Assignment 5: Application Layer Protocol

Write short note on:

1.
a.URL b.Static Document c. Dynamic Document d.WWW

a.URL:

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique identifier used to locate a

resource on the internet. It is also referred to as a web address. URLs consist of
multiple parts -- including a protocol and domain name -- that tell a web browser
how and where to retrieve a resource.End users use URLs by typing them
directly into the address bar of a browser or by clicking a hyperlink found on a
webpage, bookmark list, in an email or from another application.protocol The first
part of a URL identifies what protocol to use as the primary access medium. The
second part identifies the IP address or domain name -- and possibly subdomain
-- where the resource is located.URL protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure) for web resources, mail to for email
addresses, FTP for files on a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server, and telnet for a
session to access remote computers. Most URL protocols are followed by a colon
and two forward slashes; “mail to” is followed only by a colon.Optionally, after the
domain, a URL can also specify:

 a path to a specific page or file within a domain;

 a network port to use to make the connection;

 a specific reference point within a file, such as a named anchor in an HTML file;
and

 a query or search parameters used -- commonly found in URLs for search

results.
b.Static Document:

Static web pages are also known as flat or stationary web page. They are loaded
on the client’s browser as exactly they are stored on the web server. Such web
pages contain only static information. User can only read the information but can’t
do any modification or interact with the information.
Static web pages are created using only HTML. Static web pages are only used
when the information is no more required to be modified.

c.Dynamic Document:

Dynamic web page shows different information at different point of time. It is

possible to change a portaion of a web page without loading the entire web page. It
has been made possible using Ajax technology.

Server-side dynamic web page

It is created by using server-side scripting. There are server-side scripting

parameters that determine how to assemble a new web page which also include
setting up of more client-side processing.

Client-side dynamic web page

It is processed using client side scripting such as JavaScript. And then passed in
to Document Object Model (DOM).
d.WWW:

The world wide web is known as WWW or W3 or Web. The world wide web is an
architectural frame work for accessing linked documents and repository of
information spread all over the Internet. The WWW has a unique combination of
flexibility, portability and user-friendly features that distinguish it from other services
provided by the Internet. The main reason for its popularity is the use of a concept
called hypertext. Hypertext is a new way of information storage and retrieval, which
enables authors to structure information in novel ways. An effectively designed
hypertext document can help users rapidly locate the desired type of information
from the vast amount of information on the Internet. Hypertext documents enable this
by using a series of links. A link is a special type of item in a hypertext document,
which connects the document to another document that provides more information
about the linked item.Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as Web pages.
Web pages are created by using a special language called hypertext markup
language (HTML). Any kind of information can be defined on the Internet using the
standard URL. URL defines three things – method, host computer and
pathname.Method – It is the protocol used to retrieve the document. For example,
Gopher, FTP, HTTP, news, TELNET, etc.Host- It is the computer at which the
information is available.Path – It is the path name of the file where the information is
located.

2.What is File Transfer Protocol(FTP)?

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a client/server protocol used for transferring files to or
from a host computer. FTP may be authenticated with user names and passwords.
FTP is the Internet standard for moving or transferring files from one computer to
another using TCP or IP networks. File Transfer Protocol is also known as RFC 959.
There are various types of FTP and different use cases:
1. An FTP site is a web site where users can easily upload or download specific
files.
2. FTP by mail allows users without access to the Internet to access and copy
files using anonymous FTP by sending an email message
to [email protected] and putting the word help in the body of the text.
3. FTP Explorer is an FTP client based on Windows 95 file manager (Windows
95 Explorer).
4. An FTP server is a dedicated computer which provides an FTP service. This
invites hackers and necessitates security hardware or software such as
utilizing usernames, passwords and file access control.
 5. An FTP client is a computer application which accesses an FTP server. While
doing so, users should block incoming FTP connection attempts using
passive mode and should check for viruses on all downloaded files.

3.Explain the concept of TELNET.

TELNET (TELecommunication NETwork) is a network protocol used on

the Internet or local area network (LAN) connections. It was developed in 1969
beginning with RFC 15 and standardized as IETF STD 8, one of the
first Internet standards.It is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
networks to provide a bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically,
telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote host via a virtual
terminal connection which consists of an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). User data is interspersed in-band with
TELNET control information. The user’s computer, which initiates the connection, is
referred to as the local computer.The computer being connected to, which accepts
the connection, is rderred to as the remote computer. The remote compmer can be
physically located in the next room, the next town or in another country.The
term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol.
TELNET clients have been available on most Unix systems for many years and are
available virtually for all platforms. Most network equipment and OSs with a TCP/IP
stack support some kind of TELNET service server for their remote configuration
including ones based on Windows NT. TELNET is a client server protocol, based on
a reliable connection oriented transport. Typically this protocol used to establish a
connection to TCP port 23, where a getty-equivalent program (telnetd) is listening,
although TELNET predates.

4.Explain SSH and its Packet Format.

SSH or Secure Shell is a cryptographic network protocol for operating network services securely
over an unsecured networkTypical applications include remote command-line, login, and remote
command execution, but any network service can be secured with SSH.SSH provides a secure
channel over an unsecured network by using a client–server architecture, connecting an SSH
client application with an SSH server. The protocol specification distinguishes between two major
versions, referred to as SSH-1 and SSH-2. The standard TCP port for SSH is 22. SSH is
generally used to access Unix-like operating systems, but it can also be used on Microsoft
Windows. Windows 10 uses OpenSSH as its default SSH client and SSH server.Despite popular
misconception, SSH is not an implementation of Telnet with cryptography provided by the Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL).SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet and
for unsecured remote shell protocols such as the Berkeley rsh and the
related rlogin and rexec protocols. Those protocols send information, notably passwords,
in plaintext, rendering them susceptible to interception and disclosure using packet
analysis The encryption used by SSH is intended to provide confidentiality and integrity of data
over an unsecured network, such as the Internet.

Following image shows the SSH packet format as explained by RFC 4253. Please refer
page number 7 and 8 of RFC 4253 to get more clear picture about SSH packet
format.
Descriptions given below are copied from RFC 4253

Packet Length : Packet Length is length of the packet in bytes, not including HMAC
value or the Packet Length field itself.

Padding Length : Padding Length is the length of Random Padding in bytes.

Payload : Payload is the useful contents of the packet. If compression has been
negotiated, this field is compressed.

Random Padding : Random Padding is the arbitrary-length padding, such that the
total length of (packet_length || padding_length || payload || random padding) is a
multiple of the cipher block size or 8, whichever is larger. There MUST be at least four
bytes of padding. The padding SHOULD consist of random bytes. The maximum
amount of padding is 255 bytes.

5.what is difference between HTTP & HTTPS?

BASIS FOR
HTTP HTTPS
COMPARISON

Prefix Used Url begins with "http://" Url begins with "https://"

Security Unsecured. Secured.

 BASIS FOR
HTTP HTTPS
COMPARISON

Operated On Application layer Transport layer.

Encryption No encryption is there Encryption is used.

Certificate Not required. Necessary

Port Used Port number 80 is used for Port number 443 is used for communication.

communication.

Characteristics It is subject to man-in-the- It is designed to resist man-in-the-middle and

middle and eavesdropping eavesdropping attacks and is considered secure

attacks. against such attacks.

Example Websites like internet forums, Websites like Banking Websites, Payment

educational sites. gateway, Shopping Websites, etc.

6.Explain the E-mail architecture and services.

Composition refers to the process of creating messages and answers. Although any text editor can be
used for the body of the message, the system itself can provide assistance with addressing and the
numerous header fields attached to each message. For example, when answering a message, the e-
mail system can extract the originator's address from the incoming e-mail and automatically insert it
into the proper place in the reply.

Transfer refers to moving messages from the originator to the recipient. In large part, this requires
establishing a connection to the destination or some intermediate machine, outputting the message,
and releasing the connection. The e-mail system should do this automatically, without bothering the
user.

Reporting has to do with telling the originator what happened to the message. Was it delivered?
Was it rejected? Was it lost? Numerous applications exist in which confirmation of delivery is
important and may even have legal significance (''Well, Your Honor, my e-mail system is not very
reliable, so I guess the electronic subpoena just got lost somewhere'').

Displaying incoming messages is needed so people can read their e-mail. Sometimes conversion is
required or a special viewer must be invoked, for example, if the message is a PostScript file or
digitized voice. Simple conversions and formatting are sometimes attempted as well.

Disposition is the final step and concerns what the recipient does with the message after receiving
it. Possibilities include throwing it away before reading, throwing it away after reading, saving it, and
so on. It should also be possible to retrieve and reread saved messages, forward them, or process them
in other ways.

7.write short note on: a.Proxy server

b.TFTP

a.Proxy server:
In Computer network, a proxy server is a server (a computer system or an
application program) that acts as an intermediary for requests from clients seeking
resources from other servers. A client connects to the proxy server, requesting
some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, available
from a different server.The proxy server evaluates the request according to its
filtering rules. For example, it may filter traffic by IP address or protocol. If the
request is validated by the filter, the proxy provides the resource by connecting to
the relevant server and requesting the service on behalf of the client.A proxy server
may optionally alter the client’s request or the server’s response, and sometimes it
may serve the request without contacting the specified server. In this case, it
‘caches’ responses from the remote server, and returns subsequent requests for the
same content directly. A proxy server has many potential purposes, including:To
keep rnachines behind it anonymous (mainly for security).To speed up access to
resources (using caching). Web proxies are commonly used to cache web pages
from a web server.

b.TFTP:
File transfer is one of the most essential technologies for client/server and computer
networkinfrastructures.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol is very simple in design and has limited features as
compared to File Transfer Protocol (FTP). TFTP provides no authentication and
security while transferring files. As a result, it is usually used for transferring boot
files or configuration files between machines in a local setup. Because of its simple
design, it is rarely used interactively by users in a computer network. Its lack of
security also makes it dangerous for use over the Internet.

TFTP is very useful for boot computers and devices that do not have hard disk
drives or storage devices because it can easily be implemented using a small
amount of memory. This characteristic of TFTP makes it one of the core elements
of network boot protocol, or preboot execution environment (PXE).

Data transfer through TFTP is usually initiated through port 69. However, the data
transfer ports are selected by the sender and receiver when the connection is
initialized.

8.Explain MIME in detail.

The MIME stands for Multi-Purpose Internet Mail Extensions. As the
name indicates, it is an extension to the Internet email protocol that
allows it’s users to exchange different kinds of data files over the
Internet such as images, audio, and video. The MIME is required if text
in character sets other than ASCII. Virtually all human-written Internet
email and a fairly large proportion of automated email is transmitted
via SMTP in MIME format. Actually, MIME was designed mainly for
SMTP, but the content types defined by MIME standards are important
also in communication protocols outside of email, such as HTTP. In
1991, Nathan Borenstein of Bellcore proposed to the IETF that SMTP
be extended so that Internet (but mainly Web) clients and servers
could recognize and handle other kinds of data than ASCII text. As a
result, new file types were added to “mail” as a supported Internet
Protocol file type. MIME Working

The web servers insert the MIME header at the beginning of any Web
transmission. Clients use this content type or media type header to
select an appropriate “player” application for the type of data the
header indicates.

MIME headers

Now, let’s see the MIME headers. There are many sub parts come
under MIME headers. Let’s see each in detail.

1) MIME-Version
2) Content-Type

3) Content-Disposition

4) Content-Transfer-Encoding

MIME-Version

MIME-Version header is used to indicate that the message is MIME

formatted. This header is having a value of “1.0” typically. So this
header will be as follows.

eg: MIME-Version: 1.0

When the MIME was developed, the developers had a plan to further
issue the newer versions, but the problems caused by changes in a
standard discouraged further release of the same.

9.Enlist Applications layer protocols along with its port number?

PROTOCOLS (SERVICE PORTS TRANSPORT
MEANINGS
NAMES) NUMBERS PROTOCOLS

It is a protocol that carries data

1.File Transfer Protocol
20 and 21 TCP guarantees that data will be
(FTP)
delivered properly.

It is a cryptographic network
2.Secure Shell (SSH) 22 TCP and UDP protocol used to secure data
communication.

It is the used for remote

3.Telnet 23 TCP management protocol for managing
network devices.

It is a communication protocol
4.Simple Mail Transfer which is used to transmit email
25 TCP
Protocol (SMTP) messages over the internet to the
destination server.
 It is used in the performance of one
5.Domian Name System simple task of converting IP address
53 TCP and UDP
(DNS)
To domain names that everyone
can easily understand.
TFTP is typically used by devices to
6.Trivial File Transfer
69 UDP upgrade software and firmware and
Protocol (TFTP)
that include cisco.

It is a kind of protocol used to

7.Hyper Text Transfer define how data is transmitted and
80 TCP
Protocol (HTTP) formatted and also used by www as
a channel for communication.

8.Dynamic Host
It is a kind of service used in the
Configuration Protocol 67 and 68 UDP
client and server model.
(DHCP)

9.Post Office Protocol 3 It is a protocol used by e-mail client

110 TCP
(POP3) to retrieve e-mail from the servers.

nntp is an application protocol used

10.Network News for transporting USENET news
119 TCP
Transport Protocol (NNTP) articles between news servers and
the end user client.

It is the synchronization of time

11.Network Time Protocol
123 UDP between network devices in the
(NTP)
network.

NetBIOS itself is not a protocol but

is typically used in combination with
12.NetBIOS 135 and 139 TCP and UDP
IP with the NetBIOS over TCP/IP
protocol.

13.Simple Network It has the ability to monitor,

Management Protocol 161 and 162 TCP and UDP configure and control network
(SNMP) devices.

LDAP provides a mechanism of

14.Lightweight Directory
389 TCP and UDP accessing and maintaining
Access Protocol
distributed directory information.

It is a protocol of a secured socket

15.Transport Layer Security
443 TCP layer that uses asymmetric keys to
(TLS)
transfer data over a network.

16.Real-Time Transport 1023 TO 65535 UDP It is used for delivering audio and
Protocol. (RTP) video data over an IP network.

It renders authentication and

17.Hyper Text Transfer encryption that provides secure
443 TCP
Protocol Secure. (HTTPS) communication with the use of
secure socket layer.

It is an application layer protocol

18.Internet Message
143 TCP and UDP and an internet standards for e-mail
Access Protocol. (IMAP4)
retrieval.

19.Address Resolution It is used to resolve the network

3389 TCP
Protocol (ARP) layer address into the link address.

20.Border Gateway It is used to maintain very large

179 TCP
Protocol (BGP) routing tables and traffic processing.

It is an application layer protocol

21.Internet Relay Chat
194 UDP that facilitate communication in the
(IRC)
form of text.

It is used to establish, modify, and

22.Session Initiation terminate multimedia
TCP and UDP
Protocol. (SLP) communication session such as
VoIP.

23.Session Description It describes the content of

TCP
Protocol.(SDP) multimedia communication.

It provides a user with a graphical

24.Remote Desktop interface to connect to another
3389 TCP
Protocol. (RDP) computer over a network
connection.

It is an application layer protocol

25.Server Message Block that helps in accessing network
TCP
(SMB) resources, such as shared files and
printers.

26.Secure File Transfer It uses the SSH protocol to access

22 TCP and UDP
Protocol (SFTP) and transfer file over the network.

It is a communication protocol used

27.Internet Group
by hosts and adjacent routers on
Management Protocol 2 TCP
IPv4 network to establish multicast
(IGMP)
group membership.
28.Route Access Protocol
38 TCP
(RAP)

It is used for determining the

29.Resource Location
39 TCP location of higher level service from
Protocol (RLP)
host on a network.

30.Host Name Server

42 TCP
Protocol (HNSP)

It is used by a ping utility to check

31.Internet Control
1 PING the reachability the device in a
Messages Protocol (ICMP)
network.

It is used retrieves information about

32.Remote Directory
TCP domain names from a central
Access Protocol (RDAS)
registry.

It is describe an approach for

providing stream lined support of
33.Lightweight
TCP and UDP OSI application services on top of
Presentation Protocol (LPP)
TCP/IP –based network for some
constrained environment.

It is a protocol for requesting a

34.Remote Procedure Call
TCP and UDP service from a program location in a
Protocol (RPC)
remote computer through a network.

It is the method by which IP

35.Network Address addresses are mapped from one
3022 TCP and UDP
Translation (NAT) group to another, transparent to end
users.

it is used by Microsoft server

36.Microsoft Active
445 TCP operating systems for client/server
Directory Protocol (MADP)
access and file and printer sharing.

It is used by Novell GroupWise for its

37.Calender Access
1026 TCP calendar access protocol and also
Protocol (CAP)
used by windows task scheduler.

It is used to connect two private

38. Layer Two Tunneling business network together over an
1701 TCP
Protocol.(L2TP) internet connection to create a
virtual network.

39.Point To Point 1732 TCP A tunneling and encryption standard

 is used to connect two private
business network together over an
Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
internet connection to create a
virtual network.

It holds information regarding which

40.Remote Procedure Call
135 TCP ports and IP addresses the services
(RPC)
are currently running .

10.Describe SMTP with its commands.

Email is emerging as one of the most valuable services on the internet today. Most of the
internet systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a
push protocol and is used to send the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP
(internet message access protocol) are used to retrieve those mails at the receiver’s side.
SMTP Fundamentals
SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP
connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP
server is always on listening mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client,
the SMTP process initiates a connection on that port (25). After successfully establishing the
TCP connection the client process sends the mail instantly.
SMTP Protocol
The SMTP model is of two type :
1. End-to- end method
2. Store-and- forward method
The end to end model is used to communicate between different organizations whereas the
store and forward method are used within an organization. A SMTP client who wants to send
the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP directly in order to send the mail to the
destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail to itself until it is successfully copied to the
receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one which initiates the session let us call it as the client- SMTP and the
server SMTP is the one which responds to the session request and let us call it as receiver-
SMTP. The client- SMTP will start the session and the receiver-SMTP will respond to the
request.

11.state the use of pop.

Point of presence (POP) is the point at which two or more different networks or
communication devices build a connection with each other. POP mainly refers to an
access point, location or facility that connects to and helps other devices establish a
connection with the Internet.
The Post Office Protocol provides access via an Internet Protocol (IP) network for a user client
application to a mailbox (maildrop) maintained on a mail server. The protocol supports download
and delete operations for messages. POP3 clients connect, retrieve all messages, store them on
the client computer, and finally delete them from the server.[2] This design of POP and its
procedures was driven by the need of users having only temporary Internet connections, such
as dial-up access, allowing these users to retrieve e-mail when connected, and subsequently to
view and manipulate the retrieved messages when offline.
POP3 clients also have an option to leave mail on the server after download. By contrast,
the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) was designed to normally leave all messages on
the server to permit management with multiple client applications, and to support both connected
(online) and disconnected (offline) modes of operation.
A POP3 server listens on well-known port number 110 for service requests. Encrypted
communication for POP3 is either requested after protocol initiation, using the STLS command, if
supported, or by POP3S, which connects to the server using Transport Layer Security (TLS)
or Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) on well-known TCP port number 995.
Messages available to the client are determined when a POP3 session opens the maildrop, and
are identified by message-number local to that session or, optionally, by a unique identifier
assigned to the message by the POP server. This unique identifier is permanent and unique to
the maildrop and allows a client to access the same message in different POP sessions. Mail is
retrieved and marked for deletion by the message-number. When the client exits the session,
mail marked for deletion is removed from the maildrop.

12.what is imap?
As its name implies, IMAP allows you to access your email messages wherever you
are; much of the time, it is accessed via the Internet. Basically, email messages are
stored on servers. Whenever you check your inbox, your email client contacts the server
to connect you with your messages. When you read an email message using IMAP, you
aren't actually downloading or storing it on your computer; instead, you are reading it off
of the server. As a result, it's possible to check your email from several different devices
without missing a thing

Using IMAP

Unlike POP, IMAP allows you to access, organize, read and sort your email messages
without having to download them first. As a result, IMAP is very fast and efficient. The
server also keeps a record of all of the messages that you send, allowing you to access
your sent messages from anywhere. IMAP does not move messages from the server to
your computer; instead, it synchronizes the email that's on your computer with the email
that's on the server.

Main Advantages of IMAP

There are several advantages to using IMAP. First, it allows you to access your email
messages from anywhere, via as many different devices as you want. Second, it only
downloads a message when you click on it. As a result, you do not have to wait for all of
your new messages to download from the server before you can read them. Third,
attachments are not automatically downloaded with IMAP. As a result, you're able to
check your messages a lot more quickly and have greater control over which
attachments are opened. Finally, IMAP can be used offline just like POP - you can
basically enjoy the benefits of both protocols in one.

As the world becomes more mobile than ever, IMAP is becoming more and more
popular. The proliferation of smartphones, laptops, tablets and other devices is making
the demand for IMAP stronger than ever. While POP will remain popular with people
who only access their email via one or two devices - and those who have slow
connections to the Internet - IMAP is sure to remain the protocol of choice for most of
today's busy people.

13.Write short note on:SNMP

1. SNMP Stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
2. It is a framework for managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
3. It is an Application Level Protocol.
4. It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an
internet.
5. SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent.
6. That is, a manager, usually a host, controls and monitors a set of agents,
usually routers.
SNMP Architecture:

I) SNMP Manager:
1. A manager or management system is a separate entity that is responsible to
communicate with the SNMP agent implemented network devices.
2. This is typically a computer that is used to run one or more network
management systems.
3. SNMP Manager’s key functions:
a. Queries agents.
b. Gets responses from agents.
c. Sets variables in agents.
d. Acknowledges asynchronous events from agents.
II) Managed Devices:
1. A managed device or the network element is a part of the network that
requires some form of monitoring and management
2. Example: Routers, Switches, Servers, Workstations, Printers, UPSs, etc.
III) SNMP Agent:
 1. The agent is a program that is packaged within the network element.
2. It makes information available to the SNMP manager, when it is queried for.
3. These agents could be standard (e.g. Net-SNMP) or specific to a vendor (e.g.
HP insight agent)
4. SNMP agent’s key functions:
a. Collects management information about its local environment.
b. Stores and retrieves management information as defined in the MIB.
c. Signals an event to the manager.
d. Acts as a proxy for some non–SNMP manageable network node.
IV) Management Information Base (MIB):
1. Every SNMP agent maintains an information database describing the
managed device parameters.
2. The SNMP manager uses this database to request the agent for specific
information and further translates the information as needed for the Network
Management System (NMS).
3. This commonly shared database between the Agent and the Manager is
called Management Information Base (MIB).
4. MIB contains standard set of statistical and control values defined for
hardware nodes on a network.
5. MIB files are the set of questions that a SNMP Manager can ask the agent.
6. Agent collects these data locally and stores it, as defined in the MIB.

14. Draw and explain DNS(Domain name system)in details.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is the Internet's hierarchical, distributed
database system that translates the Internet's Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses to Domain names, and vice versa.
Every computer, a server or client, participating in the Internet activities,
providing or receiving services, must have a unique IP address. An IP
address serves the Internet for the same purpose as a telephone number
does for the telephone network. We know every caller or receiver in the
telephone network system must have a unique telephone number.
There are two versions of IP addresses, namely Internet Protocol Version 4
(IP4) and Internet Protocol Version 6 (IP6).
The IP4 addresses are 32-bit in length represented by 4 sets of decimal
numbers, ranging from 0 - 255 (28), and separated by periods (.).
Some IP4 example addresses:
192.168.10.1
10.7.88.1
210.121.24.2

The IP6 addresses are 128 bit in length represented by 8 sets of four-digit
(16 bits long)hexadecimal numbers, ranging from 0 to FFFF (2 16), and
separated by a colon (:).
Some IP6 example addresses:

fff0:bb12:1020:1002:3333:2000:200f:326f
fff0:bb12:1020:1002:3333:2000:200f:326f

DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is divided
into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.

Generic Domains
o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.
o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS
database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.
Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character
organizational abbreviations.

Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has
received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized
clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query
to the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

Working of DNS
o DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send
requests to the. server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
o Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a
forward DNS lookups while requests containing an IP address which is converted
into a name known as reverse DNS lookups.
o DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts
available on the internet.
o If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a
piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to
obtain the IP address of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP
address associated with a hostname, then it forwards the request to another DNS
server. If IP address has arrived at the resolver, which in turn completes the
request over the internet protocol.

15.Draw & Explain DHCP(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)in

detail.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used to
dynamically assign an IP address to nay device, or node, on a network so they can
communicate using IP (Internet Protocol). DHCP automates and centrally manages these
configurations. There is no need to manually assign IP addresses to new devices.
Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configuration to connect to a DHCP
based network.
DHCP can be implemented on local networks as well as large enterprise networks. DHCP
is the default protocol used by the most routers and networking equipment. DHCP is also
called RFC (Request for comments) 2131.

DHCP runs at the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack to dynamically assign IP
addresses to DHCP clients/nodes and to allocate TCP/IP configuration information to the
DHCP clients. Information includes subnet mask information, default gateway, IP
addresses and domain name system addresses.

DHCP is based on client-server protocol in which servers manage a pool of unique IP

addresses, as well as information about client configuration parameters, and assign
addresses out of those address pools.

Components of DHCP
When working with DHCP, it is important to understand all of the components. Following
are the list of components:

o DHCP Server: DHCP server is a networked device running the DCHP service that
holds IP addresses and related configuration information. This is typically a server
or a router but could be anything that acts as a host, such as an SD-WAN
appliance.
o DHCP client: DHCP client is the endpoint that receives configuration information
from a DHCP server. This can be any device like computer, laptop, IoT endpoint
or anything else that requires connectivity to the network. Most of the devices are
configured to receive DHCP information by default.
o IP address pool: IP address pool is the range of addresses that are available to
DHCP clients. IP addresses are typically handed out sequentially from lowest to
the highest.
o Subnet: Subnet is the partitioned segments of the IP networks. Subnet is used to
keep networks manageable.
o Lease: Lease is the length of time for which a DHCP client holds the IP address
information. When a lease expires, the client has to renew it.
o DHCP relay: A host or router that listens for client messages being broadcast on
that network and then forwards them to a configured server. The server then
sends responses back to the relay agent that passes them along to the client.
DHCP relay can be used to centralize DHCP servers instead of having a server on
each subnet.
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