Then (- b) is an upper bound of T. Now, t=supT and (- b) is an upper bound of T Beep le, teh16 B.Sc. Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swap This show tha that (- ¢) is the g.l.b. of S, ie. ,infS =- ¢. Thus, every non-empty subset of R which is bounded below, possesses a g.1.b (i.e., infimum 1.8 Archimedean Property of R The Archimedean property of R is a consequence of the order-completeness property of R. Theorem 7. (Archimedean Property of R) If x and y are two given real numbers with x > 0, then there exists a natural num nsuch that nx > y. Proof: Suppose if possible that there exists no natural number n such that nx> y. >nxsy, WneN Consider the set A = {nx : n € N}. Clearly, this set A is bounded above and y is the upper bound of A. Further we know that A is a non-empty subset of R. Then, by the order-completeness of R, the set A must possess the least upper bc (supremum). Let b be the least upper bound of the set A. Then, We have =nxsb, WneN =>(m+1)x< b, vmeN Smx+x y is wrong. Thus, it follows that there exists a natural number n such that nx > y. Hence the Archimedean Property is proved. Corollary 1: For any real number a there exists a positive integer n such thatn > a. Proof: By choosing x = 1 and y = a in the Theorem 7 we obtain the required result. Corollary 2: For any € > 0 there exists a positive integer n, such that < X. Hence, there exists no positive real number x such thatn < x, Vn EN = No positive real number is an upper bound of N = N is not bounded above. 1.9 Neighbourhood of a point A set A is said to be a neighbourhood of a point a, if there exists an open interval I containing a and contained in the set A,ie, ETC A. © Anopen interval is a neighbourhood of each of its points. © The open intervals containing a point are not the only neighbourhoods of that point. © An open interval (a-ea+ €) isa neighbourhood of a for every positive real number € * Each neighbourhood neighbourhood. rs is not a neighbourhood of any of its points, because for © The set N of natural numbe! al number € such that n € (n ~ €, nteycNn. any n € N, we cannot find a re © Similarly we can observe that the set of integers, rational, irrationals are not the neighbourhood of any of their points. of a point is an jnfinite set but every infinite set need not beaB.Sc, Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh S.Swam The set of real numbers R is a neighbourhood of each of its points. ® Any set A cannot be a neighbourhood of any of points of ne complement RoAt © The deleted neighbourhood of a point is one from which the point mo is delet: Thus, if A is a neighbourhood of a point a, then the set A- {a} is a dele neighbourhood of a. Properties of Neighbourhoods: Theorem 9: : : If A isa neighbourbood of a point x and A c B, then Bis also a neighbourhood of the point x. Proof: Since A is a neighbourhood of point x, there exists an open interval (x —€, x +€) f real number € > 0, such that xE(x-e, xt+e)CA >x€(x-e€, xte)CACB =>x€(x-e, xte)cB Hence, B is a neighbourhood of point x. Theorem 10: If A and B are the neighbourhoods of point x, then (A N B) is also a neighbourhoo point x. Proof: Since A is a neighbourhood of point x, there exists an open interval (x —€,, x + €, areal number €, > 0, such that xE(x-G, xt+Eq)CA Also, since B is a neighbourhood of point x, there exists an open interval @-e, x+e) real number €2 > 0, such that xE(x-€, x+6:)CB Let us choose € = min (€, €2) so that € < €, and < €2. Thus, @-6 xte)c(x-a, x +€) and (x -e, xte)C(x-e, xt) >xE(x—e, xte)C(x-G, e+e) CA and xE(x-6, xt+e)C(x-e, x+e)CB S>x€(x-e, xte)cA and x€(x-€, x+e)CB SxE(x-e, xte)C (ANB) Hence, (AB) is a neighbourhood of point x.Real ‘Number System ‘Theorem A: A set A is a neighbourhood of a point a if and only if there exists a positive integer m such that the open interval (a - ‘, at +) cA Proof: First suppose that A is a neighbourhood of point a. Thus, there exists an open interval (a—¢, a +e) for areal number € > 0, such that a€(a-€, ate)cA, Now, 67 0> : > 0. Also : is a real number. since, by the ‘Archimedean property, it is always possible to find a positive integer greater than any real number, we can choose a positive integer n such that 1 n>e 1, 1 =>-at— 0 = (p—€, p + €) is a neighbourhood of p which contains no point of S other than Thus, p is not a limit point of S. But this is a contradiction. Hence our assumption that every neighbourhood of p contains only finite number points of S is wrong.21 Real Number System \ , Hence every neighbourhood of p must contain infinitely many points of S. ee suppose that every neighbourhood of p contains infinitely many points of S. Then clearly, every neighbourhood of p contains a point of S different from p and hence p is a limit point of S. Alternative definition of limit point ‘A point p is called a limit point of a set S if every neighbourhood of p contains infinitely many points of S. Note: Appoint p is a limit point of a set S if and only if given any neighbourhood A of p, the set ANS is an infinite set « Apoint pis a limit point ofa S if for each neighbourhood A of p, (A ns)-@}#o e Appoint p is not a limit point of a set S if there exists at least one neighbourhood of p containing at the most of finite number of members of S. « A point p is not a limit point of a set S if there exists at least one neighbourhood of p containing no point of S other than p. «A point p is not a limit point of a set S if there exists at least one neighbourhood A of p such that ANS = {p} or ANS=% . ‘A limit point of a set may or may not be a member ofthe set «Asset may have no limit point, a unique limit point or a finite or infinite number of limit points. Definition: The set ofall the limit points of a set Sis known as its derived set of S. It is denoted by ' $' oD (S). WORKED EXAMPLES Example 1: don 89 a0} ‘ ‘ Show that every point ofthe set ofreal numbers R is a limit point of R. ie., R i Solution: Let p be any real number. bonus Then for each € > 0, the neighbourhood (p — € P + €) contains infinitely many real numbers. Hence p is a limit point of R. Since p is an arbitrary point of hence the derived set of R ie, R'=R. Bz it implies every point of Ris a limit pint of R andoa nee 1 Se Mathematics-I (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swam, - Example 2: Real Num Show that the derived set of set of rational numbers Q is R. le Solution: Let p be any real number and € > 0 be given. ie f Then, p—€ and p +€ are two real numbers and hence there exist infinitely ma: coyytion rational numbers between them. Thus, for cach € > 0, the neighbourhood (p — €, p + €) contains infinitely ma pyamp! rational numbers. Hence p is a limit point of Q. Solutio Since p is an arbitrary point of R, it implies every point of R is a limit point of Q a: hence the derived set of Q i.e. Q’ = R. > Example 3: Show that the derived set of the set of irrational numbers is R. lution: Let p be any real number and € > 0 be given. Then, p—€ and p +e are two real numbers and hence there exist infinitely ma: __— irrational numbers between them. = Thus, for each €>0, the neighbourhood (p —€, p + €) contains infinitely ma: irrational numbers. q Hence p is a limit point of the set of irrational numbers (R — Q). Since p is an arbitrary point of R, it implies every point of R is a limit point of the set irrational numbers (R — Q) and hence the derived set of (R — Q)i.e., (R—Q)' =R Example 4: Show that the set of integers Z has no limit points. Thus, Z' = @. 7 Solution: We have the following two cases. q Case (i) Let p be an integer. Then the neighbourhood (p = ; Per 3) contains no point of Z other than p. he Hence, p cannot be thbe limit point of Z. se Since p is an arbitrary integer, we can say that no integer is a limit point of Z. q Case (ii) Let p be an arbitrary real number and p ¢ Z. Then, there exist m € Z such thatm p cannot be thbe limit point of Z. Hence, In view of the cases (i) and (ii), we see that Z has no limit point => The derived set of Z is the empty set.23 Real Number System, Example 5 Show that the set of natural numbers has no limit points. Thus, N ‘=o. ‘Solution: (Please try yourself) Example 6: ; Show that a finite set has no limit points ‘Solution: Let S be a finite set. Let p be any real number. Then for € > 0, there exists a nbd (p—€, p +€) containing only finite number of members of the given finite set S. Hence p is not a limit point of S. Since p is any real number, it implies that the finite set S has no limit points and hence its derived set S' = ¢. EXERCISES 1. Find the set of limit points and hence the derived set of the following sets @ @b) @ [a 4] Gi) @ F] (vy) [a 4) where . beR. (vy) — Answers: ( [a, 51, Gi) [a, 6], Gii) (a, b], Gy) [a, 4) 7. Bolzano-Weiestrass theorem We have seen that a finite set does not have a limit point and an infinite set may or may not have a limit point. For example, the infinite set Z of integers has 00 limit point while the infinite set Q of rational numbers has the limit points. We shall now state a theorem w’ sufficient conditions for an infinite set to have @ limit point. Bolzano-Weiestrass theorem. "Statement: Every bounded and infinite set has a limit point. Proof. (The Proof is not prescribed in the Syllabus).B.Sc. Mathematics-I1 (by Dr Mahantesh $. Sum, 24 a Note: * The condition of boundedness of the above Theorem is only sufficient condition for th existence of a limit point of an infinite set A. This condition is not necessary for a , Ato have a limit point, For Example the set Q rational numbers is an infinite a, unbounded set, Even then we have seen that every real number is a limit point of ;) set Q, 8. Open sets Definition: A set is said to be open if it is a neighbourhood of each of its points. Thus, if A be an open set and x is any point of A, then, there exists an open interval (a, b) su, that x € (a,b) ¢ A, Therefore we have an Equivalent definition for the Open set. Definition: A set A is said to be open if for each x € A, there exists € > 0 such that (x. €& xte)ca. Note: * To prove that the set A is not open we have to show that there exist at least one point A for which A is not a neighbourhood. Examples: - Every open interval Ja, b[ is an open set. The interval [a, b[ is not an open set because it is not a nbd of a. The interval Ja, b] is not an open set because it is not a nbd of b. The interval [a, b] is not an open set because it is not a nbd of a and b. Sets Ja, cof and ]- 0, a[ are open sets. Sets [a, cof and ]- co a} are not open sets. The set Q of all rational numbers and the set Q° are not the open sets. The set Z of all integers and the set N of all natural numbers are not the open sets because they are not the nbds of any of their points. Theorem 13. Every open interval is an open set. Proof: Let (a, b) be any open interval. To show that (a, b) is open set choose an arbitrary point x of (a,b) =>ax€ (c,d) c (a,b) Hence, (a, b) is an open set. Thus, every open interval is an open set. PAAKaAWNEogee | Number System closed sets fisition: A set is said to be closed if it contains all of its limit points. ys, a set A is closed if and only if A' ¢ A, where A’ is the derived set of A, i.e., the set of all jimit points of A. ‘¢ There may be a set which is both open and closed. For example, the set of real numbers Ris both open and closed, Similarly, the empty set o is also both open and closed. «There may be a set which is neither open nor closed. For example, the set Q of rational numbers as a sub-set of the set R of real numbers is neither open nor closed, The following theorem gives a relationship between the open and closed sets. xamples: 1, Every closed interval [a, b] is a closed set. 2. Every open interval Ja, bf is not a closed set. 3, Ja, b] and [a, bf are both closed sets. 4, }e a] isa closed set because its complement, namely, }-, af is an open set 5, [a,@[ isa closed set. 6, The set Q° ofall irrational numbers is not a closed set because its complement Q is not an open set. 7, The set Q pf al rational numbers is not a closed sct because its complement Q° of all irrational numbers is not an open set. 8, The set Z of all integers and the set N of all natural numbers are the closed sets, 9. Anon-empty finite set is a closed set. ‘Theorem 14. A setis closed if and only if its complement is open. Proof: Let A bea subset of R and B = R— Ave the complement of A. First suppose that A is a closed. To show that B is open, choose an arbitrary point x of B. SineexEB>x¢A ( Ais complement of B) ‘Also since A is a closed set and x is not a point of A, it implies that x is not a limit point of A. Thus, there exists neighbourhood, say (a, b) of x not containing any point of A so that we have x€(a,b)¢A 2x€ (a,b) CB Therefore, for every point x of B, there exists a neighbourhood of x contained in B. Hence B is an open set. Conversely, suppose that B is an open set. ‘Now, we shall prove that its complement A = R-B is closed. Let x bea limit point of the set A.WSe. Mathonation hy Dr Mahanterh 5 20 ote tok Mgerbos 9 We have to show that x belongs (0 A or equivalently show that x does Het hele, complement B of A, Let if possible x € B. Then, there exists a neighbourhood of x contained in H (since 11 is open) Thus, we can say that there exists neighbourhood of x not contained in A (sj), Nones complement of B). This implies that x is not a limit point of A. But this is a contradiction, Hence our assumption that x € 2 is wrong, = x cannot be a member of the open set B and as such x belongs to A, = A contains its limit point x Further since x is an arbitrary limit point of A , we can conclude that A contain, , its limit points. - Hence A is a closed set, Theorem 15. The intersection of two open sets is open. rote Proof: Let G, and G2 be two open sets, L To show that G, M G is open, choose an arbitrary point x € G, N G2. Since x € G, NG, =xeéG, and x€G, => G, and Gz are the neighbourhoods of x. (+ G, and G2 are open se. = G, MG, is aneighbourhood of x Note: Since x is an arbitrary point of G, N G2, = = G, Gz is a neighbourhood each of its points £ ° Hence, G, N G2 is an open set. Theorem 16. The union of two open sets is an open set Proof: Let G, and G2 be two open sets. ? To show that G, U G. is open, choose an arbitrary point x € G, UG). Since x € G, UG, . =>x€G, orxE€G, = G, is a neighbourhoods of x or G, isa neighbourhoods of x. “ G, and G. mn Se We know that G, ¢ (6, U G,) and G ¢ (G, UG). ae -" Since, any super-set of the neighbourhood of a point is also a neighbourhood of * point, it follows that G, UG isa neighbourhood of x, Further oo is an arbitrary point of G, U G3, > 6, UG, isa neighbourhood each of its points Hence, G, U G2 is an open set.ST i umber System Real N 27 jote? yl The intersection of a finite number of open sets is an open set. The intersection of an arbitrary family of open sets need not be open. Theunion of an arbitrary family of open sets is an open set. Theorem 17. The union of two closed sets is a closed set Let G, and Gz be two closed sets. Let Gf and Gf be the complements of G, and G, respectively. Clearly Gf and G7 are the open sets. = G{ NGF is an open set = (G, U G,)° is an open set = (G, UG) isa closed set Proof: (by the Theorem 15) (by the De Morgan’s law, Gf Gf = (G, U Gz)°) (+ the complement of an open set is closed) ‘Theorem 18. The intersection of two closed sets is a closed set Proof: Let Gy and Gz be two closed sets. Let Gf and Gf be the complements of G, and Gz respectively. Clearly Gf and G3 are the open sets. = Gf U Gj is an open set = (G,G,)° is an open set > (GN Gz) is a closed set (by the Theorem 16) (by the De Morgan’s law, Gf U Gf = (G1 .G2)°) (= the complement ofan open set is closed) Note: ‘The union of a finite number of closed sets is a closed set. © The union of an arbitrary family of closed sets need not be closed. The intersection of an arbitrary family of closed sets is closed,28 1 Se, Mathemation tI (hy Dr Mahantesh 8 §,,, Theorem 19, Every open set isa union of open intervals, Preef: Let A be a non-empty open set and a, be an arbitrary point of A, where n € N,V by the indexing set Considering A as a union of singletons like (a),) 4= (Jian) (a) win Since A is an open set, it is a neighbourhood of cach of its points. Hence for each ay € A, there exists an open interval Tq, Such that dy E14, cA Now, I, © A foreach n € N, Urea (2) NEN Also, since ay € Ig, => {a} ¢ I, . Uten c U ie nen nen On using (1), we get 4clJr, @) nEN From (2) and (3), we have 4=U Hence, the open set A is a union of open intervals. 10. Countable and Uncountable sets Some Basic Definitions: ze “ ie = B are said to be equivalent if there exists a one-one and onto mappi For example, the sets N = {1,2,3,.....} of natural numbers and E = {2,4,6,.. all even natural numbers are equivalent because there exists the mapping f : N > defined by f (n) = 2n, vn EN which is one-one and onto, A set is called finite if it contains finite number of elements, If set is not finite, then it is said to be infinite, The number of elements in a finite set is referred to as the cardinality or the cardi number of that set.Te as eal Number System 2 é A set A is said to be denumerable if there exists a one-one and onto mapping from the set N of all natural numbers to the set A, i.e. , if A is equivalent to N. Countable set: A set A is said to be countable if either A is finite or A is denumerable. Uncountable set: Ifa set is not countable, them its sid to be uncountable. Examples: : L The empty set is countable. 2 ‘The set of all natural numbers is denumerable. ‘Theorem 20. (i) Every sub-set ofa finite set is finite. (i) Every super-set of an infinite set is infinite. (iii) If A and B are finite sets, then AN B is also a finite set. (iv) If A and B are finite sets, then AU B is also a finite set Proof. (Please try yourself) Theorem 21. Every sub-set of a countable set is countable. Proof: Let A be a countable set and let B be a sub-set of A. Since A isa countable, so A is either finite or denumerable. (by definition) Case () Let A be a finite set. Since every sub-set of a finite Hence B is countable. Case (ii) Let A be an infinite denumerable set- Let A= {0 02,03, ----}- Now, we have two 3 j Nip ase (a) IF Bis finite subset of A, then B is countable Se ifn of A, ten cork cent of B wi be of Sar for some r € N. Ts, be the least positive integers sub hat n, € Since B is infinite B+ {an,}- Tet be the least postive integer sch that doy P and Gq, € (A- {4n,})- Since B is infinite B + {Any Gn} Let ng be the least positive i such that dg, €B and dn, € (A —{2ny n,})- Coniing in te =v ee B={an,, Ong Ins" where 1 <7 <73<"- ae ing f: NB defined by f(M) = Ong» Vm EN. Clearly, f is both one-one and onto. = B is denumerable. Hence B is countable. set is finite, it follows that B is finite.30 B.Sc, Mathematics-II (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swam, Corollary (i) Every infinite sub-set of a denumerable set is denumerable. Proof: (Please try yourself) Corollary (ii) If A and B are countable sets, then A ) B is also a countable set. Proof: (Please try yourself) Theorem 22. Every super-set of an uncountable set is uncountable. of: Let A be an uncountable set and let B be any super-set of A. Let, if possible, B be a countable set. Then A being a sub-set of a countable set must be countable (by theorem 21). But, this is a contradiction to the fact that A is an uncountable set. Thus, our assumption that B is countable is wrong. Hence B must be uncountable. Theorem 23, Every infinite set has a denumerable sub-set. Proof: Let A be an infinite set. Note: . Leta, €A. Since, A is infinite set # {a,}. Thus, there exists a, € A such that a2 # a. Again since, A is infinite sct A # {ay, a2}. Thus, there exists az; € A such that a, # a, # dy. Continuing in the same way, we obtain a subset B = {a,, a2, d3,...} of A. Now, consider a mapping f : N + B defined by f(m) = am, Vm €N. Clearly, f is both one-one and onto. Hence, B is denumerable. By the above theorem, it follows that countably infinite sets are the smallest infin sets. Theorem 24. Every infinite set is equivalent to one of its Proper sub-sets Proof: Let A be infinite set. Then by theorem 23, A has a denumerable sub-set. Let this subset be C = {04,02,03) 0.) Op) -.}. Let D = A~{a,} and B =(A—C)uD. Since, a, € A and a, + B, it follows that B is a proper sub-set of A. Now, consider a mapping FP APB dete on ea 3 ae Oe) (@y) = Ory, a, €C,r = 1,2,3,.hn peal Numb SEED ——— ———— Clearly, f is both one-one and onto from A to B Hence. A is equivalent to B 28, The countable union of countable sets is countable If Ay, Az, Ay,.--are countable sets, then Ua is countable. or nat Theorem 26. The set of all rational numbers is countable, Corollary 1. The set of all positive rational numbers is countable. Corollary 2. The set of all negative rational numbers is countable. Corollary 3. The set of all rational numbers in (0, 1] is countable. 27. The unit interval (0, 1] is uncountable, i., the set of all real numbers in the Theorem closed interval [0, 1] is not enumerable. The set of real numbers is not countable. Corollary 1. ‘The set of irrational numbers is uncountable. Corollary 2. Theorem 28. The setN x N is countable, where N is the set of natural numbers. Corollary1. IfA and B are countable sets, prove that A x B is countable. Theorem 29. Any interval is equivalent to the set R of real numbers. In particular Ris equivalent to [0, 1]. ——— ee Example 1: Prove that the ‘Solution: Consider the mapping f * ; 2 ifm = 1,35). n) = ie -3 ifn = 2,4,6, mapping from N to Z set of all integers Z is countable. NZ defined by Clearly, f is both one-one and onto Thus, N is equivalent to Z . Hence, Z is countable.32 jox-Il (by Dr Mahantesh S. Swa, B.Sc. Math ae £9, +16...) is countable. Show that the set (4124 ution: Consider A = (1,22, 37 « we “Jand A = (-12,-22,-37, =}. Aby f(n) =n?, Wn EN. Define a mapping f : N+ : rv to mapping from N to A «Clearly, f is both one-one and on “Thus, V is equivalent to A. Hence, A is countable. Similarly, we can show that B i * Since union of two countable sets is countable, AUB = (+1,44,49,+16,...} is countable. is countable. it follows that EXERCISE 1. Show that if B is countable sub-set of an uncountable set A, then A — B is 24) a. uncountable. 2. IFA is countable set and fis function from A onto B, prove that B is countable. ne 3. If f:A +B and the range of f is uncountable, prove that the domain of f » mec uncountable 4. Indicate countable and uncountable sets from the following : De a. {3, 32, 33, 34, ...... 3m, .....} (ii) The set of positive rational numbers b. JO, 15, [0, 1,10, 1 (iv) The set of prime numbers. G 5. Show that if B is a countable sub-set of an uncountable set, then A — B is uncountable \ 6. Show that the set of all intervals with rational end points is a countable set. ¢ 7. Prove that if f: A 3 B is a function defined on a countable set, then the range of f: countable. 8. Prove that any set containing an uncountable set is uncountable. ( e 10. Prove that any sub-set of R which contains ]0, 1[ is uncountable. Prove that the set of all finite sub-sets of a countable set is countable.