INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as inputs process it by performing

arithmetic and logical operations in accordance with the predefined instructions and produces
information as output to the user. The computer performs operations in a matter of fractions
of seconds and therefore it said to be of very high speed as it manipulates data compared to
human beings. Computers are by far more accurate while performing various operations
compared to human beings. They can store very huge amount of data and information which
compared to the manual filling system occupy a very small space.
Computers are composed of hardware and software. Hardware consists of the
physical/tangible parts of a computer e.g. monitor, keyboard, mouse, hard disk etc while
software are programs, routines, and symbolic languages that control the functioning of the
hardware and direct its operation.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTING

Computing is also called processing therefore computing of data which include arithmetic
and logic operations carried out on data. These operations take place at very high speed.
 The first computing machine was abacus used in small volumes in china and Japan
many years before Christ. This was a simple traditional calculation aid.
This device allowed its users to make computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack. Early shopkeepers used the abacus to keep up with
transactions. The use of pencil and paper spread, the abacus lost its importance.
 In 1614 logarithm as an aid of calculation as invented by a Scottish mathematician
known as john Napier who subsequently invented as rod of bones, the idea which was
in use three years later after his logarithm invention and was employed in carrying out
multiplication.
 In 1620 William oughtred an English man invented the slide rule.
 In 1642 Blaise Pascal son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a
numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties. The calculating machine
had both the ability to add and to subtract numbers .The Pascaline, a brass rectangular
box, used eight movable dials to add sums up to eight figures long. Pascal's device
used a base of ten to achieve this. The disadvantage to the Pascaline, was its limitation
to addition
 In 1694, Gottfried Wilhem von Leibniza a German mathematician and philosopher
improved the Pascaline by creating a machine that could also multiply. Like its
predecessor, Leibniz's mechanical multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials.
 In 1802 jacquard loom was invented by jacquard. It was used to store instructions for
weaving on punched cards. This formed the basis for the programmable computer.
 In 1820, A Frenchman, Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, invented a machine that
could perform the four basic mathematic functions. The arithometer presented a more
systematic approach to computing because it could add, subtract, multiply and divide.
With its enhanced versatility, the arithometer was widely used up until World War I.
 In 1822, Charles Babbage a professor of mathematics invented the Babbage's steam-
powered Engine which outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose
computer and was a breakthrough concept. This design did not complete but later in
134 used the same idea to develop a general purpose calculator (analytical engine)
whose design was very to the design of the computers today. The Analytical Engine
 consisted of over 50,000 components. The basic design included input devices in the
form of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a "store" for memory
of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. The machine is recognized as a
milestone because it signifies the start of computer age and therefore Charles is said to
be the father of computing. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by this
analytical engine. Lady Ada is claimed to be possibly the first programmer.
 Between 1847-1854 George Boole discovered Boolean algebra whose principles are
the basis of the today’s computer logic gates used as logical elements.
 In mid 1880s the tabulator machine was discovered by the Herman Hollerith that used
cards to store data information which was fed into a machine and compiled the results
mechanically. Each punch on a card represented one number, and combinations of
two punches represented one letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored on a
single card. Hollerith brought his punch card reader into the business world, founding
Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, later to become International Business
Machines (IBM) in 1924 after a series of mergers. Other companies also
manufactured punch readers for business use. Both business and government used
punch cards for data processing until the 1960's.
 When World War II started, the governments started to develop computers to
accomplishment their potential strategic importance. This increased funding for
computer development projects and hastened technical progress. In 1941, a German
engineer KonradZuse had developed a computer to design airplanes and missiles. The
Allied forces, made greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1933,
Howard H. Aiken, a Harvard engineer working with IBM, produced an all-electronic
calculator. The purpose of the computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S.
Navy. It was about half as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of
wiring. It used electromagnetic signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was
slow taking 3-5 seconds per calculation and inflexible in that sequence of calculations
could not change, but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more complex
equations. The calculating machine Z3 and Z4 machines had the ability to use
programs. The development of Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
(ENIAC) was also spurred by the War. It consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors and 5 million soldered joints, the computer was such a massive piece of
machinery that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. ENIAC was developed
by John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchl. It was a general-purpose computer.
 In 1945, Von Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC) with a memory to hold both a stored program as well as data.
This stored memory technique as well as the conditional control transfer, which
allowed the computer to be stopped at any point and then resumed, allowed for
greater versatility in computer programming. The key element to the von Neumann
architecture was the central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to
be coordinated through a single source.
 In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand,
became one of the first commercially available computers to take advantage of these
advances. The first computers were characterized by the fact that operating
instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be
used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language
that told it how to operate. This made the computer difficult to program and limited its
versatility and speed. Other unique features of first computers were the use of vacuum
tubes and magnetic drums for data storage.
  In 1948 the invention of the transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum tubes.
The transistor was at work in the computer by 1956. Throughout the early 1960's,
there were a number of commercially successful computers used in business,
universities, and government. These computers also contained transistors in place of
vacuum tubes. They also contained all the components we associate with the modern
day computer: printers, disk storage, memory, tape storage, operating systems, and
stored programs.
 By 1965, most large business processed financial information using computers. The
stored program and programming language gave computers the flexibility to finally
be cost effective and productive for business use. Though transistors were an
improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which
damaging the computer's sensitive internal parts.
 In 1958 Jack Kilby, an engineer, developed the integrated circuit. The IC combined
three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz.
Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a
semiconductor.
 By 1980’s, very large scale integration squeezed hundreds of thousands of
components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale integration increased that number into the
millions. The ability to fit so much onto a helped diminish the size and price of
computers. It also increased their power, efficiency and reliability. By the mid-1970's,
computer manufacturers sought to bring computers to general consumers. These
minicomputers came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even
non-technical users an arrangement of applications, most popularly word processing
and spreadsheet programs.
 In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and
schools. This saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the
IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of personal
computers in use more than doubled. As computers became more widespread in the
workplace, new ways to harness their potential developed. As smaller computers
became more powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory
space, software, information and communicate with each other leading to a global
village. Computers continue to grow smaller and more powerful and even cheaper.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
By the type of data they manipulate
• Digital computers. A computer that stores data in terms of digits (0’s and 1’s) and
proceeds in discrete steps from one state to the next. The states of a digital computer
typically involve binary digits which may take the form of the presence or absence of
magnetic markers in a storage medium, on-off switches or relays. In digital
computers, even letters, words and whole texts are represented digitally. They have
the ability to store large quantities of data.
• Analogue computers. A computer that uses electrical or mechanical phenomena to
model the problem being solved, or more generally by using one kind of physical
quantity to represent another. They perform arithmetic operations and logic
comparison by measuring changes in physical magnitude e.g. electronic voltage,
pressure change, temperature changes etc.
 • Hybrid computers. Are designed by interconnecting the digital computer and analog
computer’s element directly into one processor using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
I.e. both the digital and analog features are built within the same computer processor.
They are advantageous in that they combine both the functional capabilities of the
digital and analogue computers, though they are more expensive
By the purpose for which they are designed for
• Special purpose or dedicated computers A computer that is designed to operate on
a restricted class of problems. They carry out special processing tasks in one or more
applications.
• General purpose computers. A machine that is capable of carrying out some
general data processing under program control. They are designed to be used in
a variety of application s environment as required. A general purpose computer
can be dedicated to carry out word processing tasks
• By size, price and capabilities
Super computers

They are very large in size and use multiple processor and superior technology. Super
computers are biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and
known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is
not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college. Governments specially use this
type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use
this huge computer for designing their products.

In most of the Hollywood’s movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer
is also helpful for forecasting weather reports worldwide. They are known for von Newman’s
design i.e. multiple processor system with parallel processing. In such a system a task is
broken down and shared among processes for faster execution. They are used for complex
tasks requiring a lot of computational power.

Mainframe computers
A mainframe is another giant computers after the super computer and can also process
millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data .They are
physically very large in size with very high capacity of main memory. This computer is
commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge
companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis. They
can be linked to smaller computers and handle hundreds of users they are also used in space
exploitation. The term mainframe was mainly used for earliest computers as they were big in
size though today this is used for the large computers. A large number of peripherals can be
attached to them. They are expensive to install.
Minicomputers
They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than micro-computers. They support
concurrent users. They can be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less costly
compared to mainframe computers but more powerful, reliable and expensive than micro
computers.
Micro computers
They are of advanced technology i.e. the micro era based on large scale integration that
confines several physical components per small elements thumb size IC, hence the size
reduced. The smallest of the three computers. They are usually called personal computers
since they are designed to be used by individuals. The micro chip technology has enabled
reduction of size of computers. Microcomputers can be a desktop, laptop, notebooks, or even
palmtop
o Notebook computer An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook
computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a
briefcase. Aside from size and portability,. Notebook computers use a variety of
techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky
display screen.
o Desktop Computer is an independent personal computer that is made especially for
use on a desk in an office or home. The term is used mainly to distinguish this type of
personal computer from portable computers and laptops, but also to distinguish other
types of computers like the server or mainframe.
o Laptop A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably, with a flat
screen and keyboard that fold together. Laptops are battery-operated, often have a
thin,backlit or sidelit LCD display screen, and some models can even mate with a
docking station to perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the office. Advances
in battery technology allow laptop computers to run for many hours between charges,
and some models have a set of business applications built into ROM. Today's high-
end laptops provide all the capabilities of most desktop computers.
o Palmtop A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions
such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for
input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most
palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots
in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices.

Computer generation
First generation computers (1946-1956)
They made use of vacuum tubes to store and process information. The tubes consumed a lot
of power and generate a lot of heat (overheating). They were huge in size and occupy a room.
They used magnetic tape. Storage capacity was very low i.e. 2kb and speed of processing was
also very low. First machine in this category was ENIAC (electronic discrete variable
automatic computer) and later came UNIVAC (universal automatic computers).these
computers were mostly computational machines. Their input /output capabilities were usually
limited to the keyboard and or punched card input and printer and or punched cart output.
The speed of these machines was described in milliseconds (1/1000 of a second)
Second generation computers (1957-1967)
These computers used transistors after invention of transistors. The transistor is smaller
cheaper and produced less heat than vacuum tubes and consumed less power. The cost of
computers decreases and the speed increased. The second generation saw the introduction of
more complex ALU and CPU, the use of high level languages and provision of system
software with the computer. Data access time was measured in micro-seconds. Removable
disk storage units were developed for use on these machines. The speed of these machines
was described in microseconds (1/1000, 000 of a second). These computers had programming
languages whose vocabularies are close to the human natural language, English language.
Third generation computers (1965-1980)
Introduced the use of very small electronic circuit called integrated circuits by combining
several transistors together between 3 transistors to make 1 IC. With ic you can house
thousands of transistors in one ic .This change further decreased the size, heat output and the
maintenance complexity of the computers while increasing its speed. The small circuitry that
resulted improved the processing speed i.e. 10 times the past. The speed of these machines
was described in nanoseconds (1/1,000,000,000 of a second). They have higher main memory
capacity, reliable and increased processing power (have the capability of holding more than
one set of instructions and operate on them) than the second generation computers. Invention
of IC revolutionalised electronics and started the error of micro-electronics. The IBM 360 is
an example of third generation computers.
Fourth generation computers (1980s)
Use large scale integration circuits which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC
which are between 200,000 to 400, 000 in one IC. Memory used includes magnetic disc and
optical disc. Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster. This
generation marked the origin of mini computers in use today
Fifth generation computers (1990-current)
The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration) technology,
the micro chip technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known as the micro
computers in use today. These computers are used in networking .examples of micro
computers are IBM PCs BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually described as PCs or
stand alone or desktop computers because they were designed primarily to serve single
person at a time. The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on
predictions and further technological refinements.
Summary
Research shows that the trend in computer technology revolution is that there is;
o Continual decrease in computer size
o Improved speed and power processing
o Decrease in computers and the related facilities cost
o Number of components in computer per circuit (IC) greatly increased over 500,000
physical elements e.g. transistors, capacities, diodes etc per chip(IC).

Importance of Computers
Personal and Home Uses
 Computers allow people with disabilities to do normal activities
 Shopping online
 Playing games with other people
 Work from home
Business Uses
 Computers allow companies to keep large amounts of information at hand
 Databases
 Makes ordering and tracking resources quicker and easier
 Allows people to have meetings from different locations
Educational Uses
 The Internet allows access to hundreds of online research materials
 Allows colleagues to correspond quickly about ongoing research
Communication Uses
 Computers allow people across the world to communicate easily