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Frequency Response Analysis

We have already discussed time response analysis of the control systems and the time domain
specifications of the second order control systems. Here we will discuss frequency response analysis of
the control systems and the frequency domain specifications of the second order control systems but
first let us explore the concept of Linear Time Invariant Systems.

What is Frequency Response

The response of a system can be partitioned into both the transient response and the steady state
response.

The steady state response of a system for an input sinusoidal signal is known as the frequency
response.

If a sinusoidal signal is applied as an input to a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system, then it

produces the steady state output, which is also a sinusoidal signal. The input and output sinusoidal
signals have the same frequency, but different amplitudes and phase angles.

Let the input signal be –

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As stated previously, the input and output sinusoidal signals have the same frequency, but different
amplitudes and phase angles.

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POLAR PLOT
The polar plot of the frequency response of a system is the line traced out as the frequency is changed
from 0 to infinity by the tips of the phasors whose lengths represent the magnitude, i.e. amplitude gain,
of the system and which are drawn at angles corresponding to their phase

It is a plot which can be drawn between magnitude and phase. Here, the magnitudes are represented by
normal values only.

This graph sheet consists of concentric circles and radial lines. The concentric circles and
the radial lines represent the magnitudes and phase angles respectively. These angles are
represented by positive values in anti-clock wise direction. Similarly, we can represent angles
with negative values in clockwise direction. For example, the angle 270 0 in anti-clock wise
direction is equal to the angle −900 in clockwise direction.

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Example:
Consider a simple RC filter circuit shown below

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Once again, the procedure for sketching polar plots can be re-stated as follows:

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INVERSE POLAR PLOT

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NYQUIST DIAGRAMS
Nyquist criterion or Nyquist stability criterion is a graphical method which is utilized for finding the
stability of a closed-loop control system i.e., the one with a feedback loop. This criterion serves as a
crucial way for design and analysis purpose of the system with feedback. Thus, it finds major
application in Electronics and Control System Engineering.

The principle of Nyquist criterion was independently proposed by an electrical engineer of German
origin, Felix Strecker in the year 1930 at Siemens. However, the graphical method for the
determination of stability was given by Swedish-American engineer Harry Nyquist at Bell
Laboratories in 1932.

The open-loop frequency response of a system represented as polar plot is called a NYQUIST
DIAGRAMS.

It is the plot of imaginary versus the real part (or a polar plot of magnitude and phase) of the
open loop transfer function.

Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability of the closed loop control
systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞. That means, Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete
frequency response of the open loop transfer function.

The term Nyquist diagram is used for a diagram of the line joining the series of points plotted on a
polar graph when each point represents the magnitude and phase of the open-loop frequency response
corresponding to a particular frequency.

To plot the Nyquist diagram from the open-loop transfer function of a system we need to determine the
magnitude and the phase as functions of frequency.

The differences between Nyquist plot and polar curve

A Nyquist plot can be obtained by either plotting the imaginary part of the transfer function against
its real part or using the gain (amplitude) of the transfer function as radius r, and phase angle ϕ as
polar angle. Be careful not to confuse ω (the frequency) with ϕ, as both r and ϕ depend on ω.

Both techniques come under frequency domain analysis. Polar plot cannot prove how many open
loop zeroes are in the right hand side of complex plane whereas Nyquist plot can.

Polar plot is half of Nyquist plot and can only tell about the magnitude and phase contribution of
system at various frequencies. Nyquist can additionally tell about the stability of system.

The merit of Nyquist diagrams is that they are based on open-loop measurement and calculation, and,
therefore, stability of a system can be determined without actually closing the feedback loop.

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The simplified criterion may be stated as follows:

“A closed loop system will be stable if, when moving along the open loop frequency response plotted
on a Nyquist diagram, in the direction of increasing frequency, the point (-1. j0) lies on the left of
the locust”

The open-loop frequency responses of five systems are shown in figure 6.9 above. Applying Nyquist
stability criterion, it is seen that (a), (c) and (e) represent a stable systems, which (b) represent unstable
systems.

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Exercise 1
Sketch the Nyquist diagram foe a system whose open-loop transfer function is given by
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G( jw) 
1  j 2.5w)(1  j 0.5w
For w = 0,3, 0,4, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 32

Exercise 2
A system has the following open-loop frequency response:
W(rad/s) 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 30
Gain .2.8 1.9 1.3 0.9 0.68 0.4 0.26 0.12
 (degrees) -120 -130 -140 -149 -157 -170 -180 -300

Plot the Nyquist diagram and determine:

i) Phase Margin
ii) Gain Margin

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Exercise 3
A feedback control system has an open loop transfer function
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G( s) 
s(1  0.1s)(1  0.5s)
Prepare the Nyquist diagram and hence determine the phase and gain margin. Deduce from these
values whether the system is stable, stating the reasons for your answer.

Inverse Nyquist Plot

It is often more convenient to design and investigate properties of a system from an INVERSE
NYQUIST PLOT on which the quantities plotted are the reciprocals of those used in the Nyquist
diagram. This is particularly useful for systems in which the feedback loop contains Nyquist plots.

Exercise 4
The open-loop frequency response of a control system is given below. Plot an inverse Nyquist diagram
and determine the maximum value of N and frequency at which it occurs.
W(rad/s) 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0 10
|G| 5 2.5 1.72 0.96 0.67 0.51
 (degrees) -110 -120 -125 -134 -140 -143
NB: In an inverse Nyquist diagram the N-circles are always drawn with their centres at the (-1,0) point.
The radius of the centre tangential to the plot will then be equal to the reciprocal of the value of M pf.
1
Thus Mpf =
r
Hint:
1
The parameter required for the inverse Nyquist diagram are and -  as follows
|G|

CONSTANT M AND N CIRCLES

The use of constant M and constant N circles enable us to find the entire closed loop frequency
response from the open loop frequency response.

It is convenient to construct the M and N loci in the log magnitude versus phase plane. The resulting
chart is known as the Nichols chart. Nichols chart gives both the gain characteristics and the phase
characteristics at the same time.

M circles are called constant magnitude loci while N circles are called as constant phase angle loci.
At first we

Constant M Circles

Here the focus is on the m -circles. The open loop transfer function G(jω) of a unity feedback control
system is

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Note:

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NICHOLS PLOT
The Nichols chart consists of constant-magnitude loci(circles) and constant phase-angle loci (circles)
in the log-magnitude versus phase diagram is called Nichols chart. The Nichols plot is named after the
American engineer N.B Nichols who formulated this plot.

Constant magnitude loci that are M-circles and constant phase angle loci that are N-circles are
fundamental components in designing the Nichols chart. The Constant M and N circles in the Nichols
chart are deformed into squashed circles. The complete Nichols chart extends for the phase angle of G
(jω) from 0 to -360o. The region of ∠G(jω) used for analysis of systems in between -90o to -270o.
These curves repeat after every 180o interval.

The constant M and constant N circles in G (jω) plane can be used for the analysis and design of
control systems. However the constant M and constant N circles in gain phase plane are prepared for
system design and analysis as these plots supply information with fewer manipulations.

The critical point in G (jω), plane corresponds to the point of zero decibel and -180o in the gain phase
plane. Plot of M and N circles in gain phase plane is known as Nichols chart /plot.

Compensators can be designed using Nichols plot. Nichols plot technique is however also used in
designing of dc motor. This is used in signal processing and control design.

Nyquist plot in complex plane shows how phase of transfer function and frequency variation of
magnitude are related. We can find out the gain and phase for a given frequency. Angle of positive real
axis determines the phase and distance from origin of complex plane determines the gain. There are
some advantages of Nichols plot in control system engineering. They are:
 Gain and phase margin can be determined easily and also graphically.
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 Closed loop frequency response is obtained from open loop frequency response.
 Gain of the system can be adjusted to suitable values.

Nichols chart provides frequency domain specifications.

Note that the critical point (-1+j0) is mapped to the Nichols chart as the point (0 dB, 180degree). The
Nichols chart contains curves of constant closed-loop magnitude and phase angle. The designer can
graphically determine the
i) phase margin, gain margin,
ii) resonant peak magnitude,
iii) resonant peak frequency, and
iv) Bandwidth of the closed loops system from the plot of the open-loop locus.

The Nichols chart is symmetric about -180 degree axis The constant-magnitude loci and constant
phase-angle loci repeat for every 360 degree, and there is a symmetry at every 180 degree. The
constant-magnitude loci are centered about the critical point (0 dB, -180 degree).

The intersection of the open-loop frequency response curve and the constant-magnitude loci and
constant phase-angle loci give the values of the magnitude and the phase angle of the closed loop
frequency response at each frequency point.

If the open-loop frequency response curve does not intersect the constant-magnitude loci but is
tangent to it, then the resonant peak value of the closed-loop frequency response is given by that
loci. The resonant peak frequency is given by the frequency at the point of tangency.

Notice that the phase crossover point is the point where the open-loop locus intersects the -180
degree axis, and the gain crossover point is the point where the locus intersects the 0 dB axis.

The phase margin is the distance (measured in degrees) between the gain crossover point and the
critical point (0 dB, -180 degrees).

The gain margin is the distance (in decibels) between the phase crossover point and the critical
point.

The frequency at the intersection of the open-loop locus and the -3 dB locus gives the bandwidth.
Consider the figure below:

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Advantage of Nichols
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The Nicholas plot, root locus, polar plot also serves the same purpose then what is the advantage of
using this Nicholas chart. Generally all these plots are used to find the transfer function of a open loop
system and by using the open loop transfer function will find out the transfer function for a closed loop
system. But by using nicholas chart we can directly find out the transfer function of a closed loop
system.

Bode Plots
The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −

 Magnitude plot
 Phase plot
In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale). Whereas, yaxis represents
the magnitude (linear scale) of open loop transfer function in the magnitude plot and the phase angle
(linear scale) of the open loop transfer function in the phase plot.
The magnitude of the open loop transfer function in dB is –

Basic of Bode Plots

The following table shows the slope, magnitude and the phase angle values of the terms present in the
open loop transfer function. This data is useful while drawing the Bode plots.

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The magnitude plot is a horizontal line, which is independent of frequency. The 0 dB line itself is the
magnitude plot when the value of K is one. For the positive values of K, the horizontal line will
shift 20logK dB above the 0 dB line. For the negative values of K, the horizontal line will
shift 20logK dB below the 0 dB line. The Zero degrees line itself is the phase plot for all the positive
values of K.

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Bode plot.
As the magnitude and the phase plots are represented with straight lines, the Exact Bode plots
resemble the asymptotic Bode plots. The only difference is that the Exact Bode plots will have simple
curves instead of straight lines.
Similarly, you can draw the Bode plots for other terms of the open loop transfer function which are
given in the table.

Rules for Construction of Bode Plots

Follow these rules while constructing a Bode plot.
 Represent the open loop transfer function in the standard time constant form.
 Substitute, s=jω in the above equation.
 Find the corner frequencies and arrange them in ascending order.
 Consider the starting frequency of the Bode plot as 1/10 th of the minimum corner frequency or
0.1 rad/sec whichever is smaller value and draw the Bode plot upto 10 times maximum corner
frequency.
 Draw the magnitude plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
 Draw the phase plots for each term and combine these plots properly.
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Note − The corner frequency is the frequency at which there is a change in the slope of the magnitude
plot.

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