Self-knowledge, or the examination of

UNDERSTANDIN 
one-self, as well as the question about
how one ought to live one’s life, are
G THE SELF very important concerns because
only by knowing yourself can you
PRELIMINARIES hope to improve your life. (Rappe,
1995)
 Socrates believed that you as a
MODULE 1: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE person, should consciously
OF PHILOSOPHY contemplate, turn your gaze inward,
and analyze the true nature and
PHILOSOPHY values that are guiding your life.
ETYMOLOGY What if Socrates is still alive today?
Greek word “philo” – loving and “Isip, isip din kapag may time”
“sophia” – knowledge/wisdom
PLATO
DEFINITION
 Plato was the student of Socrates.
 At its simplest, Philosophy means  According to him, “soul” is the most
“loving knowledge” or “loving divine aspect of human being.
wisdom”. The term as originally used However, his concept of the divine is
by the Greeks meant “the pursuit of not a spiritual being but rather one
knowledge for its own sake” that has an intellectual connotation.
 It is a set of ideals, standards or
beliefs used to describe behavior and 3 COMPONENTS TO THE SOUL
thought. (Western Philosophy, Eastern
1. The Appetitive (sensual)
Philosophy…)
 Investigates the legitimacy of  The element that enjoys sensual
concepts by rational argument experiences, such as food, drink and
concerning their implications, sex.
relationships as well as reality,
knowledge, moral judgment, etc. 2. The Rational (reasoning)

SOCRATES  This is conscious awareness. This is

the part of us that thinks and
 The Greeks were the ones who analyzes.
seriously questioned myths and
moved away from them to understand 3. The Spirited (feeling)
reality and respond to perennial  The one with lots of energy, power,
questions of curiosity, including the emotions.
question of the self.
 “The unexamined life is not worth When these are attained, the human
living" person’s soul becomes just and
virtuous.
What does he mean by this?
What if Plato is still alive today?
Kung hindi ka manhid, tao ka!  Father of Modern Philosophy
Kumpleto ka!  There is so much that we should
doubt.
ST. AUGUSTINE
 If something is so clear and lucid as
 He was deeply influenced by Plato’s not to be doubted, that's the only time
ideas. one should believe.
 Following view of Plato but adds  “Cogito ergo sum” – I think,
Christianity. therefore I am.
 Man is of a bifurcated nature  He asserted that everything perceived
(meaning man is divided into two by the sense could not be used as
parts) proof of existence because human
senses could be fooled. He added that
1. Part of man dwells in the world, and there was only one thing we could be
yearns to be with the Divine (body) sure of in this world, and that was
everything could be doubted. (He
2. The other part is capable of reaching
was skeptical about the truth to
immortality. (soul)
determine which beliefs could be
Body - dies on earth. ascertained as true)
 The only thing one can't doubt is
Soul - lives eternally in spiritual existence of the self.
bliss with God.
What if Rene Descartes is still alive
What if St Augustine is still alive today?
today?
Totoo ba ang mga ulap?
Wag kang mag-alala, lahat tayo ay
imortal sa kabilang buhay! Totoo ba ang rainbow?

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS Totoo bang kami na?

 Man = matter + form DAVID HUME

 Matter – common stuff that makes
 Disagrees with all the other
up everything in the universe
aforementioned philosophers.
 Form – essence of a substance or a
 All knowledge is derived from human
thing (what makes it what it is)
senses.
 The body of human is similar to
 “One can only know what comes from
animals/objects, but what makes a
the senses and experiences (he is an
human is his essence.
empiricist- someone who believes that
 The soul is what makes us humans.
knowledge comes from experiences
What if St Thomas Aquinas is still and senses)
alive today?  The self is not an entity beyond the
physical body.
Kahit itabi mo ako sa taong rebulto,  You know that other people are
ako pa din ang totoong tao. humans not because you have seen
RENE DESCARTES their soul, but because you see them,
hear them, feel them. (again, senses)
What if David Hume is still alive  Mind-body bifurcation is an invalid
today? problem. Mind and body are
inseparable. Mind is part of the
Wag mo akong tanungin at pagisipin
body, and body is part of the mind.
ng 1+1, kapag binigyan mo ako ng They need each other.
isang mangga, at ng isa pang
 One’s body is his opening toward his
mangga, ang alam ko, dalawang
existence to the world
mangga na yan.
 The living body, his thoughts,
IMMANUEL KANT emotions, and experiences are all one.
 If you hate this subject, Merleau-Ponty
 Agrees with Hume that everything understands you.
starts with perception/sensation of
impressions. What if Maurice Merleau-Ponty is
 There is a “mind” that regulates these still alive today?
impressions. The human mind creates
Kung gusto kong ligawan ako ng
the structure of human experience.
crush ko, kailangang magpaganda
 Time, space, etc are ideas that one
ako. Pero bukas na lang, tinatamad
cannot find in the world, but is built in
na ako e.
our minds.

What if Immanuel Kant is still alive

today? Module 2: SELF: FROM THE
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Wag kang matakot sa ferris wheel,
hay naku, it’s all in the mind! SOCIOLOGY

GILBERT RYLE  Sociology is a social science

concerned with the study of social
 What truly matters is the behavior relationships and the various ways
that a person manifests in his day-to- these relationships are patterned in
day life. terms of our membership of social
 Sense of self is derived from our groups.
behaviors and actions.  It studies human societies, their
For example you think of yourself as a interactions, and the processes that
kind person because of your acts of preserve and change them.
kindness. In Ryle’s view, your actions DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGY
define your own concept of “Self” AND SOCIOLOGY
What if Gilbert Ryle is still alive PSYCHOLOGY
today?
 Focus is on the individual , what
Bes, every Sunday ako nagsisimba. makes them unique
Banal ako.  Psychologists are focused on how the
MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY mind influences human behavior,
 Psychologists tend to look inward
(mental health, emotional processes)
SOCIOLOGY 2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) - libido
now becomes focused on the anus,
 Focus is on two or more people.
and the child derives great pleasure
 Sociologists study the role of society
from defecating.
in shaping human behavior.
 Sociologists tend to look outward 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) -
(social institutions, cultural norms, Sensitivity now becomes concentrated
interactions with others) in the genitals.

THEORIES OF SELF-DEVELOPMENT 4. Latency Stage (6 years to

puberty) - The libido is dormant.
When we are born, we have a hereditary
Child’s energy is directed towards
and genetic traits. Nevertheless, who we school, friendships, hobbies.
are as human beings progresses through
social interaction , both in the fields of 5. Genital Stage (puberty to adult) –
psychology and in sociology. last stage of personality development
and begins at puberty. It is a time of
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
adolescent sexual experimentation.
SIGMUND FREUD
ERIK ERIKSON
 Founding father of psychoanalysis, a
 Created a theory of psychosocial
method for treating mental illness and
development based, in part, on the
also a theory which explains human
work of Freud.
behavior.
 His theory included eight stages of
 Freud believed that events in our
personality development beginning
childhood have a great influence on
with birth and ending with death.
our adult lives, shaping our
 Self-development gives credit to social
personality.
aspects unlike Freud’s focus on basic
 A person matures through a series of
human urges.
psychosexual stages, namely: oral,
 Freud’s Theory centered on
anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
psychosexual development whereas
Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Erikson’s focused on psychosocial
Development development

Each stage represents the fixation of

libido (roughly translated as sexual drives
or instincts) on a different area of the
body. As a person grows physically
certain areas of their body become
important as sources of potential
frustration (erogenous zones), pleasure
or both.

1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year) - libido

is centered in a baby's mouth.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES (learned behaviors, attitudes,
expectations)
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
 “I” is the part of the self that is
 He developed the theory called the unsocialized and spontaneous. It is
“looking-glass self” (1902) the person’s response to the
 This theory states that a person’s self community’s attitude. (impulses,
grows out of society’s interpersonal drives)
interactions and the perceptions of
For example, you have learned that
others. People are shaping themselves
stealing can get you to jail (“me” ) that’s
based on other people’s perception
your learned behavior , therefore, you
 The “looking-glass self has three
will not steal. (“I”) you are driven not to
components.
steal
Three Components of the “Looking-
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
glass self”
DEVELOPMENT
 First, we imagine how we must
LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
appear to others.
 Second, we imagine the judgment of  How do people learn to decide what is
that appearance. right (good) and what is wrong (bad)?
 Finally, we develop our self through  To understand this topic, he developed
the judgments of others. a theory of moral development that
includes three levels:
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
a. pre-conventional
 He is regarded as one of the
founders of social psychology. He  young children, who lack a higher
developed the “Theory of the Social level of cognitive ability,
Self” experience the world around them
 It explains how social experience only through their senses.
develops an individual’s personality.
b. conventional
 Mead claimed that the self is not there
at birth, rather, it is developed with  develops during teen years, when
social experience. youngsters become increasingly
 No self interaction = no self aware of others’ feelings and take
 He also developed the “Two side of those into consideration when
self : “I” and”Me” determining what’s “good” and
 According to him, a person undergoes “bad.”
an active process, not just a mere
reflection of society. The “I” and “me” c. post conventional
have a didactic relationship. (one
 is when people begin to think of
teaches the other)
morality in abstract terms, such as
 “Me” is the product of what the
Americans believing that everyone
person has learned while interacting
has the right to life, liberty, and the
with others and with the environment
pursuit of happiness. At this stage,
 people also recognize that legality reflective about her/his place in
and morality do not always match society.
up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When
In this module you will learn that every
hundreds of thousands of
aspects of our lives can be studied in the
Egyptians turned out in 2011 to
past, present or future from
protest government corruption,
anthropological perspective that
they were using post conventional
connects us to our past and helps to
morality. They understood that
prepare for the future.
although their government was
legal, it was not morally correct. ANTHROPOLOGY
GILLIGAN’S THEORY OF MORAL  is the field of social sciences that
DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER focuses on the study of man. This
CAROL GILLIGAN does not pertain only to one aspect of
man, but rather on the totality of
 According to her, Kohlberg’s theory what it means to be human,
might show gender bias since his  The fields looks into man’s
research was only conducted on physical/ biological
male subjects. characteristics, the social
 She set out to study differences relationship and the influence of his
between how boys and girls culture from the dawn of civilization
developed morality. up to the present.
 Gilligan’s research demonstrated  The main purpose of
that boys and girls do, in fact, have anthropology is for us to understand
different understandings of human biological and cultural
morality. diversity, and the origins of humans.
 Boys tend to have a justice
THE SELF IN CONTEMPORARY
perspective. Girls, on the other
ANTHROPOLOGY
hand, have a care and
responsibility perspective. In anthropology the self came to be
MODULE 3 FROM THE PERSPECTIVE understood as a process that
OF ANTHROPOLOGY orchestrates an individual's personal
experience following which s/he becomes
Anthropological perspective focuses self-aware and self-reflective about her or
on the study of the full scope of human his place in society (Taylor, 1989).
diversity and the application of that
It considers the genetic and cultural
knowledge to help people of different
origins of self, the role that self plays in
background.
socialisation and language, and the types
In anthropology the self came to be of self we generate in our individual
understood as a process that journeys to and through adulthood. We
orchestrates an individual’s rely on others to tell us about our self,
personal experience following which and even to let us know we are a self.
she/he becomes self -aware and self-
 person” or personhood is a bundle of environment in order for them to
roles, norms of behavior, expectations, survive.
responsibilities, obligations that situate a  Understanding the past may help us
human being in social life. ... The self is better understand our own society
an identification that negotiates the and that of other cultures.
tension/opposition between being a
LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY - is the
person and being unique human.
interdisciplinary study of how
CONTEMPORARY ANTHROPOLOGY language influences social life. It is a
branch anthropology that origins from
Person or personhood is a bundle of the endeavor to document languages,
roles, norms, of behavior, expectations, and has grown over the past century to
responsibilities, obligation that situate a encompass most aspects of language
human being in social life. The self is an structure and use.
identification that negotiates the
tension/opposition between being a HOW LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
person and being unique human. CONTRIBUTES TO HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
ATHROPOLOGY: THE FOUR
SUBFIELDS  Human survival is primarily linked to
their ability to communicate and the
ARCHEOLOGY - this refers to the study
essential part of human
of the ancient and recent human
communication is language.
past through material remains. It
 Linguistic anthropologists’ interest
analyzes the physical remains of the past focuses on using language as a means
in pursuit of a broad and comprehensive to discover a group’s manner of social
understanding of human culture. interaction and his worldview.
Why Study of Archeology Important  In the contemporary society, other
in Understanding the Self. forms of languages have evolve which
represent the subculture of a
 Archeology provides us with the particular group such as the terms
opportunity to learn about past used in social media and other group
cultures through the study of artifacts, of people or community.
animal bones and sometimes human  As societies change and technologies
bones. Studying these artifacts helps develop so do the symbols and
provide us with some insight about meaning people attach to objects and
what life was, like for people who left events as expressed through the
behind no written record. language that they use and their
 Archeologist’s focus is the past and manner of communicating
how it may have contributed to the
present ways of how people conduct BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
their daily lives. As a result, what Physical/ biological anthropology is
archeologists have so far discovered the study of the past and present
are the unique ways in which human evolution of the human species and
beings adapted to changes in their is especially concerned with
understanding the causes of present
human diversity. Within this broad  is a branch of anthropology
definition it encompasses fields as focused on the study of cultural
disparate as human palaeontology, variation among humans. It is in
evolutionary biology, human genetics, contrast to social anthropology, which
comparative anatomy and physiology, perceives cultural variation as a
primate behaviour, human behavioural subset of a posited anthropological
ecology, and human biology. constant. The umbrella term
sociocultural anthropology includes
 Human biology broadly covers the
both cultural and social anthropology
areas of modern human biological
traditions.
variation, human ecology, nutrition
 Cultural anthropologists specialize in
and demography. What makes
the study of culture and peoples’
physical/ biological anthropology
beliefs, practices, and the cognitive
unique is that it brings all of these
and social organization of human
areas to bear on our understanding of
groups.
the human condition.
Importance of Cultural Anthropology
Why is biological anthropology
important?  Anthropologists have pointed out that
through culture people can adapt to
 It seek to understand how humans
their environment in non-genetic
adapt to different environments, what
ways, so people living in different
causes disease and early death, and
environments will often have different
how humans evolved from other
cultures. Much of anthropological
animals. To do this, they study
theory has originated in an
humans (living and dead), other
appreciation of and interest in the
primates such as monkeys and apes,
tension between the local (particular
and human ancestors (fossils).
cultures) and the global (a universal
 The knowledge that biological
human nature, or the web of
anthropologists gather on living
connections between people in
populations falls into several
distinct places/circumstances).
overlapping categories, evolution and
 Cultural anthropologists study how
biosocial variation are underlying
people who share a common cultural
themes in studies that deal with
system organize and shape the
nutrition, child growth, health in
physical and social world around
societies, the genetics of human
them, and are in turn shaped by those
populations, and adaptation
ideas, behaviors, and physical
(adjustment) to the environment.
environments.

CULTURE AND THE SELF

 How we see ourselves shapes our

lives, and is shaped by our cultural
context. Self-perceptions influence,
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY among other things, how we think
about the world, our social
 relationships, health and lifestyle influenced by his unconscious motives.
choices, community engagement, According to Wilson (2002), the
political actions, and ultimately our unconscious mind comprises mental
own and other people's well-being. processes that are inaccessible to
 Social scientists have long understood consciousness but that influence
that people in different parts of the judgments, feelings, or behavior.
world see themselves in different Famously illustrated like an iceberg,
ways, but research has often been Freud believes that the most important
driven by a rather blackand-white — part of the mind or the self of an
and some would say stereotypical — individual is that part that is invisible but
view of what the differences are. forms the biggest chunk or humongous in
 Culture matters to the extent that it is size. Additionally, Freud put significance
normal for different experiences to be on childhood experiences from birth until
felt by the individuals in a given age of seven which has crucial impact on
society. It is worth noting here that the the individual’s personality.
perspectives in cultural matters
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
usually provide a new insight into the
psychological processes. A critique to then prevailing
 The experiences we go through in life Psychodynamic theory, Behaviorist like
are facilitated by the culture we live Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and
in, because culture provides or is the Watson believes that an individual’s
environment which allows all these behavior can be described and explained
experiences to take place (Warder, not through mental events or to internal
1996). psychological processes (cognitive and
 culture has such a greater influence affective) but observed as an individual
on an individual’s life contributing respond and react to external stimuli
majorly to the self concept of an coming from his environment.
individual. The influence might either Behaviorist subscribe to the idea that
be negative or positive depending on psychology is the science of behavior not
the type of culture that one has been internal processes. For the behaviorist
brought up in. your self and your personality is based
 It is important that individuals study on your reactions and responses to life
and appreciate their culture and its challenges and everything that is
contribution in shaping their individual observable in the naked eye and that
personalities. could be measured and quantified.
MODULE 4 - THE SELF FROM THE Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a
PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY therapeutic technique developed by
behaviorist for neurodiverse individuals
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY ( autism spectrum ADHD, etc.)

A theory with Sigmund Freud as the SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

main proponent with his other followers
the like of Jung, Adler, Horney among Social Cognitive Theory was promoted
by Albert Bandura, he believes that
others. Freud emphasizes that an
individual’s behavior and feelings are learning occurs in a social context with a
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the SIKOLOHIYANG PILIPINO (FILIPINO
person, environment, and behavior. PSYCHOLOGY) AND THE SELF
Among the unique feature of the theory
Most of the these psychology concepts
is its emphasis on social influence and its
are from the West. As Filipinos it is
corresponding external and internal
important to understand the self from the
social reinforcement. The theory
perspective of our own Filipino
recognizes the importance of past
Psychology. Dr. Virgilio Enriquez is
experiences that influences
the proponent of Sikolohiyang Pilipino
reinforcements, expectations, and
(SP). He defined Sikolohiyang Pilipino as
expectancies. These are factors that
the study of diwa (psyche) which
contributes to the behavior of the person.
refers to to the wealth of ideas or
This theory believes that the self or an
essence and an entire range of
individual’s personality is formed and
psychological concepts from
influenced by social forces and the
awareness to motives to behavior. It
experiences derived and learned through
is anchored in the Filipino thought, and
social interactions.
experience as understood from a Filipino
HUMANIST/EXISTENTIALIST THEORY perspective. For Enriquez (1992) SP deals
with identity and national consciousness,
emerged as a reaction to the dominance social awareness and involvement,
of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in the national and ethnic cultures, and the
field of psychology. Humanistic and application of indigenous psychology. He
existential psychology is a perspective proposed that the core value of Filipino
that emphasizes looking at the whole personality is kapwa as a shared inner
individual and stresses concepts such as self is important both psychologically and
free will, self-efficacy, self-actualization philosophically. He also warned however
and meaning. The theory aims to help
that Filipino does not always concede,
individual find meaning in their lives thus
pakikibaka is a valid aspect of
realizing their full potential and maximize
pakikipagkapwa in the face of injustice
their well-being. The
and adversity (Enriquez, 1992). Enriquez
Humanist/Existentialist Theory’s
identified several core values of Filipinos
fundamental belief is that people are
such as kapwa (shared identity),
innately good and that mental and social
pakiramdam (shared inner perception),
problems are the product of the absence
kagandahang loob (shared humanity),
and lack of awareness of those positive
accommodative surface values (hiya,
qualities. The theory also posits the idea
utang na loob, pakikisama), confrontative
that people possess personal agency and
surface values (bahala na), and societal
that they are motivated to use their free
values (karangalan, katarungan, and
will to pursue things that will help them
Kalayaan). Aside from using the Western
achieve their full potential as human
thought and psychology to understand
beings. Humanist and Existentialist
the self, it is important also to learn and
recognizes the individual’s need for self-
understand the self from the perspective
realization, finding meaning, and
of Sikolohiyang Pilipino of Filipino
personal growth is a key motivator of all
Psychology.
behavior.
 These brain differences don't mean that
young people can't make good decisions
or tell the difference between right and
THE ADOLESCENT’S PSYCHOLOGICAL wrong. It also doesn't mean that they
SELF AND MENTAL HEALTH shouldn't be held responsible for their
actions. However, an awareness of these
Having learned some psychological differences can help parents, teachers,
theories that are used to understand an advocates, and policy makers
individual or personality, the organ which understand, anticipate, and manage the
is the brain, for which cognitive behavior of adolescents.
functioning and feelings are interpreted
should be studied as well. Neuroscience ------------------------------
discovered several decades ago that the
Mental health advocates have been
brain of adolescents is still developing
rallying around the slogan “No Health
until early adulthood. That part is the
without Mental Health”. Fortunately for
pre-frontal cortex involved in high-level
the Philippines there is now a law on
cognitive functions such as decision
mental health. RA 11036 or the Mental
making, planning, inhibiting
Health Act, defines Mental Health refers
inappropriate behavior, social interaction
to a state of well-being in which the
and self-awareness. While it is
individual realizes one's own abilities and
undergoing positive development, it is
potentials, copes adequately with the
also more vulnerable to potentially
normal stress of life, displays resilience in
negative influences and poor decision the face of extreme life events, works
making. The limbic system that controls productively and fruitfully, and is able to
emotions, and those parts that provides make a positive contribution to the
rewarding feeling that comes from taking community. So aside from understanding
risks, is developing faster than the the self from different theoretical
prefrontal cortex which tempers risk- perspective, the practical side of taking
taking behavior according to research care of the self and the mind should also
findings. An explanation why some be practiced. Below are some tips for a
adolescents seems to be unruly, good mental health. Other feelings or
disobedient and rebellious. emotions did you experience. If you will
 misread or misinterpret social cues come up with a theme what would be the
and emotions dominant theme for your experience. You
 get into accidents of all kinds can share to class your drawing, symbol,
 get involved in fights or a quote from your journal entry.
 engage in dangerous or risky behavior TIPS FOR GOOD MENTAL HEALTH
Adolescents are less likely to: 1. Build relationships
 think before they act 2. Exercise and stay healthy
 pause to consider the consequences
of their actions 3. Develop gratitude
 change their dangerous or
4. Identify and use your strengths
inappropriate behaviors
5. Create flow 9. Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS). This syndrome
compromises the immunity of a person
MIDTERM which places her/ him bodily systems into
more serious complications leading into
MODULE 7 death.
1. Sex is the physical and physiological 10. Copulation, a medical term for
differences between male and female in sexual intercourse is a reproductive act
their primary and secondary sex whereby male genital (penis) enters the
characteristics. female's reproductive tract (vagina).
2. Biological Sex is a sex assigned to us 11.. Puberty is a developmental stage
at birth based on medical factors, which vary between male and female as
including your hormones, chromosomes they become sexually mature, enabling
and genitals. them with the capacity to reproduce.
3. Sexual Responses are natural 12. Reproductive Health Law- a law
sequence of responses both men and that guarantees access to contraceptive
women experience distinctively upon methods, such as fertility control, sexual
arousal. education and maternal care.
4. Gender refers to social and cultural 13. This stage is marked by physical
distinctions associated with being a male attraction. Lust is driven by estrogen
or female. and testosterone.
5. Gender Roles are roles that the 14. This stage, you begin to crave for
society expects individuals to act, speak your partner's presence. You feel excited
and behave in accordance with their and energetic as you fantasize about the
assigned sex. things you could do together as a couple.
6. Sexual Orientation is a pattern f 15. Attachment involves the desire that
romantic or sexual attraction to people of have lasting commitment with your
opposite, the same or either of the sexes. significant other. At this point, you may
want to get married and/or have children.
7. Gender Identity is an innermost
concept of self as a male, female a blend Module 9 & 10
of both or neither. How one perceive
herself/ himself to be which maybe the 1. Prayer -A spiritual communion with
same or God (or an object of worship), as in
supplication, thanks giving, adoration or
different from their sex assignments. confession.
8. Human Immunodeficiency 2. Meditation - Mental exercise for the
Syndrome (HIV). It is a virus that can purpose of reaching a heightened level of
be transmitted through different routes: spiritual awareness. It can induce
anal, oral, vaginal, breast milk, during feelings of calm as well as improved
childbirth and blood transfusions concentration and attention.
3. Spiritual Practices - associated with him/herself. A public identity one makes
better health and well-being. and constructs about him/herself to be.
Political position based on the interest
4. Spiritual Fellowship - can be a
and perspective of one social
source of social support that may provide organization.
a sense of belonging, security and
community. 15. Spiritual Self - relating to or
affecting the human spirit or soul as
5. Rituals - Repeated gestures or
opposed to material self or physical
activities such as prayers and mantras. things.
6. Barang - is a malignant sorcery that
usually targets a person.
FINALS
7. Religious Person - someone who
believes in a God or group of Gods and MODULE 11: Digital Self
consciously adheres to the beliefs of
DIGITAL SELF
his/her religion.
CONTENT
8. Spíritual Person - places little
importance on beliefs and tradition and is  What is social media?
more concerned with growing and
experiencing the meaning of life.  What is Digital Citizenship?

9. Journaling - It can also help you  9 Elements of Digital Citizenship

We Must Know
become more aware of your inner life
and feel more connected to your What is social media?
experiences and the world around you.
SOCIAL – refers to interacting with other
10. Executive Power -exercised by the people by sharing and/or receiving
government under the leadership of the information with them.
President.
MEDIA - refers to an instrument of
11. Legislative Power - vested in both communication, like the internet (while
the government and the bicameral TV, radio and newspapers are examples
congress: the Senate (the upper house) of more traditional forms of media)
and the House of representatives (the
lower house). From these two terms, we can pull a
basic definition together:
12. Judicial Power -vested in the Courts
with the Supreme Court of the Philippines Social media are web-based
as the highest Judicial body. communication tools that enable people
to interact with each other by sharing
13. Supreme Court -the highest court and consuming information.
within the hierarchy of courts in many
legal jurisdictions. What is Digital Citizenship?

14. Polítical Self -refers to a Digital citizenship is the continuously

representation of oneself about developing norms of appropriate,
responsible, and empowered technology impact on the lives of your students.
use. They need to learn which content is good
for them and what they should avoid in
As digital citizens, we have both rights
order to lead a balanced life.
and obligations and that is why learning
more about the concept of digital 5. DIGITAL ETIQUETTE
citizenship is crucial.
We should teach students to become
1. DIGITAL ACCESS “digitally fluent”.

Although we live in a digital era, not Digital etiquette shapes their online
everyone has access to technology. As behavior to respond positively to online
teachers, we should be aware of this content. In this way, their online attitude
digital divide. Not all students can afford is reflected in the real world and vice
a computer, a smartphone and internet versa.
access. That’s why educators need to
Examples of Netiquette
provide suitable alternatives for each
student’s needs.  Never write in capital letters
2. DIGITAL COMMERCE  Try and acknowledge the other
person’s point of view
Digital Commerce refers to selling and
buying things online and the necessity to  Don’t troll or insult
tackle safety issues while using money in
 Don’t publish others’ personal
the digital world. Technology is also used
details on a public forum
in class to showcase students the
possible paths to take in their prospect  Try and keep one-on-one
careers opening their way to a future job. conversations out of group chats to
Understanding how e-commerce works is avoid irritating other members
a must, both as possible customers and
 Keep different time-zones in mind
as potential entrepreneurs.
 Acknowledge and credit the work of
3. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
others
Online communication has become  Use supporting links, to help limit
so common that students forget the amount of text
they are doing so in a virtual space,
where miscommunication happens 6. DIGITAL LAW
often. The Internet has given a voice
The online environment has room for
to anyone who needs it. In turn, this
both positive and negative interactions.
requires empathy and appropriate
Digital law deals with legal rights and
reactions from its users.
restrictions governing technology usage.
4. DIGITAL LITERACY To prevent any kind of online crime, no
matter how serious, students as digital
Digital literacy also includes the ability to citizens need to know the law and how it
differentiate between real and fake applies to them in particular.
content, which can have a negative
7. DIGITAL RIGHTS AND  Learn how to identify potential
RESPONSIBILITIES scams (phishing)

The online world has its regulations and a  Report any problems related to
user has rights and responsibilities. The cybersecurity.
Internet can also be used for harmful - Cybercrime is still crime, no
purposes and anyone needs protection matter if it happens online.
against cyberbullying, for instance.
Schools should approach this subject in
classrooms, hold students accountable
MODULE 12: Learning to be a better
for their actions and also report any
student
misconduct in the virtual environment.
Learning Objectives
8. DIGITAL HEALTH AND WELLNESS
At the end of the lesson, the student
Students should be taught to protect
shall be able to:
themselves and others from potential
harm and ask for help if they need it. 1. Understand the theoretical
Making use of online resources is a plus, underpinnings for how to manage and
but everyone should be aware of the care for different aspects of the self.
dangers as well.9. DIGITAL SECURITY
2. Acquire and hone of new skills and
Security in the online world is important. learnings for better managing of one’s
When using devices at school or at home, self and behavior.
students should be aware of potential
malware attacks. Teachers should explain 3. Apply these new skills to one’s self and
how to prevent them from happening and better functioning for a better quality of
how to protect their devices as much as life.
possible.

Sometimes, studying is not enough to

5 Things to teach to develop cyber- become excellent in school. Attitude
savvy students towards what you are doing affects your
performance as well. Every student can
 Always have an up-to-date do better or even the best, if only they
antivirus practice a helpful and healthy routine
that would lead them towards success.
 Never use weak password
- create complex and unique Some students seem to breeze through
passwords for each account. their school years, whereas others
struggle, putting them at risk for getting
- frequently change your lost in our educational system and not
password reaching their full potential. Parents and
teachers want to help students succeed,
- use a 2-factor authentication
application but there is little guidance on which
learning techniques are the most
 Be cautious with free Wi-Fi
effective for improving educational more effective than studying long blocks
outcomes. This leads students to of the same topic only once. To use it
implement studying strategies that are successfully, students should start
often ineffective, resulting in minimal preparing way ahead of their exam dates
gains in performance. What then are the and organise their time with a calendar.
best strategies to help struggling In the classroom, teachers should review
students learn? not only the previous lesson but also
lessons from much earlier.
Fortunately for students, parents, and
teachers, psychological scientists have 3. Interleaved practice
developed and evaluated the
Interleaving is the strategy of mixing up
effectiveness of a wide range of learning
the order of questions across different
techniques meant to enhance academic
topics. Research reveals this technique to
performance. In this report, Dunlosky
be particularly effective in when teaching
(Kent State University), Rawson (Kent
Math and parts of the Science content.
State University), Marsh (Duke
Commonly, students learn strategy A and
University), Nathan (University of
solve a series of problems that demand
Wisconsin–Madison), and Willingham
strategy A, and then do the same with
(University of Virginia) review the
strategy B. Interleaving would be to learn
effectiveness of 10 commonly used
strategy A and strategy B, and solve
learning techniques.
problems that can demand one or the
other in a pseudo-random order. This
way, students need to figure out the right
1. Practice testing
strategy from the problem itself, which
The most effective strategy according to leads to a deeper understanding of the
Dunlosky’s research is practice testing. It topic and better preparation for exams.
consists of studying and reviewing by 4. Elaborative interrogation
answering questions and actively
bringing information back to mind. When This strategy involves asking and
this is done, information is answering Why and How questions. That
reconsolidated, new connections are is, thinking about a subject in more depth
created, and memory and understanding and detail, which strengthens
are strengthened. When reviewing topics connections in the brain.
in class, teachers should always include
5. Self-explanation
low-stake quizzes. These can be of
various types, as long as they demand This strategy is used when students’
active retrieval. Immediate feedback explain how new information relates to
should be provided. things they already know. Relating novel
2. Distributed practice content to prior knowledge creates new
connections and facilitates the
Distributed practice is basically the development of schemes.
opposite of cramming. Research
6. Rereading
consistently shows that studying small
chunks of content spread out over time is
Also a very popular technique, rereading to becoming the student you've always
seems to only help with knowing, but not wanted to become.
with understanding. That is, it improves
1. Set goals
students’ ability to recall something as
old, but does not enhance their learning Goals, both short and long-term, are a
for that topic. great way to measure your success. If
7. Highlighting you don’t have goals in sight, you have
nothing to achieve or strive for in your
Despite its popularity, Dunlosky reports courses. If you set concrete goals for
performance after reading and yourself, it’s easier to become motivated
highlighting is not better than and measure your success in those goals.
performance after reading only. Make sure your goals are realistic! While
you should challenge yourself, you
8. Summarization
shouldn't set yourself up for failure,
Paraphrasing the most important ideas in either. Remember, you can always set
a text can help to learn. However, this higher goals once you've achieved your
technique only works after students are first set.
properly trained in how to write 2. Adopt and stick to a study
summaries. Dunlosky suggests that this schedule
need for extensive training - which
usually does not happen - reduces the Scheduling is vital to maintaining a
applicability of the technique and that healthy learning balance and keeping up
other less-demanding strategies should with rigorous courses.
be chosen instead.
3. Stay well-rested
9. Keyword mnemonic
If you’re awake and alert, you’re certainly
This strategy is particularly used when more likely to absorb information given in
learning new words or a foreign class, during study sessions and in class
language. It involves using a keyword to activities and participation. Think of it as
represent the new term. Research does an equation: awake + alertness = A’s.
not support the effectiveness of this
4. Take advantage of educator
technique.
resources
10. Imagery for text
In addition to attending class, there are a
This technique consists of developing variety of resources available to aid
internal images that elaborate on the students in thriving and achieving in
material being studied. Dunlonsky’s class. TA’s, office hours and study review
research showed that the benefits of sessions are amongst the resources
mental imagery are short-lived. The offered within specific classes.
strategy also does not seem to be widely Additionally, many high schools and
applicable. colleges offer tutoring sessions free of
charge to students who seek extra help
Here’s some outline simple changes you with their courses.
can make and soon you'll be on your way
5. Healthy study techniques for sure to choose students who you'll stay
proper exam preparation on task with. Try finding various students
in your class, rather than friends you
Study techniques considered “healthy” already have. It can expand your social
include balance, time-management and group and you're more likely to stay
avoiding all-night study “cram” sessions. focused on the school work. Students
Information is certainly easier to absorb who form study groups with one another
when reviewed in increments, rather can often learn more through learning by
than procrastinating until the last minute. teaching. When students explain
6. Develop note-taking skills concepts to one another, they are able to
learn and absorb the information more
Listening and taking notes actively easily. Inversely, students that may need
during class not only ensures the clarification on areas of study are able to
recording of accurate information, but ask peers in order to be able to better
also reinforces the information through understand the course materials.
recording the information as you take it
in. Have you ever gone back to your 9. Take advantage of school
notes when it comes time to study for resources
the exam and find that they are illegible Utilizing school resources for setting
or difficult to understand? It's helpful to goals and creating positive study habits
go over your note after class and either tremendously aids in a student’s success.
rewrite them or outline the key School resources are abundant and
information while it's still fresh in your students who take advantage of such
mind. You'll find it's much easier to utilize resources are much more likely to
your notes and retain clearer information, succeed. Such resources include the
come exam time. Clearly, it also provides utilization of school libraries, career
you with any important information that centers and school centers that provide
was only mentioned in class when it tutoring and knowledge (for example:
comes time to review and study the student writing centers, math centers,
exam material. etc).
7. Extracurricular activities 10. Take on a manageable course
Try to create a life outside of academics, load
like participation in extracurricular When taking on a well-balanced course
activities, such as intramural sports or load, students are more likely to succeed
college clubs. Contrary to popular belief, because of realistic expectations in the
extracurricular activities increase a work load that can be handled
student’s overall college experience, successfully.
contribute to the learning process and
aiding in balancing scheduling skills. 11. Attendance

8. Study buddies This should be common sense – if

students go to class, they will likely
Collaborating with other students is a become more successful in the course.
great way to learn - as long as you're Obviously, the course material is
presented during class periods and Lesson Proper:
students that are paying attention tend
Question to Ponder
to learn while in class and, thus, are
more likely to perform well on exams. Is it possible for a person not to have any
12. Participation goals?

Is it possible for a person to achieve all

Going to class is one thing but paying
his goal?
attention and participating in class is
another. If you listen to the lessons, What is goal?
questions are likely to arise. If they come
up in class, ask! If you’re too shy in a According to Coon (2001) Goal is a target
large class, wait and ask the professor of objective of a motivated and directed
after class or during office hours. It’s chain of behavior.
important to know, however, that if
Goals are a form of self-regulation
you’ve got a question, it’s likely that
adopted by humans to achieve specific
other students have the same question
aims. By focusing people’s attention,
as well. Whatever you do, DO NOT wait
goals facilitate responses that are
until it comes time to study for the exam!
compatible with people’s objectives

MODULE 13: Setting Goals and

Success

Introduction:

“In order to succeed, people need a

“In order to succeed, people need a

sense of self-efficacy, struggle together
with resilience to meet the inevitable The anatomy of a goal – directed
obstacles and inequalities of life.” behavior all begins within the individual a
need which is lack or a deficit. The
tension is a drive that builds up and
-Albert Bandura directs the individual towards the goal.
When the goal is reached the need is
satisfied and the tension/drive is
Every individual or organization should reduced. The need and the drive
have a vision and mission as well, a set motivate the individual towards the goal.
of dreams and big long-term goals that
provide a solid base for the goals you set.
Your vision and mission inspire you and Importance of Setting Goals:
gives you energy, guides you and gives
all efforts a purpose. It connects goals 1. Setting goals direct the
with your deepest motivations and individual’s behavior.
purpose.
 - When the individual becomes that required you to stretch the limits of
aware of his needs, all of his behavior will your strengths?
be directed towards satisfying
this need, thus his goal. Behaviors that
will not bring him closer to his According to Bandura ,
goal are then lessened or are totally
disregarded. Self - Efficacy refers to the person’s
beliefs about his capacity to exercise
2. Goals, once set can determine the some measure of control over his
individual’s progress toward behavior and over events that take place
accomplishing it. around him.
- Is the individual taking his time or Self - efficacy is a concept that is neither
devoting too little effort to reach the biological nor hereditary. Rather, it is an
goal? In other words, goals serve as attribute that can be learned and
a measure of the individual’s progress enhanced through the following:
toward attaining it.
1. Mastery of Learning and Skills.
3. Goals serve as guide to discipline Practice is necessary for the
behavior. individual to have mastery.

- This will make sure that the person does 2. A Good Social Model. Learning
not divert from the right track. Behavior through observation is best
that do not contribute to attaining the achieved when the model is
goal are scrapped to make way for credible and trustworthy.
behaviors that do. 3. A Persuasive Environment. A
social environment that is
4. Goals keep the individual busy so
supportive elevates the morale of
no time is wasted.
the individual and encourages him
- To procrastinate is to achieve nothing. to perform at his best every time
The significance of something is usually thereby achieving his goals.
measured by the amount and quality of 4. Physical Fitness. Competence for
time spent doing it. a physical skill initially requires that
the person is in good health.
5. Goals motivate the individual
because it provide a purpose/reason 5. Emotional Maturity. This
for his behavior. prepares the individual for the
challenges and failures
- Goals keep the individual on his feet, encountered on the way to his
challenging him and giving meaning to goal.
his existence.

Question to Ponder: Carol Dweck is a Standford psychologist

• Tell me about a time when you who wrote the book, Mindset: The New
intentionally took on a task or activity Psychology of Success(2006). This book
is all about the power of beliefs and how
it influences people’s lives. It also tackles
how changing these beliefs alters every learning something new and
aspect of an individual’s existence. growing along the way.

Mindset - A self-perception or “self- 3. Commitment. This means owning

theory” that people hold about the goal and making it one’s
themselves. responsibility to make sure that
behaviors are undertaken to
achieve it.

Types of Mindsets 4. Feedback. Suggestion should be

welcomed and wisdom from the
1. Fixed Mindset. A person believes expert should be given due
that their character, intelligence consideration.
and creativity are innate/inborn
5. Task complexity. Complex goals
and cannot be changed or altered.
can overwhelm the person and will
2. Growth Mindset. A person’s basic take a longer time to accomplish.
qualities can be learned or
cultivated through hard work and
effort MODULE 14: METACOGNITION AND
Who is Edwin Locke? STUDY STRATEGIES

Prof. Edwin Locke of the University of COGNITIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Maryland proposed the ” Goal Setting Students who are able to identify
Theory.” suitable learning strategies in the proper
What is Locke’s goal setting theory? situation are using metacognition. If a
student was taught how to use concept
Edwin Locke and Gary Latham conducted map to connect main concept with sub-
research into setting goals. This resulted concepts using lines to connect ideas,
in the goalsetting theory, which shows then that student is using metacognition
how goals and feedback can be highly to complete a task.
motivating factors for employees. Locke’s
Goal-Setting Theory was created based Realizing that there is something
on five principles. wrong with your solution to a problem
and finding a way to check it is in itself
again a form of metacognition. It is an
internal guide that drives self-directed
Five Goal Setting Principles
learning. And, it also affects students’
1. Clarity. The first thing that should motivation to learn.
be considered in setting goals is to
determine what the person is really Metacognition according to Paris
trying to achieve. The S.M.A.R.T and Winograd (1990) captures two
mnemonic is useful. essential features self- appraisal and self-
management.
2. Challenge. Goal should be
challenge the person’s ability to 1. Self- appraisal refers to reflection
make him exert more effort in about their own knowledge, states
and abilities and their affective
 abilities, motivation and attitude direct the person to finish a
characteristics of learners. learning task.
2. Self -management refers to 3. Strategy variables. These are
“metacognition in action”. It techniques used by the person to
connotes feelings during some monitor his learning progress. It answers
cognitive activity that relate to the
the question, what you know about
process.
different strategies to successfully
accomplish a task.

Dr. Josh Walker, from the Center for What do metacognitive strategies
Teaching and Learning at The University include?
of Texas at Austin, gives a brief preview
of what learning scientists call Below are figures that summarize
metacognition -- thinking about thinking. metacognitive strategies (plan/organize,
The clip runs at 1 minute, 47 s brief on monitor/identify, evaluate and
Introduction to Metacognition management of learning) and the
highlighting how a painter uses process flow (plan/organize, monitor and
metacognition. evaluate).

What do you ask in each phase of

the process flow?

1. Planning. During this phase

Metacognitive process is important for learners think about learning
learning to be a success. It involves goals set by the teacher and
selfregulation, the awareness of one’s think about how they are going to
strength and weaknesses. It is about accomplish a task. At this stage,
the learner may ask himself the
understanding how you learn, and
following questions:
knowing when and how to use particular
 What am I ask to do?
strategies for learning and or problem  What strategies should I
solving. choose?
 Is there strategy I used
Metacognitive knowledge can be
earlier that could be useful
divided into three categories:
this time?
1.Knowledge variables. (Person) It is
about knowing how the person learns. It 2. Monitoring. At this stage the
refers to what you recognize about your learners move ahead to
implement their plans and
strength and weaknesses in learning and
monitor the progress of learning
processing information. It is an activities to achieve learning
understanding of how mind works. goals. Activities like quizzes,
feedback and polls that survey
2.Task variables (Experience). It tells
what they struggle with and then
you of what you know about the nature utilize results to stimulate
of a task and the processing demands to discussion allow them to check
complete a task. Positive emotions and themselves. Self-regulation help
students identify factors that both
 help and hinder them to achieve his learning challenging and interesting
goals. It is a phase where learners for students. If they know what type of
can also change strategies utilize learners they are, they can have a
if they are getting the desired clearer picture of the learning process,
results. and be more consciousness of learning.

At this phase learners should ask

questions like:
How to engage the seven types of
 Is the strategy working or learners?
not?
 Is there a need to try It’s generally accepted that there
something different? are seven different learning styles. Here
we discuss strategies to improve
3. Evaluation. The last phase in the
engagement of students for each
process flow involves reflection
learning style.
on how well you met your
learning objectives after
completing a unit of study, or 1. Auditory and musical
receiving feedback (such as test
learners- auditory learners like
or assignment) refers to
to hear solutions and examples
evaluation. It answers the
explained to them. They often
questions:
have high aptitude for
 Have I reached my goal?
 What worked? distinguishing notes tones in
 Would I do things music and speech.
differently the next time? Qualities associated with auditory
learners include:
Metacognitive thinking and the
learning cycle are completely  Possessing a good ear for
interlinked and heavily related to music
good practice in Assessment for  May be distractible
Learning. At each stage in the learning  Likes to talk to
cycle, there are key questions that you self/others/hum/sing
will ask yourself to support your learning
process.
2. Visual and Spatial – Visual
Being aware of learning styles can learners want to include elements
aid students in selecting appropriate like pictures, images, maps and
study strategies. Students unique diagrams. When it comes to self-
driven learning, encourage
learning preference aids teacher in
spatially aware to sketch out their
planning for instruction. Learning styles
ideas, create mind maps and
influence students’ ability to acquire
flowcharts. They often seek
information, to interact with peer and the
careers in journalism and writing,
teacher, and participate in the learning law and politics Other tactics
process. A student may have a that can be used include:
combination of learning styles. Knowing
ones learning styles can help him make
  Sitting visual learners near the  The use of props and
front models will greatly benefit
 Using color codes and cues a kinesthetic learner
 Encouraging note taking and
recopying notes during study 6. Social and interpersonal
learners- Social learners show
3. Verbal- Verbal learning includes preference to groups and
writing and speaking. They have collaboration. There is ease in
preference for reading, writing, learning when in group. To
word games and poems. Verbal engage a social learner,
learners want to write down encourage both group
notes, talk about concepts, and collaboration and presentation.
present them as well. Qualities Interpersonal learners
associated with verbal learners like to “do and share “.
include: To engage social
 Intellectual learner  Consider:
 Bookworm
 Good story teller  Roleplaying historical
events or works of
4. Logical and mathematical- literature
Logical involves using reasoning,  Collaborating on math
arguments to explain concepts problems
and understanding. They are  Working as a class on
interested in careers like comprehension questions
programming, accountancy,  Some of the qualities often
science, and research. associated with this type of
Mathematical learners appreciate learner include:
any type of learning that logically  Good communicator
explains the subject. For math it  Sensitive and empathetic
may be easy but for others it
requires more efforts and 7. Solitary and intrapersonal-
planning. Solitary learners can be visual,
physical, verbal or logical with
5. Physical and Kinesthetic – preference to learning by himself.
Physical and kinesthetic learners Some of the qualities often
use motor movements like associated with this type of
drawing, role playing. They learner include:
prepare to be physical engage  Independent
with the materials and the  Introspective
subject matter. Some qualities  Private
associated with physical learners
include:
 Preference to get their Sometimes it is difficult to engage
hands dirty. a solitary learner. He might be silently
 Energetic sit at the back only to top the exam at
 Action oriented and out
the of the semester. In a big classroom
going
with more than 50 students, it is not
easy to personalize the lessons, but
using a combination of mixed learning
approaches can help you cater to each
type of learning styles.
MODULE 15: Managing your own much time will it take? How much
Learning: Self-Regulated Learning focus will I need?

The Cycle of Self-Regulated • Set goals. How will I structure

Learning this task? What are the
intermediate checkpoints and
Self-regulated learning is a cyclical sub-goals? Can I complete an
process, wherein the student plans for a outline with two weeks to go, and
task, monitors their performance, and then a rough draft one week prior
to the due date? That would allow
then reflects on the outcome. The cycle
time to get extra help as needed.
then repeats as the student uses the
reflection to adjust and prepare for the • Plan strategies. Will I need
next task. The process is not one-size- resources from the library, a color
fits-all; it should be tailored for individual printer, help from my lab
students and for specific learning tasks partners, or an appointment for
(Zimmerman, 2002). office hours? Given my needs,
when should I get started on this
The figure to the right illustrates task?
the key steps of the process. These steps
are performed by the student, but • Set expectations for the
instructors play a vital role in guiding outcome. Given how much time
and coaching students through each I have available, my strengths
and weaknesses, and my current
step. The bullet points below provide
standing in the course, what type
additional information, and are drawn of outcome would I like? Do I
from Zimmerman (2002) and Zumbrunn need to "ace" this, or is it OK if I
et al. (2011). can just complete it successfully?
1. Plan, set goals, and lay out Instructor tips:
strategies
• When students are new to a task,
This first step of the cycle may be help them map out the most
overlooked by many students as they effective strategies to match the
dive headlong into a task. Encouraging goal.
students to establish a plan before they • Set intermediate, shorter term
start working on a task will help them goals along the pathway toward a
strategize right from the start. Although larger goal.
students may see this as taking a step
• As students gain proficiency,
backward, it will ultimately help them be allow them to plan for
more efficient with their time and effort. themselves.
Guide students though this process by
helping them ask themselves the 2. Use strategies and monitor
following questions: performance

• Analyze the learning task. Is In this phase, students carry out the plan
this a task I've done before or that was outlined in the forethought
something new? Does it build off phase. Ideally, students can proceed with
of a task I've done before? How
confidence because they have already This self-reflection can help them
established a detailed plan of action. understand why they earned a certain
grade and how to improve their
Here are some key points you can performance. Activities like an exam
use to coach students through this wrapper can solidify this process.
phase.
• Ask students to evaluate their own
 Use self-observation to reflect on performance and their results.
the actions taken by the student and Students should compare their
the effectiveness of the results. performance to their original goal,
rather than comparing themselves to
o For example, when I studied in a quiet
others.
location in the library, I completed
the reading more quickly than when I • Reflect on the effectiveness of
read at home. strategies used. Did they select an
appropriate strategy? Did they follow
 Because things don't always go through with the selected strategy?
smoothly, have students make a plan
• Encourage students to attribute poor
for what to do when obstacles outcomes to the effort made and/or
arise (Flanagan, 2014). the strategy used. Students should
be coached to not attribute failure to
o For example, if I get stuck on the
lack of ability.
math in this assignment, I will go to
the TA's weekly help session. • Help students manage their
emotions, and in time, direct them
• Prompt students to stick with the toward productive lines of thinking
strategies, even though it may be about how they can improve their
tempting to revert back to known performance. Even if their outcome
(but ineffective) strategies. is not what they had hoped, they can
Unfamiliar approaches may feel still learn from the experience.
inefficient at first, but learning the
method can be as important as • A key part of this process is that
learning the material. students use this reflection to plan
for the next task. How will they adapt
• Have the students monitor their their planning, strategy, time
progress on the intermediate goals, management, and self-monitoring?
and the strategies they are using. At
the same time, you can also monitor
their progress and offer feedback Metacognition can be defined as
(see structuring feedback for self- the executive functions that control
regulated learning). actions or the ability to recognize
thinking patterns and evaluate them
(Weinert, 1987) and is a portion of the
3. Reflect on performance continuum of self-regulation.
Metacognition is the ability to think
Many students focus solely on the about and evaluate your own thinking
extrinsic outcome of their grade. While processes (Brown, 1987) and is a part of
grades are important, you can help being a self-regulated learner because
students reflect on how they think they self-regulatory strategies provide the
did on a particular assignment, and why. mechanisms for students to regulate
their cognition and learning implementation of the task and self-
(Zimmerman, 1989). monitoring (e.g., asking students to
Metacognitive control is the conduct hands-on inquiries and to
decisions, both conscious and non- monitor their progress). The self-
conscious, that we make based on the reflection phase refers to the use of
output of our monitoring process standards to make self-judgments about
(Schwartz & Perfect, 2002). the performance (e.g., students compare
Metacognitive monitoring and control
their activities in the inquiry against one
can be a useful tool in helping students
aspect of the nature of science). Because
to identify scientific thinking and to
check their own thinking for alignment students continue to cycle through the
with a scientific way of knowing. Since self-regulation feedback loops, when
metacognition and self-regulation are students enter successive iterations of
related, it is possible that self-regulatory the loop, they have more sophisticated
processes can be useful in developing forethought, performance, and self-
metacognition in students. reflection. There is evidence that
attainment of high levels of academic
achievement requires a self-regulatory
dimension of competence in addition to
basic talent and high-quality instruction
(Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2007).

From this theoretical foundation, a

metacognitive prompts intervention
(MPI-S) has been developed and tested
experimentally with 8th grade students
Self-regulated learning diagram for 3 years. This intervention is based on
a 4-phase developmental training
Figure 1. Self-Regulated Learning approach from Zimmerman's work (2000)
that includes observation, emulation,
Corno & Mandinach (1983) have
self-control, and self-regulation.
found that metacognitive engagement
Observation entails vicarious induction
can be learned by training in self-
from a proficient model. Emulation is a
regulation of learning. As described from
duplication of the general pattern of the
a social-cognitive perspective, self-
model. The self control-phase occurs
regulated learners enter three phases
when the student independently uses the
that are cyclically related: forethought,
strategy in similar contexts, and the self-
performance, and self-reflection as
regulation phase occurs when the
illustrated in Figure 1 (Zimmerman,
student can adapt the use of the strategy
2000). The forethought phase partially
across changing conditions by being
refers to analyzing tasks and setting
metacognitively aware of his/her own
process-oriented goals (e.g., asking
learning. The intervention, Metacognitive
students to organize the content they
Prompting Intervention – Science (MPI-S),
already knew about the inquiry problem).
consisted of metacognitive prompts such
The performance phase includes
as examples, checklists, and questions difficulty understanding the nature of
for each of the chosen aspects of the science is their lack of exposure to the
nature of science. MPI-S was composed same inherent ways of knowing as a
of examples for the observation phase, a scientist (Hogan, 2000). Self-regulated
checklist for the emulation phase, a short learning strategies could provide a
checklist and a few questions for the self- framework that can scaffold naïve views
control phase, and questions eliciting of the nature of science to more
student rationale for decisions for the developed views of the nature of science.
self-regulation phase.

Students exposed to the

Self-regulated learning diagram
intervention showed statistically
significant higher levels of content Figure 1. Self-Regulated Learning
knowledge and knowledge about the
nature of science than students not Corno & Mandinach (1983) have found
exposed to the intervention. Effect size that metacognitive engagement can be
was measured by Cohen's d for the learned by training in self-regulation of
content measure and the nature of learning. As described from a social-
science measure. The effect size for the cognitive perspective, self-regulated
content measure was d = .5 and for the learners enter three phases that are
nature of science measure was d = .8. In cyclically related: forethought,
addition, qualitative findings revealed performance, and self-reflection as
that the experimental group made illustrated in Figure 1 (Zimmerman,
choices based on evidence in the inquiry 2000). The forethought phase partially
unit. However, the control group differed refers to analyzing tasks and setting
to authority, even when it conflicted with process-oriented goals (e.g., asking
the evidence presented in the activity. students to organize the content they
When asked what it was to think already knew about the inquiry problem).
scientifically, the experimental group The performance phase includes
responded that the modules taught them implementation of the task and self-
that scientists use their prior monitoring (e.g., asking students to
understandings to explain new conduct hands-on inquiries and to
phenomena and that their explanations monitor their progress). The self-
require a large amount of detail. reflection phase refers to the use of
standards to make self-judgments about
Self-regulated learning can be used the performance (e.g., students compare
as a non-didactic instructional tool to their activities in the inquiry against one
relate the aspects of the nature of aspect of the nature of science). Because
science to students on a metacognitive students continue to cycle through the
level as students engage in scientific self-regulation feedback loops, when
inquiry. A student who self-regulates students enter successive iterations of
should be able to think about and the loop, they have more sophisticated
evaluate their ideas according to a forethought, performance, and self-
scientific way of knowing. One reason reflection. There is evidence that
that teachers as well as students have attainment of high levels of academic
achievement requires a self-regulatory the nature of science measure. The effect
dimension of competence in addition to size for the content measure was d = .5
basic talent and high-quality instruction and for the nature of science measure
(Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2007). was d = .8. In addition, qualitative
findings revealed that the experimental
From this theoretical foundation, a group made choices based on evidence
metacognitive prompts intervention (MPI- in the inquiry unit. However, the control
S) has been developed and tested group differed to authority, even when it
experimentally with 8th grade students conflicted with the evidence presented in
for 3 years. This intervention is based on the activity. When asked what it was to
a 4-phase developmental training think scientifically, the experimental
approach from Zimmerman's work (2000) group responded that the modules
that includes observation, emulation, taught them that scientists use their
self-control, and self-regulation. prior understandings to explain new
Observation entails vicarious induction phenomena and that their explanations
from a proficient model. Emulation is a require a large amount of detail.
duplication of the general pattern of the
model. The self control-phase occurs
when the student independently uses the
strategy in similar contexts, and the self-
regulation phase occurs when the
student can adapt the use of the strategy
across changing conditions by being
metacognitively aware of his/her own
learning. The intervention, Metacognitive
Prompting Intervention – Science (MPI-S),
consisted of metacognitive prompts such
as examples, checklists, and questions
for each of the chosen aspects of the
nature of science. MPI-S was composed
of examples for the observation phase, a
checklist for the emulation phase, a short
checklist and a few questions for the self-
control phase, and questions eliciting MODULE 16: The Social and
student rationale for decisions for the Dimensions of Stress
self-regulation phase.
Life is a challenge. Each day people
wake up and face challenges. There is no
Students exposed to the intervention easy task but that is how it is to survive
showed statistically significant higher and exist in an ever-changing modern
levels of content knowledge and world.
knowledge about the nature of science Unfortunately, as people carry – on with
than students not exposed to the their tasks and routines, they experience
intervention. Effect size was measured by stress. Stress is defined as a mental and
Cohen's d for the content measure and physical condition that people encounter
when they have to adjust or adapt to Sources of Stress
environmental events.
Stressors have a major influence upon
People under stress react differently: one’s mood and sense of well-being,
pacing, eating too much, crying a lot , behavior and health. Acute stress
smoking and drinking more than usual. responses in young, healthy individuals
At times, they are also physically violent, may be adaptive and typically do not
hitting others or throwing things. impose a health burden. However, if the
threat is unremitting particularly in older
Although stress has been involved as a or unhealthy individuals, the long term
factor in illness, some degree of stress is effects of stressors can damage help. For
normal, necessary and unavoidable. young adults, stressors may come from
Stress acts as motivation to make one the following:
adjust his behavior to meet challenging
demands. For instance, reviewing for an 1. school demands and expectations
examination or going to a job interview,
2. Separation anxiety
one would experience a form of stress or
anxiety. At times, pleasant stress or 3. Romantic relationship or the lack of
negative stress. it
4. Family demands and expectations
Pleasant stress or eustress is
experienced by one’s body as an 5. Demands of social life
unpleasant stimulus but becomes a
Sources of Coping and Strength §
source of motivation. This happens when
Coping with Stress
the achievement of a goal is expected.
Types of Coping
Negative stress or distress causes pain
in the mind and in the body that makes What is coping? Coping refers to
the person literally sick. This results from the strategies you use to deal or
hopelessness and helplessness caused imagined problems to protect yourself
by the stressor. For instance, review got against negative emotions. It refers to
so frustrated which is enough to stress adaptive strategies you employ in an
the body and mind of the graduate attempt to reduce stress. It helps you
architect student. control your reactions and continue with
your daily activities. Coping involves
Neustress- this neutral or negative stress
putting in conscious effort to minimize or
is caused by a disturbing event that does
tolerate stress.
not affect a person directly but it may
trigger anxiety, sadness, fear and other 1. Problem – focused coping
stressful feelings. For instance, if one
 it targets on controlling or
hears or read in the newspaper that a
changing the sources of
child is kidnaped, one would be upset
stress
deeply and he would experience emotion
related to stress but his response is just  it tackles the source in a
mild because he is not directly involved. practical manner
(Hales&Hales, 2016)
  strategies include employing The sources of social stress include (but
problem-solving techniques, are not limited to):
time management; getting
relevant social support.  Problems with work or earning an
income;
2. Emotion- focused coping
 Parenting;
 it involves lowering, if not
eliminating, negative  Education;
emotional responses  Sex and socialization;
(i.e.,embarrassment)
 Immigration status or language;
 it is an option when the
source of stress is external  Personal, physical and
and beyond the person’s psychological health; § Peer
control pressure; and

 strategies include distraction,  Social marginalization.

talking out or verbalizing
your problem, prayer, and
meditation. Stress and Filipinos
3. Cognitive coping The effect of culture on stress and coping
 it involves a conscious is so pervading that the people within the
intellectual activity of cultural group does not notice it. But
managing stressful situations when cultural contexts are compared, the
 you use your mind to differences between how people deal
combat stress-inducing with stress become striking.
thoughts.
American anthropologist and professor,
The Social and Cultural Dimensions Mary Catherine Bateson (1968), told an
of Stress anecdote about her experience of losing
What is social stress? It is a state of a premature infant while she was here in
mental or emotional strain or tension the Philippines. She noted the differences
resulting from adverse or very on how Americans and Filipinos express
demanding circumstances arising from sympathy over the loss of a loved one.
the Bateson described that while Americans
will shake hands, nod the head sadly and
person’s social environment relationships say “ we are sorry for your loss”- they
( Sattler&Kirsch, 2014). There are several will make a hasty retreat and leave the
sources of social stress, and they can family to mourn in private. Bateson
affect almost every area in your life. observed that Filipinos- other than
Social stress gets aggravated when you expressing sympathy for the loss –would
have little capability to change your ask questions and will get to talk about
circumstances. your beloved departed at length. She
added that the primary assumption in
What are the sources of social
Filipino culture is that those who suffered
stress?
a loss should not be left mourning alone Coping refers to the strategies you use
(as cited in Alwin, 2007). to deal with real or imagined problems to
protect yourself against negative
emotions

Types of Coping

1. Problem-focused Coping

2. Emotion-focused Coping

3. Cognitive Coping
Problem-focused Coping

It targets on controlling or changing the

source of stress.

It tackles the source in practical manner.

MODULE 17: SOURCES AND COPING Strategies include employing problem-

STRESS solving techniques; time management;
getting relevant social support
SOURCES OF COPING AND
STRENGTH Emotion-focused Coping

It involves lowering, if not eliminating,

Our emotions and how we handle it
negative emotional responses (i.e.,
reflect our image and ‘self’. The ways embarrassment).
by which we express our varied It is an option when the source of stress
emotions whether positive or negative is external and beyond the person’s
control.
manifest our identity and personality.
Strategies include distraction, talking out
What is STRESS? or verbalizing your problem, prayer, and
meditation.
In general, stress is a state of mental or
Cognitive Coping
emotional strain or tension resulting
It involves a conscious intellectual
from adverse or very demanding
activity of managing stressful situations.
circumstances. It is a mental and
You use your mind to combat stress-
physical response to the demands of inducing thoughts.
your environment.
Strategies for cognitive coping include:
Coping with STRESS
Reframing –changing the way you view Breathing
experiences or events, ideas, concepts
and emotions to find alternatives that are Smile and laughter Time Management
more positive. Social Support/friends
Challenging negative thinking – Seeking Professional help
questioning the rationality of your
negative thoughts. Positive Coping Strategies for Stress

Positive self-talk –sometimes referred to Physical and Lifestyle Strategies

as “positive affirmations”; you talk to
Abdominal breathing and relaxation
yourself in a positive manner.
Low-stress diet
Count to ten –giving you time to gain
control of your emotions. Regular exercise
Cost-benefit analysis –asking how Downtime
yourself beneficial your thoughts,
emotions, or actions are. “Is it worth it?” Mini-breaks

Smell the roses –a way of telling yourself Time Management

to relax.
Sleep hygiene
Keeping perspective –breaking down
Choosing a nontoxic
problems into little tasks and knowing
which the problems need to be Material security
addressed right away as compared to
Emotional Strategies
those that to do not need much
attention. Social support and relatedness
Reducing uncertainty – as the saying Self-nurturing
goes, “lamang ang may alam”, gathering
as much information as you can about Good communication
your problem. It helps if you gather
Assertiveness
positive information rather than negative
ones. Recreational activities
Using imagery/visualization – imagery as Emotional release
a relaxation tool.
Sense of humor
Behavioral coping Strategies

These are ways of dealing with stress by

Cognitive Strategies
taking action to modify behavior. Some
behavioral coping strategies include: Constructive thinking
Physical Exercise Distraction
Relaxation Task-oriented
Acceptance

Tolerance for ambiguity

Philosophical/Spiritual Strategies

Consistent goals or purpose to work

toward

Positive philosophy of life

Religious/spiritual life and commitment

Culture can affect stress and coping

process in four ways (Aldwin, 2007):

Cultural context shapes the kind of

stressor that an individual is likely to
experience. For example, Europeans find
crowded places stressful because they
crave privacy, while Filipinos are
delighted to see a crowd (Uy! May
kasiyahan!). Culture may also affect the
appraisal of certain event. For instance,
“noise” is stressful. But, what kind of
noise? Some people find the Philippine
streets –with all the honking, peddling,
and shouting –noisy. Yet, they have no
problem listening to their songs on high
volume.

Culture affects an individual’s coping

strategies (as was displayed by the Mary
Catherine Bateson’s story).

Culture provides different time-honored

tool/mechanisms by which an individual
can cope with stress.