Module - 1

Introduction to Waves
Ch. 16 Introduction - University
Physics Volume 1 | OpenStax
Have you ever observed water in a lake or pond?

The pattern of waves that generate after a disturbance occurs on the

surface of water.

What do you call it? Water waves which are in the visible form.

However, there are sound waves, radio waves, etc., which aren’t visible
but they exist!

Yes, waves are always around us and are present in a variety of forms.

Hence, we can understand the importance and the types of waves in the
following lecture.
A wave is a disturbance that travels
or propagates from the place where it was
created.

Waves transfer energy from one place to

another, but they do not necessarily transfer any
mass (particle).

Light, sound, and waves in the ocean are common examples of waves.

Sound and water waves are mechanical waves; meaning, they require a
medium to travel through. The speed of the wave depends on the material
properties (refractive index) of the medium.

Light is not a mechanical wave; it can travel through a vacuum such as free
space.
Whenever a wave travels from one location to other, every crest is
chased up by a second crest and the pattern continues.

These crests are divided by a trough, which leads to the generation of

crests & troughs pattern.

According to physics, we can define waves as a periodical disturbance

that propagates in a particular medium.
Amplitude (A)– Amplitude is the height of
the wave, usually measured in meters. It is
directly related to the amount of energy
carried by a wave.

Wavelength (𝝀)– The distance between

identical points in the adjacent cycles of
crests of a wave is called a wavelength. It is
also measured in meters.

Period (T)– The period of a wave is the

time for a particle on a medium to make one
complete vibrational cycle. As the period is
time, hence is measured in units of seconds.
Frequency (f) – The number of vibrations produced by a vibrating body in
one second is called its frequency.

When one wave passes in one second its frequency is 1 wave per second or 1
Hertz (1 Hz).
𝟏
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇) =
𝑻
Phase of a wave is a function of position and time . Phase can be measured
in distance or time.
Phase difference between two waves at a fixed position is given by the time
difference between the two waves.
Phase difference is always measured between two or more waves with same
frequency .
Speed (v) – The speed of an object means how fast an object moves and is
usually expressed as the distance travelled per time of travel.
The speed of a wave refers to the distance travelled by a given point on the
wave (crest) in a given interval of time. That is –
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Speed of a wave is measured in m/s.
Plane progressive wave function 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) represents wave motion
along 𝑥 direction. We know that 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 is phase of the wave and it must be constant
for a particular section of the wave.

Thus, 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 . Differentiating both sides, we get 𝑘𝑑𝑥 − 𝜔𝑑𝑡 = 0 .

velocity
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
𝑣 = = = +𝑣𝑒.
𝑑𝑡 𝑘

This represents a wave travelling in positive direction. 𝑥 progresses with 𝑡.

Similarly 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡), then 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, gives phase or wave

velocity

𝑑𝑥 𝜔
𝑣 = =− = −𝑣𝑒.
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
𝑑𝑥
This represents wave travelling in negative direction. is negative means as 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
progresses, 𝑥 is reducing.
Usually, waves are around us, they can be sound, radio, water, string waves,
etc. These are created through disturbance. There are three types of waves.
They are as follows:

The waves which require a material medium for their

propagation are known as mechanical waves
These waves are propagation by a disturbance through the material medium
owing to the repeated periodic movement of the particles in the medium
about their mean positions.

The disturbance being handed over from one particle to that of the other.

Momentum and energy transmit by the motion of particles in the medium.

But the mass transfer is not possible to take place here.

The propagation can happen because of the inertia and elastic properties of
the medium

These waves cannot travel through the vacuum.

Examples: Vibration of a string, tsunami waves, sound waves, ultrasounds,

internal water waves, oscillations in spring and waves in slink, etc.
Mechanical waves are classified into two types. They are given below:
❑ Transverse Wave
❑ Longitudinal Wave
Transverse waves are the disturbance
through a medium where the particles of
the medium oscillate about their mean
positions at right angles to the direction of
propagation of the wave.

This motion takes place and continues in a

cyclical pattern or in a periodical pattern.

Longitudinal wave, the movement of the particle are parallel to the

motion (direction) of the wave i.e. the displacement of the particles is in the
same direction to which the wave is moving. Example – Sound Waves,
Pressure Waves.
At the places of compression, the density and pressure for a longitudinal
wave tend to be maximum, and in the places of rarefaction, the density and
pressure tend to be minimum.

Only longitudinal waves can propagate in gasses medium. The longitudinal

waves are also called compression waves
The waves which require no
material medium for their
propagation.

These waves propagate in free space

due to the oscillation of electric and
magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic waves are generated by the coupling of an electric field

and a magnetic field.

Both the electric and magnetic fields, these waves are perpendicular in
direction and also perpendicular to each other.
 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
➢ In a vacuum, the velocity of electromagnetic (EM) waves will be 3 × 108 𝑚/ 𝑠
➢ No need for a medium to propagate E.M waves
➢ They can be polarized and are transverse in nature and also have momentum
➢ EM waves can exhibit interference and diffraction
➢ There is no deflection on account of an electric or magnetic field

EM waves examples:
Light waves
Heat waves
Radio waves
X-Ray waves
UV waves
IR waves …
A moving particle carries energy from one place to another in the form of kinetic
energy.

Since energy is carried by waves, therefore the waves associated with such moving
particles are known as matter waves.

Matter waves are also termed as De Broglie waves.

This is because they depict a similar wave nature of all matter, i.e., that forms atoms,
our body, etc.

De Broglie equations that basically indicate the dual nature of matter.

Matter waves examples:

❖ Waves associated with electron
❖ Waves associated with ball
To deriving the wave equation for waves on a string, let's assume the following:

1. The string has a uniform linear density (mass per unit length), 𝜌, throughout
its length.

2. The string is held under a constant uniform tension, 𝑇.

3. The tension on the string is strong enough that the effect of gravity on the string is
negligible

4. The tension acting on string elements does not change as they move transversely
(up and down).

5. For small deformations in the string is that the angle 𝜃 between the string and the
𝑥 direction is much smaller than 1, so sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 ≈ 1.
Let’s consider a string that has mass per 𝑦
unit length is 𝜌.

It is stretched by a tension 𝑇, which is much

larger than the weight of the string and its 𝑥
equilibrium position is along the x axis.

This diagram shows a short section of the string, stretched in the x direction,
and the forces acting on it.

Our analysis only applies for small deformations, for which the string is a
linear medium, and we neglect the gravitational force on the string.

The infinitesimal length of the string element is 𝑑𝑥, and of mass 𝑑𝑚. The
𝑑𝑚
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥
 Resolving forces Horizontally
Resolving forces on the string element in the horizontal direction is indeed trivial

Because this model is simple harmonic oscillators that vibrate only transversely.

Then we are more interested in the vertical (transverse) movement of the string
element, but it's included here for completeness.

Let the total horizontal force acting on the string element be 𝐹𝑥 .

From the diagram, there are two horizontal forces acting on the string: one in the
+ 𝑣𝑒 direction equal to 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃2 ), and one in the −𝑣𝑒 direction equal to 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃1 ).

Therefore, the total force acting on the string element in the horizontal direction is
given by:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑇 cos 𝜃1 2
But the displacement of the string is small enough, then both 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 will be small
then cos 𝜃1 ≈ cos 𝜃2 ≈ 1. Eqn. (2) gives
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑇 cos 𝜃1 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 = 0 3

As expected, the total horizontal force on the string element is zero and the string
element does not move horizontally.

Resolving forces vertically

The sum of forces in the 𝑦 direction is
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃2 − 𝑇 sin 𝜃1 2

Using the small angle approximation, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≅ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥. So we may

write
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇 ቤ − 𝑇 ቤ 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2 1
So the total force depends on the difference in slope between the two ends.

If the string were straight, no matter what its slope, the two forces would add
up to zero.

The mass per unit length is 𝜌, so its mass 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥.

The acceleration in the 𝑦 direction is the rate of change in the velocity 𝑣𝑦 , so

𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑦
𝑎𝑦 = = 2 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So we can write Newton’s second law in the 𝑦 direction as

2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑎𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑇 ቤ − 𝑇 ቤ 5
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2 1
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
ฬ − ฬ
𝑑 𝑦 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥1
2
= 6
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜌 𝑑𝑥
Now we have been using the subscript 𝑥1 to identify the position 𝑥, and 𝑥2 to
identify the position (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥).
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
ቚ − ቚ = ቚ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 =𝑥+𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥1 =𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

So the numerator in the last term on the RHS of Eqn. (6) is difference
between the (first) derivatives at these two points.

When we divide it by 𝑑𝑥, we get the rate of change of the first derivative
with respect to 𝑥, which is,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
ฬ − ฬ ฬ
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑦 7
2 1
= = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using Eqn. (7), Eqn. (6) becomes
2 2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑇 𝑑 𝑦
= 8
𝑑𝑡 2 𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2
This is the wave equation in one dimension.

So the acceleration (on the left) is proportional to the tension 𝑇 and inversely
proportional to the mass per unit length 𝜌.

𝑑2𝑦
It is also proportional to 2 . So the greater curvature in the string produces a
𝑑𝑥
greater acceleration and, a straight portion is not accelerated.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑓 𝑇 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑇 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓
2
= 2
+ 2 2
= 2
+ 2+ 2
𝑑𝑡 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
 solution to the wave equation
The wave equation is a partial differential equation. We discuss some of the tactics for
solving such type of differential equation.

One of the most popular techniques, however, is this: choose a likely function, test to
see if it is a solution and, if necessary, modify it. So, let's use what we already know.

We know that sine waves can propagate in a one dimensional medium like a string.
And we know that any function 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) is a wave travelling at speed 𝑣.

A sine wave travelling in the positive 𝑥 direction is 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).

A suitable choice of 𝑥 or 𝑡 axis allows us to set 𝜑 to zero, so let's look at the equation

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) 9
to see whether and when this is a solution to the wave equation
2 2
𝜕 𝑦 𝑇 𝜕 𝑦
= 8
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑥 2
In taking the partial derivative with respect to 𝑡, we hold 𝑥 constant and vice versa.

We can write the first two partial derivatives with respect to t and x like this:

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
= −𝜔 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑘 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
2 2
𝜕 𝑦 2
𝜕 𝑦 2
2
= −𝜔 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 2
= −𝑘 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
So we have seen that the second partial derivatives have the correct shape, which
means that 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ) to be a solution of wave Eqn. (8).
Using second order partial derivatives, Eqn. (8) gives
𝑇
−𝜔 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = [−𝑘 2 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 ]
2
𝜌

𝜔2 𝑇 𝜔 𝑇 𝑇
2
= ⟹ = ⟹ 𝑣= 9
𝑘 𝜌 𝑘 𝜌 𝜌

Happily, we see that the wave speed is greater for a string with high tension 𝑇 and
smaller for one with greater mass per unit length, 𝜌.

Usually, it is possible to think of the speed of a wave like this

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 (𝑇) 10

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 =
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 (𝜌)
We generate the waves in a medium continuously, the particles of the medium vibrate
continuously then the disturbance produced in the medium is called a progressive
wave .
Example: waves produced continuously in a string.
During propagation of a progressive wave, the particles of the medium perform Simple
Harmonic Motion about their mean position, then the waves is known as a
Harmonic progressive wave.

Suppose a plane simple harmonic wave travels from

the origin along the positive direction of
𝑥 – 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 from left to the right as shown in figure.

The displacement 𝑦 of a 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 1 at 𝑂 from its

mean position at any time 𝑡 is given by

𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 1
 𝑥
The wave reaches the 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 2 after time, .
𝑣

Therefore 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 2 starts oscillating in the same fashion (x/v) second after the
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 1

This implies that the displacement of the 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 2 at a time 𝑡 will be the same as
that of the 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 1 at a time (𝑥/𝑣) second earlier.

Hence, displacement 𝑦 of a 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 2 is given by 𝜔

𝑣=
𝑘
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔 𝑡 − = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 2
𝑣

This is the equation of a plane-progressive wave travelling along positive x-axis.

The general equation of a plane progressive wave with initial phase is:

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜑 3

The wave profile repeats itself regularly at a distance is called phase (𝜑). The
distance between two points with same phase or profile is called wavelength of the
wave, so that
2𝜋
wavelength of the wave 𝜆 = 4a
𝑘
𝑣 4b
The frequency of the wave is defined by υ =
𝜆
𝜆
If 𝑇 is time period of the wave, then 𝑇 = 4c
𝑣
 Particle velocity and acceleration of
Harmonic progressive wave
The instantaneous velocity of the particle is obtained by differentiating with respect
to time of the following equation
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 1

𝜕𝑦
𝑣= = 𝜔 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
𝜕𝑡
The maximum velocity 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑎 2

𝜕2 𝑦
The instantaneous acceleration of the particle 𝑎= = −𝜔2 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
𝜕𝑡 2
2
The maximum value of the particle acceleration 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔 𝑎 3
Differentiating Eqn. (1) w.r.t 𝑥, we get Differentiating again Eqn. (4a) w.r.t 𝑥, we
slop of the displacement get curvature of the displacement curve
2
𝜕 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 1 2
= −𝑘 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 6a
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑦 2
= −𝑘 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 4a 𝜕 𝑦 2
𝜕𝑥 = −𝜔 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 64b
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡 2
= 𝜔 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 4b
2 2 𝜕2𝑦 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕 𝑦 𝜔 𝜕 𝑦
2
= = 𝑣 7
𝜕𝑦 𝜔 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
=− = −𝑣 5
𝜕𝑡 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
= −𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
× 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
× 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
 Characteristics of progressive wave
(a) Each particle of the medium executes vibration about its mean position. The disturbance
progresses onward from one particle to another.

(b) The particles of the medium vibrate with same amplitude about their mean positions.

(c) Each successive particle of the medium performs a motion similar to that of its predecessor
along the propagation of the wave, but later in time.

(d) The phase of every particle changes from 0 to 2π.

(e) Transverse progressive waves are characterized by crests and troughs. Longitudinal waves are
characterized by compressions and rarefactions.

(g) There is a transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of propagation of progressive
wave.

(h) All the particles have the same maximum velocity when they pass through the mean position.
When a wave encounters a discontinuity at the boundary between two
different media, some fraction of the wave will in general be reflected.

We experience such reflections in many physical situations.

If we jiggle a rope that is fixed at its other end, we observe a wave

reflected travelling back towards us.

We hear an echo if we clap our hands near a wall and we see that when
light strikes a glass surface some of the light is reflected.

In general therefore, there will be an incident wave, a transmitted wave

and a reflected wave discontinuity at a boundary.

We shall now discuss how the relative amplitudes and phases of these
three waves can be determined
We approach this problem by considering the
arrangement of two long strings smoothly
joined at 𝑥 = 0 with a constant tension along
the strings.

The strings have different values of mass per

unit length 𝜌, which gives rise to the wave will 𝑦2
travel at different velocities in the two strings.
The following conditions exist at the boundary
between the two strings:

Condition-1: The displacements of the strings

at the boundary must be the same at 𝑥 = 0 for
all times i.e.,
The velocities of the wave are different in the
two strings then the wavelengths must also be
different since 𝜆 = 2𝜋 𝑣/𝜔.
Condition-2: The transverse restoring force must be continuous at the boundary. The
transverse force is equal to 𝑇 (𝜕𝑦/𝜕𝑥). Since the tension 𝑇 is constant, the slope of the
displacement curve (𝜕𝑦/𝜕𝑥) of the strings on either side of the boundary must be
same at 𝑥 = 0 for all times.

Use these boundary conditions to determine the relative amplitudes and phases of the
incident, transmitted and reflected waves. We let the incident wave be

𝑦𝐼 = 𝐴1 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥) 1

where 𝑘1 is the wavenumber in the left-hand string. We chose the cosine form so that
the incident wave has its maximum value at the boundary, 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑡 = 0.

We write the transmitted wave as

𝑦𝑇 = 𝐴2 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥) 2

where 𝑘2 is the wavenumber in the right-hand string and the reflected wave as

𝑦𝑅 = 𝐵1 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘1 𝑥) 3
The resultant wave on the left-hand string 𝑦1 is the sum of the incident and reflected
waves while the resultant wave on the right-hand string 𝑦2 is just the transmitted
wave, i.e.,
𝑦1 = 𝑦𝐼 + 𝑦𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 = 𝑦𝑇

Condition-1 gives 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 i.e.,

𝐴1 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘1 𝑥 = 𝐴2 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)

at 𝑥 = 0 for all times we can take 𝑡 = 0 to obtain

𝐴1 + 𝐵1 = 𝐴2 4

Condition-2 gives 𝜕𝑦1 /𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑦2 /𝜕𝑥

𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘1 𝐵1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘1 𝑥 = 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘2 𝑥)

at 𝑥 = 0 for all times. This time we choose 𝑡 = 𝜋/2𝜔, which gives

𝑘1 𝐴1 − 𝑘1 𝐵1 = 𝑘2 𝐴2 5
Eliminate 𝐵1 from Eqs. (4) and (5), gives
𝐴2 2𝑘1
= 𝑇12 = 6
𝐴1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

The above equation represents the ratio of amplitudes for the transmitted and incident
waves which is called probability of transmission coefficient of amplitudes.

The transmission coefficient 𝑇12 is always a positive quantity then “the transmitted
wave will always be in phase with the incident wave”.

Eliminate 𝐴2 from Eqs. (4) and (5), gives

𝐵1 𝑘1 − 𝑘2
= 𝑅12 = 7
𝐴1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

The above equation represents the ratio of amplitudes for the reflected and incident
waves which is called probability of reflection coefficient of amplitudes.
The reflection coefficient 𝑅12 is +𝑣𝑒 or – 𝑣𝑒 values within the range +1 𝑡𝑜 − 1.

If 𝑘2 < 𝑘1 , the ratio 𝐵1 Τ𝐴1 is +𝑣𝑒 and the reflected wave is in phase with the incident
wave. Next we consider 𝑘2 > 𝑘1 , the ratio 𝐵1 Τ𝐴1 is −𝑣𝑒, the phase difference between
the reflected and incident waves is 𝜋.

The physical meaning of Eqs. (6) and (7) more easily if we write them in terms of
mass per unit length 𝜌. The wave speed on a string

The mass per unit length of the right-hand string 𝜔 𝑇

𝑣= = ⟹ k∝ 𝜌 8
increases i.e., the limit 𝜌2 → ∞ (rigid wall). 𝑘 𝜌

In this situation, Eqn. (9) shows that 𝐴2 = 0 and 𝐴2 2 𝜌1

= 𝑇12 = 9
Eqn. (10) shows 𝐵1 = −𝐴1 . 𝐴1 𝜌1 + 𝜌2

Physically means that the wave encounters a 𝐵1 𝜌1 − 𝜌2

= 𝑅12 = 10
rigid wall, there is no transmitted wave and the 𝐴1 𝜌1 + 𝜌2
wave is totally reflected with a phase change of 𝜋
between the incident and reflected waves.
 Standing waves
Standing waves are differ from propagating waves by the fact that the particles are in the same or
in the opposite phase of oscillation at all times.

Standing waves are formed by the superposition of travelling wave and its reflection, which
will ensure that the frequency is exactly the same.

Antinodes are points on a stationary wave that oscillate with maximum amplitude. Nodes are
points of zero amplitude and appear to be fixed.

Two cases are to be distinguished:

•For reflection from a fixed end, there is a phase shift of 𝜋 at the point of reflection. At this point,
the phase of the reflected wave is opposed to the phase of the incident wave so that the total
elongation is always equal to 0 (node).

•In case of reflection from a free end, there is no phase shift. For this reason, the particles
oscillate back and forth with a particularly large amplitude at the point of reflection (antinode).
 Equations of Stationary Waves
Let us consider a progressive Wave of amplitude 𝐴 and Wavelength 𝜆 traveling in the
+ 𝑣𝑒 direction of 𝑥 axis.
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) 1

This wave is reflected from a fixed (or free) end and it travels in the −𝑣𝑒 direction of 𝑥
axis, then
𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) 2
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is,
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡) 3

This is the equation of a Stationary Wave. The wave amplitude as a function of

position is 2𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑥 .

This amplitude does not travel, but stands still and oscillates up and down according
to cos(𝜔𝑡).
𝑠𝑖 𝑛 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)cos(𝛽)
 Characteristics of Stationary Waves
The Waveform remains Stationary.

Nodes and antinodes are formed alternately.

The points where displacement is zero are called nodes and the points where the
displacement is maximum are called antinodes.

The change in pressure is maximal at the nodes and minimal at the belly. All particles
except nodes perform simple vibrations with the same period.

Not all particles have the same amplitude. It maximizes on the belly, gradually
decreases, and reaches zero on node

The velocity of the particles at the node is zero. It gradually increases and reaches its
maximum in the belly.
All the particles of the medium, except those at the nodes, vibrate simple
harmonically with a time period equal to that of the component waves.

Distance between any two consecutive nodes or antinodes is equal to 𝜆Τ2,

whereas the distance between a node and its adjacent antinode is equal to 𝜆/4.

Particles in the same segment oscillate in the same phase, and particles
oscillate in opposite phases between adjacent segments.
There is no net transport of energy in the medium.
 Eigen Values of Stationary waves in the strings
In some musical instruments such as sitar, violin,
guitar, etc., a sound produced with it is due to the
vibration of the stretched strings.

Here, we will see the different modules of vibration of

a string which is fixed at both ends.
𝜆1
2
When the string is under tension, it is set into
vibration, where transverse waves move to the end of 𝜆2
the sting and then reflect. Therefore, Stationary Waves 2
2

are produced.
𝜆3
The nodes are produced at the fixed end of the sting 3
2
and its antinode is generated in the middle.

The length of the vibrating sting for first harmonic 4

𝜆4
2
𝐿 = 𝜆1 /2. 𝐿
 If 𝑚 number of harmonics are produced in the sting, the length of the sting becomes
𝜆𝑚 𝑚 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝐿=𝑚 1
2
The above equation represents condition for stationary wave. Then the wavelength of
the stationary wave 2𝐿
𝜆𝑚 = 2
𝑚
If 𝑓𝑚 is the natural frequency of the vibrating segment, then
𝑣 𝑚
𝑓𝑚 = = 𝑣 3
𝜆𝑚 2𝐿
𝑇
We all know that, 𝑣 = , where, 𝑇 is the tension, 𝜌 is the mass per unit length of the
𝜌
sting (metallic wire). Hence,
𝑣 𝑚 𝑚 𝑇
𝑓𝑚 = = 𝑣= 4
𝜆𝑚 2𝐿 2𝐿 𝜌
The frequency 𝑓𝑚 depend on integers 𝑚 i.e., the frequencies are quantized. We can
say, the string can support only certain discrete frequencies
The natural frequency of the vibrating sting can be written as

𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓1 4
𝑓1 is called the fundamental frequency. The frequencies 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , … are called
overtones.
Example Problem: A string of length 250 cm vibrates with a 100 Hz standing wave.
There are nodes at 100 cm and 150 cm from one end of the string, with no nodes in
between. Which harmonic is this, and what is the string’s fundamental frequency?

Solution: The standing wave looks like in figure. If there are no nodes between 100 𝑐𝑚 and
150 𝑐𝑚, then the node spacing is 𝜆/2 = 50 𝑐𝑚.

The number of half wavelengths (segment) that can fit into the string’s length 𝐿 = 250 𝑐𝑚 is
𝑚 = 250/50 = 5.

This is the mode number 𝑚 = 5, which means that 100 Hz is the fifth harmonic. The
fundamental frequency is 𝑓𝑚 100
𝑓1 = = = 20 𝐻𝑧
𝑚 5
 Real-Time Applications of Stationary Waves
There are many such applications of generating Stationary Waves, but the easiest and one of the
favorites is its use in musical instruments.

In string musical instruments, a bowed or plucked string creates the note as certain frequencies
of standing or Stationary Waves can produce the note on that string under some conditions such
as the finger holding the string at some position.

Strings and woodwind instruments’ sounds or tones are different from each other as they
provide different types of combinations of overtones to be formed such as higher frequency
Stationary or standing Waves.

The curve which gets produced is known as Stationary Waves when two Waves pass in the
opposite directions where it meets and generate interference. And this is set to be an example of
constructive interference.