Computer Network & Network Design

1) What are different types of Computer Networks? Explain with an area.

Ans:
Geographical Classification of Computer Networks
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:
1. It may be spanned across your home among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging not more than few
meters.
2. It may be spanned across a whole building including intermediate devices to connect all floors.
3. It may be spanned across a whole city.
4. It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
5. It may be one network covering whole world.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

1. A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology that creates a safe and encrypted connection over a
less secure network, such as the internet.
2. A Virtual Private Network is a way to extend a private network using a public network such as the
internet.
3.The name only suggests Virtual “private network” i.e. user can be part of a local network by sitting at
a remote location. It uses tunnelling protocols to establish a secure connection.
For Example:
a) Think of a situation where head office of a bank situated in Washington, USA. This office has a local
network consisting of 100 computers. Suppose other branches of the bank are in MumbaiIndia, and
Tokyo-Japan. The traditional method of establishing a secure connection between head office and
branch was to have a leased line between the branches and head office which was a very costly as well
as troublesome job. VPN lets us overcome this issue in an effective manner.
b) All 100 hundred computers of the head office at Washington are connected to the VPN server which
is a well-configured server containing a public IP address and a switch to connect all computers present
in the local network i.e. in US head office.
c) The person sitting in the Mumbai office connects to The VPN server using a dial-up window and the
VPN server returns an IP address that belongs to the series of IP addresses belonging to a local network
of the head office.
d) Thus person from the Mumbai branch becomes local to the head office and information can be
shared securely over the public internet.
e) So this is the intuitive way of extending the local network even across the geographical borders of
the country.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

1. Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
2. Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person.
3. Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet and 10 meters.
4. Personal devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the computer, laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations.
There are two types of Personal Area Network Wired and Wireless Personal Area Network.
I. Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.
II. Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Local Area Network (LAN)
1. Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as building,
office.
2. LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium such
as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
3. It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet
cables.
4. The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
5. Local Area Network provides higher security.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

1. Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local Area Wireless
Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a
wireless connection.
2. The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path sharing,
802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
3. Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an office.
4. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected to the network.
5. In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable, while in other
cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the public. Whatever the reason,
wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

1. A Campus Area Network (CAN) is a network that joins two or more LAN’s together within a limited
area.
2. For Example a CAN could be a University that has multiple buildings in the same general area that
are connected to each other to form a larger network. So these buildings could be different
departments on a University’s property with each other having their own LAN in their department. And
then the buildings are connected to form a Campus Area Network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

1. A metropolitan area network MAN is a network with a size greater than LAN but smaller than a
WAN.
2. A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network and these LANs are connected to each other through a
telephone exchange line.
3. The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3, ADSL, etc.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries.
2. A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
3. A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
4. The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
5. A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
2) Explain ISO-OSI Reference Model with Protocols in each layer.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the
functions of a telecommunication or computing system into seven abstraction layers. Each layer serves
a specific purpose and communicates with the layers above and below it. Here's a brief overview of
each layer along with some example protocols commonly associated with them:

1) Physical Layer: This layer deals with the physical transmission of data bits over a communication
channel. It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for transmitting
raw data.
Protocols and technologies in this layer include:
 Ethernet
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
 Fiber Optics
 RS-232
 USB

2) Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data between adjacent nodes on
the network. It provides framing, error detection, and error correction functionalities. Protocols and
technologies in this layer include:
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
 IEEE 802.11 MAC layer (Wi-Fi)
3) Network Layer: This layer is concerned with routing packets from the source to the destination
across multiple network nodes. It provides logical addressing, routing, and path determination.
Protocols and technologies in this layer include:
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
 Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)

4) Transport Layer: This layer ensures that data is reliably delivered between endpoints and provides
error checking and recovery mechanisms. It also handles flow control and congestion control. Protocols
and technologies in this layer include:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

5) Session Layer: This layer establishes, manages, and terminates connections between applications. It
also handles synchronization and checkpointing of ongoing transmissions. Protocols and technologies
in this layer include:
 Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
 NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)
 Session Layer in OSI model is generally implemented by the application layer of TCP/IP model.

6) Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for data translation, encryption, compression, and
formatting for the application layer. It ensures that data is presented in a readable format. Protocols
and technologies in this layer include:
 JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
 MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group)
 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security)

7) Application Layer: This layer interacts directly with end-users and provides services such as file
transfer, email, remote login, and web browsing. Protocols and technologies in this layer include:
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

Each layer in the OSI model relies on the services provided by the layers beneath it and provides
services to the layers above it, thus creating a hierarchical and modular network architecture.

3) Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Protocols in each layer.

The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes specific protocols.

TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined according to a specific
function to perform. All these four TCP IP layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
layer to another.

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Interface

a) Application Layer: This layer interacts directly with end-users and provides network services such as
email, file transfer, and remote login. It includes protocols that support communication between
applications.
Protocols:
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transmitting and receiving web page data over the Internet.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between a client and server on a network.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email messages between servers.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names to IP addresses, enabling users to access websites
using human-readable addresses.

b) Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end communication between devices. It
ensures data reliability, flow control, and error recovery.
Protocols:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication by establishing
a connection, ensuring data delivery, and handling acknowledgments and retransmissions.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides connectionless communication, suitable for applications where
speed and efficiency are prioritized over reliability.

c) Internet Layer: This layer is responsible for routing packets across networks and enabling
communication between different networks. It deals with IP addressing and packet forwarding.
Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol): Defines the addressing scheme and packet structure for routing data packets across
networks.
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error reporting and diagnostics in IP networks.

d) Link Layer (also known as Network Access Layer or Network Interface Layer):
This layer deals with the physical connection between devices and the transmission of data frames
over the local network medium.
Protocols:
 Ethernet: A widely used protocol for wired LANs, defining how data is formatted, addressed, transmitted,
and received.
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Defines standards for wireless LANs, allowing devices to communicate over radio
frequencies.
It's worth noting that the TCP/IP model is a simplified version of the OSI model (Open Systems
Interconnection model) and is commonly used in the context of the Internet and modern networking.

4) What are different types of Guided and Unguided Media? Explain.

a) Guided Media: Guided media are those that use physical cables or wires to transmit data signals.
These cables guide the signals along a specific path, providing a controlled environment for data
transmission.

1) Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cables are the most common type of guided media used in
networking. They consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic
interference.
There are two main types:
i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Used in Ethernet networks for short to medium distances.
ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Provides additional protection against electromagnetic interference,
commonly used in industrial environments.

2) Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cables consist of a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a
metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer.
They are commonly used in cable television (CATV) networks and high-speed internet connections.

3) Optical Fiber Cable: Optical fiber cables transmit data signals using light pulses instead of electrical
signals. They offer high bandwidth, low attenuation (signal loss), and resistance to electromagnetic
interference. Optical fiber cables are widely used in long-distance communication networks, such as
internet backbone connections and telecommunications.

b) Unguided Media: Unguided media, also known as wireless media, transmit data signals through the
air without the use of physical cables. These signals propagate freely in the surrounding environment.

1) Radio Waves: Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from kilohertz to
gigahertz. They are used in wireless communication technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular
networks, and radio broadcasting.

2) Microwaves: Microwaves have higher frequencies than radio waves, typically in the gigahertz range.
They are used for point-to-point communication links, such as microwave transmission towers for long-
distance communication and satellite communication.

3) Infrared: Infrared waves have frequencies lower than visible light and higher than microwaves.
They are commonly used for short-range communication, such as remote controls, infrared data
transmission between devices, and infrared-based proximity sensors.

4) Light Waves: Light waves, including visible light and ultraviolet waves, can also be used for wireless
communication.
For example, Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) technology uses visible light to transmit data wirelessly, offering high-
speed communication in indoor environments.

Unguided media offer the advantage of mobility and flexibility since they do not require physical
cables. However, they are more susceptible to interference and attenuation compared to guided
media.
5) What are different classes of IP Addresses?
6) Explain IP Addresses with ranges & number of Networks and Hosts in each class.
An IP address is the identifier that enables your device to send or receive data packets across the
internet. It holds information related to your location and therefore making devices available for two-
way communication. The internet requires a process to distinguish between different networks,
routers, and websites. Therefore, IP addresses provide the mechanism of doing so, and it forms an
indispensable part in the working of the internet.

IP addresses are classified into several classes based on the number of network bits and host bits they
contain. However, with the introduction of Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), the traditional
concept of IP address classes has become less relevant. Nevertheless, here are the historical classes of
IP addresses:

Class A:
 Range: 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
 First octet ranges from 1 to 126, with the first bit always set to 0.
 The remaining 7 bits in the first octet represent the network portion of the address, while the remaining 24
bits represent the host portion.
 Number of Networks: 2^7 - 2 = 126 (subtracting 2 for reserved addresses)
 Number of Hosts per Network: 2^24 - 2 = 16,777,214 (subtracting 2 for network and broadcast addresses)
 Example: 10.0.0.1, 49.123.45.67

Class B:
 Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
 First octet ranges from 128 to 191, with the first two bits always set to 10.
 The remaining 14 bits in the first two octets represent the network portion of the address, while the
remaining 16 bits represent the host portion.
 Number of Networks: 2^14 - 2 = 16,384 (subtracting 2 for reserved addresses)
 Number of Hosts per Network: 2^16 - 2 = 65,534 (subtracting 2 for network and broadcast addresses)
 Example: 172.16.0.1, 150.200.1.10

Class C:
 Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
 First octet ranges from 192 to 223, with the first three bits always set to 110.
 The remaining 21 bits in the first three octets represent the network portion of the address, while the
remaining 8 bits represent the host portion.
 Number of Networks: 2^21 - 2 = 2,097,152 (subtracting 2 for reserved addresses)
 Number of Hosts per Network: 2^8 - 2 = 254 (subtracting 2 for network and broadcast addresses)
 Example: 192.168.1.1, 200.10.20.30

Class D (Multicast Addresses):

 Range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
 Reserved for multicast groups.
 Used for one-to-many communication.

Class E (Experimental Addresses):

 Range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
 Reserved for experimental purposes and future use.
 Not used in standard networking.
It's important to note that CIDR introduced the notion of variable-length subnet masking (VLSM),
allowing for more flexible allocation of IP addresses. As a result, CIDR has largely replaced the rigid
class-based system for IP address assignment and routing.

7) Write short notes on Gigabit Ethernets.

Gigabit Ethernet is a networking technology that enables data transmission at speeds of up to 1 gigabit
per second (Gbps), which is significantly faster than traditional Ethernet standards. Here are some key
points about Gigabit Ethernet:

 High-Speed Connectivity: Gigabit Ethernet provides significantly higher speeds compared to previous
Ethernet standards, making it suitable for demanding applications that require fast data transfer rates.
 Backward Compatibility: Gigabit Ethernet is backward compatible with older Ethernet standards, allowing
for seamless integration with existing network infrastructure. It can operate at lower speeds (such as 100
Mbps or 10 Mbps) when connected to devices or networks that do not support Gigabit Ethernet.
 Physical Medium: Gigabit Ethernet can be deployed over various physical media types, including twisted
pair copper cables (such as Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6a), fiber optic cables (both multimode and single-mode), and
even wireless connections (using Wi-Fi standards like 802.11ac).
 Duplex Modes: Gigabit Ethernet supports both half-duplex and full-duplex operation. Full-duplex mode
allows simultaneous transmission and reception of data, effectively doubling the potential bandwidth
compared to half-duplex mode.
 Applications: Gigabit Ethernet is widely used in various applications, including high-speed internet access
for homes and businesses, local area network (LAN) connectivity in office environments, data center
networking for server-to-server communication and storage area networks (SANs), and backbone
connections in campus networks and metropolitan area networks (MANs).
 Improved Performance: The high-speed connectivity provided by Gigabit Ethernet improves network
performance, reduces latency, and enhances overall user experience, particularly in bandwidth-intensive
environments where large volumes of data need to be transferred quickly and efficiently.

In summary, Gigabit Ethernet is a fundamental technology for modern networking, offering high-speed
connectivity and ample bandwidth to support the growing demands of today's digital world.

8) Calculate the check-summed frame to be Transmitted for a given frame 1101011011 using the
generator G(x) = x4 + x + 1.

1. Start with the given frame: 1101011011

2. Append zeros to the frame to match the length of the generator polynomial: 11010110110000.
3. Now, perform a binary division of the augmented frame by the generator polynomial x 4+x+1.
4. The remainder obtained after the division is the checksum.
5. Append the checksum to the original frame to get the check-summed frame to be transmitted.

Let's perform the calculation:

The remainder after division is 1110, which is the checksum. So, the check-summed frame to be
transmitted, including the checksum, is 11010110111110.

9) Compare ISO-OSI & TCP/IP Reference models.

OSI TCP/IP
It stands for Open System Interconnection. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI model has been developed by ISO It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced
(International Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).
It is also known as a reference model through It is an implemented model of an OSI model.
which various networks are built. For example,
the TCP/IP model is built from the OSI model.
It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.
In the OSI model, the transport layer provides a The transport layer does not provide the surety
guarantee for the delivery of the packets. for the delivery of packets. But still, we can say
that it is a reliable model.
The usage of this model is very low. This model is highly used.
This model is based on a vertical approach. This model is based on a horizontal approach.
In this model, the session and presentation In this model, the session and presentation layer
layers are separated, i.e., both the layers are are not different layers. Both layers are included
different. in the application layer.
In this model, the network layer provides both The network layer provides only connectionless
connection-oriented and connectionless service. service.
It is an independent standard and generic It consists of standard protocols that lead to the
protocol used as a communication gateway development of an internet. It is a
between the network and the end user. communication protocol that provides the
connection among the hosts.
It provides standardization to the devices like It does not provide the standardization to the
router, motherboard, switches, and other devices. It provides a connection between
hardware devices. various computers.

10) What is Circuit Switching? Explain with a Diagram.

11) What is Packet Switching? Explain with a Diagram.

12) What are different Sliding Window Protocols? Explain any one.
There are two types of Sliding Window Protocol –
 Go-Back-N ARQ
 Selective Repeat ARQ

a) Go-Back-N ARQ - Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is also known as Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request. It
is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding window method. In this, if any frame is corrupted or lost,
all subsequent frames have to be sent again.

b) Selective Repeat ARQ - Selective Repeat ARQ is also known as the Selective Repeat Automatic
Repeat Request. If the receiver receives a corrupt frame, it does not directly discard all the frames. It
sends a negative acknowledgment to the sender. The sender sends that frame again as soon as on the
receiving negative acknowledgment.

13) Explain IP V4 Header with a Diagram.

The IPv4 header is a fundamental part of the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) packet structure. It
contains essential information needed for the transmission and routing of data packets across
networks. Below is an explanation of the IPv4 header along with a simplified diagram:

Here's a breakdown of each field in the IPv4 header:

Version (4 bits): Indicates the version of the IP protocol being used. For IPv4, this field has a fixed value
of 4.

IHL (Internet Header Length) (4 bits): Specifies the length of the IPv4 header in 32-bit words. This field
is needed because the IPv4 header length can vary due to the presence of optional fields such as
options.

Type of Service (TOS) (8 bits): Originally designed to specify the quality of service (QoS) for the packet,
this field has been largely replaced by Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) and Explicit Congestion
Notification (ECN) fields in modern networks.

Total Length (16 bits): Indicates the total length of the IPv4 packet, including the header and data, in
bytes.

Identification (16 bits): Used for fragmentation and reassembly of IP packets. Each packet originating
from a source is assigned a unique identification value.

Flags (3 bits): Contains control flags used for fragmentation:

Bit 0: Reserved, must be set to 0.

Bit 1: Don't Fragment (DF) flag. If set to 1, indicates that the packet should not be fragmented.
Bit 2: More Fragments (MF) flag. If set to 1, indicates that more fragments of the packet follow.
Fragment Offset (13 bits): Specifies the offset of the data in the original packet concerning the
beginning of the data in the current fragment.

Time to Live (TTL) (8 bits): Prevents packets from looping indefinitely in the network. Decremented by
one each time the packet traverses a router. When TTL reaches 0, the packet is discarded.

Protocol (8 bits): Specifies the higher-layer protocol used by the data in the packet. For example, 6 for
TCP, 17 for UDP, etc.

Header Checksum (16 bits): Used to verify the integrity of the IPv4 header. The checksum is calculated
over the header fields only and is recalculated at each hop to ensure that the header hasn't been
corrupted.
Source IP Address (32 bits): Specifies the IP address of the sender of the packet.

Destination IP Address (32 bits): Specifies the IP address of the intended recipient of the packet.

Options (Variable length): Optional fields that can be used for various purposes, such as record route,
strict source routing, etc.

Padding (Variable length): Used to ensure that the IPv4 header is a multiple of 32 bits in length. It
consists of zero bits and is added if the length of the header is not already a multiple of 32 bits.

14) Explain IP V6 Header with a Diagram.

The IPv6 header is the portion of an IPv6 packet that contains control information necessary for the
proper routing and delivery of the packet across an IPv6 network. The IPv6 header is simpler and more
efficient than the IPv4 header, providing improved scalability and extensibility. Below is an explanation
of the IPv6 header along with a simplified diagram:

Now, let's explain each field in the IPv6 header:

Version (4 bits): Specifies the version of the Internet Protocol being used. For IPv6, the value is 6.
Traffic Class (8 bits): Provides Quality of Service (QoS) information and differentiated services for
packet prioritization. It replaces the Type of Service (ToS) field in IPv4.
Flow Label (20 bits): Used for flow identification and handling by routers in a network. It ensures that
packets belonging to the same flow receive consistent treatment.
Payload Length (16 bits): Indicates the length of the IPv6 payload (data) in bytes. This includes the data
following the IPv6 header but excludes the header itself.
Next Header (8 bits): Specifies the type of the next header following the IPv6 header. It indicates the
protocol or extension header that immediately follows the IPv6 header.
Hop Limit (8 bits): Similar to the Time to Live (TTL) field in IPv4, the Hop Limit field specifies the
maximum number of hops (routers) that a packet can traverse before being discarded.
Source Address (128 bits): Contains the IPv6 address of the packet's source, identifying the originator
of the packet.
Destination Address (128 bits): Contains the IPv6 address of the packet's destination, specifying where
the packet should be delivered.

15) What are different types of Routing Algorithms? Explain any one
Link state Routing Protocol –

16) What is Piggybacking? Explain.

Communications are mostly full – duplex in nature, i.e. data transmission occurs in both directions. A
method to achieve full – duplex communication is to consider both the communication as a pair of
simplex communication. Each link comprises a forward channel for sending data and a reverse channel
for sending acknowledgments.

However, in the above arrangement, traffic load doubles for each data unit that is transmitted. Half of
all data transmission comprise of transmission of acknowledgments.

So, a solution that provides better utilization of bandwidth is piggybacking. Here, sending of
acknowledgment is delayed until the next data frame is available for transmission. The
acknowledgment is then hooked onto the outgoing data frame. The data frame consists of an ack field.
The size of the ack field is only a few bits, while an acknowledgment frame comprises of several bytes.
Thus, a substantial gain is obtained in reducing bandwidth requirement.

Working Principle
Suppose that there are two communication stations X and Y. The data frames transmitted have an
acknowledgment field, ack field that is of a few bits length. Additionally, there are frames for sending
acknowledgments, ACK frames. The purpose is to minimize the ACK frames.

The three principles governing piggybacking when the station X wants to communicate with station
Y are −

If station X has both data and acknowledgment to send, it sends a data frame with the ack field
containing the sequence number of the frame to be acknowledged.
If station X has only an acknowledgment to send, it waits for a finite period of time to see whether a
data frame is available to be sent. If a data frame becomes available, then it piggybacks the
acknowledgment with it. Otherwise, it sends an ACK frame.

If station X has only a data frame to send, it adds the last acknowledgment with it. The station Y
discards all duplicate acknowledgments. Alternatively, station X may send the data frame with the ack
field containing a bit combination denoting no acknowledgment.

The following diagram illustrates the three scenario −

17) Explain any one Protocol of Medium Access Control.

FDM

18) Explain Border Gateway Protocol with a diagram.

19) Explain Electromagnetic Spectrum with their ranges.

The electromagnetic spectrum is like a vast "rainbow" of different types of energy that travel through
space. Imagine a regular rainbow you see in the sky, with colors ranging from red to violet. In the same
way, the electromagnetic spectrum consists of a wide range of "colors" of energy, but instead of colors,
we have different types of waves.
These waves include things like radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays (heat), visible light (what we
see), ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma rays. Each of these types of waves has its own special
properties and uses
The distance between two Waves is known as Wavelength.

Here's an overview of the electromagnetic spectrum with their ranges:

 Radio Waves:
Frequency Range: 3 kHz to 300 GHz
Wavelength Range: 1 mm to 100,000 km
Applications: Broadcasting, communication, radar, wireless networking (Wi-Fi), and remote sensing.
 Microwaves:
Frequency Range: 300 MHz to 300 GHz
Wavelength Range: 1 mm to 1 meter
Applications: Microwave ovens, satellite communication, radar, wireless communication (e.g., cellular
networks), and remote sensing.
 Infrared (IR):
Frequency Range: 300 GHz to 400 THz
Wavelength Range: 1 mm to 750 nm
Applications: Remote controls, thermal imaging, night vision devices, infrared communication, and heating.
 Visible Light:
Frequency Range: 400 THz to 800 THz
Wavelength Range: 750 nm to 380 nm
 Applications: Human vision, optical communication, photography, and illumination.
 Ultraviolet (UV):
Frequency Range: 800 THz to 30 PHz
Wavelength Range: 380 nm to 10 nm
Applications: Sterilization, fluorescence, tanning, and medical treatments.
 X-rays:
Frequency Range: 30 PHz to 30 EHz
Wavelength Range: 10 nm to 0.01 nm
Applications: Medical imaging (X-ray radiography), security screening, and crystallography.
 Gamma Rays:
Frequency Range: Above 30 EHz
Wavelength Range: Below 0.01 nm
Applications: Medical treatments (radiotherapy), nuclear medicine, and astrophysics.

These different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum have diverse properties and applications,
ranging from everyday technologies like radio and microwave communication to advanced medical
imaging techniques like X-rays and gamma rays.

20) What is Framing? Explain.

Framing in computer networking refers to the process of structuring data into manageable units called
frames for transmission over a network.
These frames serve as containers for the data being transmitted, allowing the network to handle and
route the data efficiently.
Framing is essential because it helps devices on a network identify the boundaries of individual data
packets and extract the relevant information.

Here's how framing works:

 Segmentation: Before data can be transmitted over a network, it is broken down into smaller units called
frames. This process is known as segmentation. Each frame typically consists of a header, payload, and
trailer.
 Header: The header contains control information necessary for the proper transmission and reception of
the frame. This information may include source and destination addresses, error checking codes, sequence
numbers, and other control flags.
 Payload: The payload of the frame contains the actual data being transmitted. This could be anything from
text, images, or video to control commands or application-specific information.
 Trailer: The trailer is a section at the end of the frame that contains error detection codes, such as a cyclic
redundancy check (CRC), which are used to ensure the integrity of the data during transmission. This allows
the receiving device to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur during transmission.
 Delimitation: Framing also involves delimiting the frames to mark the beginning and end of each frame.
This is typically achieved using special bit patterns or sequences known as start and stop flags or frame
boundaries. These flags help devices on the network identify the start and end of each frame, allowing
them to extract the data payload accurately.
 Transmission: Once the frames are constructed and delimited, they are transmitted over the network
medium, such as copper wires, fiber optic cables, or wireless channels. The receiving devices then decode
and process the frames to extract the original data.
Overall, framing is a fundamental concept in computer networking that enables reliable and efficient
communication between devices on a network by organizing data into structured units for
transmission and reception.