Education As A Tool For Prevention Addressing and Countering Hate Speech

Education as a tool for
prevention: Addressing and

countering hate speech
Expert meeting: 13-18 May 2020
UNESCO Education Sector The Global Education 2030 Agenda
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Contents
Contents
Executive summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Introduction and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

So what can be done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Unpacking experts’ perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Part I. Decoding the phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Definition and legal provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Educational approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Research needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Part II. Addressing citizenship in the digital era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Media information literacies as a measure to address and counter hate speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Social pedagogy and social-emotional learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Human rights education and freedom of expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The role of technology companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Part III. Tackling the Issue from an educational perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

United Nations’ intersecting efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Curricular-related approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Professional skill development of teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Harnessing the power of youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Multi-Modalities and multi-stakeholder approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Part IV. Actionable recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Appendix 1. Meeting agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Appendix 2. Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Appendix 3. List of experts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4
Executive summary
Executive summary
The United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate binaries of global vs. local. The aim of this section is to
Speech seeks to enhance the United Nations response provide conceptual clarification, understanding the
to the global phenomenon of hate speech. As part of causality of relations, the interacting factors that lead
the implementation of the Strategy and Plan of Action, to the production and dissemination of hate speech, as
the UN Secretary-General called upon UNESCO and the well as challenges and possible educational responses.
United Nations Office on the Prevention of Genocide and Part II emphasizes the online dimension of hate speech
the Responsibility to Protect (OSAPG) convene a ‘Global – the ‘digital conundrum’ – wherein key competencies for
Education Ministers Conference and Multi-stakeholder ‘responsible’ digital citizenship are outlined. Key thematic
Forum on addressing and countering hate speech through areas that emerged included equipping stakeholders with
education’ in 2021. The Conference aims to strengthen knowledge and skills to recognize and counteract hate
Member States’ commitment to address and counter hate speech online, including through Media and Information
speech through education, as well as scale up educational Literacy, building resilience, and protecting and
responses with a view to reduce the impact and reach of promoting freedom of expression and other fundamental
hate speech. human rights; the role of artificial intelligence (and in
particular social media ranking and recommendation
In preparation for the Conference and Forum, UNESCO algorithms) in detecting, proliferating and promoting
and the OSAPG convened a series of virtual meetings of online hate speech; and the concern for equitable
experts from 13 to 18 May 2020. The Experts’ Meeting digital access for all. Part III seeks to ‘tackle the issue’
brought together the world’s top Experts engaged in from an educational perspective, by exploring possible
the fields of addressing and countering hate speech, strategies with equity and inclusion at the centre, where
education and the promotion of fundamental human freedom of expression within the law is guaranteed, and
rights, and included youth representatives for an ‘Expert local contexts are taken into consideration. Educational
Virtual Meeting on the role of education as a preventive tool’. policies, best practices and comparative perspectives
The Experts’ Meeting comprised an opening plenary from intersecting programmes and pedagogies – both
and three working group sessions. The following in formal and non-formal settings – are also explored.
summary outlines the meetings’ principal themes Finally, in Part IV, the report provides a list of actionable
and recommendations. Part I attempts to unpack our recommendations for the consideration of Member States,
‘understanding of the issue’, including definitions of which could also be relevant for other key stakeholders.
hate speech, its complexities, multi-faceted nature, and
5
Introduction and background
In an ever more complex and interconnected world that generates unprecedented

opportunities and challenges, many are feeling excluded and vulnerable. In recent months,
and as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, a wave of hate speech has swept across the
globe, further exacerbating xenophobia, racism, antisemitism, anti-Muslim hatred, anti-
LGBTQI+ hatred and other forms of intolerance and discrimination (UN, 2020; see also
OHCHR, 2020). In addition, disinformation is being used to target specific populations
and countries. More recently, various groups have been falsely accused of spreading the
COVID-19 virus and conspiracy theories have been instrumentalized for political gains,
exacerbating socially-entrenched prejudices, and increased vulnerability, stigmatization
and discrimination of those perceived as the ‘other’ (OHCHR, 2020). While part of an
established global trend, hate speech and violent extremist ideologies are currently on
the rise (OSAPG, 2020), adding urgency to the already existing need of addressing and
countering the phenomenon. However, addressing and countering hate speech is a multi-
layered endeavour, which includes tackling its root causes and drivers, preventing it from
translating into violence and dealing with its wider societal consequences.
So what can be done? highlights the importance of education (through global

citizenship education and the mainstreaming of media
The United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate and information literacy in curricula), and policy building
Speech is a foundational instrument, which seeks to (through enhancing the capacity of policy-makers to
enhance the UN’s response to the global phenomenon draft policies and judicial operators to interpret laws
of hate speech.1 The Strategy and Plan of Action to effectively address and counter hate speech, while
acknowledges that hate speech has the potential to protecting and promoting freedom of expression).
incite violence, as well as to undermine social unity Furthermore, the framework stresses the need for the
and tolerance. Grounded in international human rights continued support of Member States and private sector
standards, chiefly the right to freedom of opinion actors in their efforts to address and counter challenges
and expression,2 and driven by the universal values of posed by the hate speech phenomenon.
tolerance, pluralism, equality and non-discrimination, the
Strategy and Plan of Action sets out strategic guidance Freedom of opinion and expression: Recognized as
for the UN system to address and counter hate speech a foundation of democracy and a precondition for the
at the national, regional and global levels (UN, 2019). protection and promotion of all other human rights,
The framework of the UN Strategy and Plan of Action freedom of opinion and expression – including freedom
of thought, conscience and religion or belief3 and
1 The document was developed by the UN Working Group on Hate Speech coordinated by the United Nations Office on the Prevention of Genocide and the Responsibility to
Protect (OSAPG). At the time of drafting, the Working Group comprised the following UN entities: UNESCO, the Alliance of Civilizations, the Executive Office of the Secretary-
General, the Office of Counter-Terrorism, the Department of Global Communications, the Global Pulse initiative, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights, the Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, the United Nations Development Programme, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees, the United Nations Children’s Fund, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women).
2 As well as other fundamental human rights, such as the right to life, the right to privacy and data protection, the right to information, the right to freedom of association and
assembly, the right to education, and the principles of equality and non-discrimination.
3 Here it is vital to recognize that the freedom of thought, conscience and religion or belief is central to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Articles 18 and 19 of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are expressive rights that are interlinked and mutually reinforcing. The legal continuum they represent is particularly important to
highlight in the context of hate speech and disinformation in the digital age. Given the intrinsic link between these two fundamental rights, hereinafter in referring to the right
to freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of thought, conscience and religion or belief is implicit.
6
freedom of the press and access to information – forms as an expression of respect for human rights. The UN
the main pillar of the UN’s approach to addressing and Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech necessitates
countering hate speech. UNESCO has taken a lead in this engagement with media and internet companies to
area, as the UN specialized agency with a constitutional support adherence to international standards, avoid
mandate to promote freedom of opinion and expression, ‘privatized censorship’ by platforms making decisions
in accordance with international human rights law related to expressive rights that should be adjudicated by
and standard-setting instruments, in particular the courts, and to protect the role of professional journalism
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and as an antidote to hate speech and disinformation.5 To
the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy date, UNESCO has engaged more than 17,000 judicial
of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes operators (judges, prosecutors and other judicial actors)
incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. The from 60 countries in Latin America, Europe and Africa
UN responses to hate speech range from supporting in training programmes about freedom of opinion and
and promoting open, diverse, inclusive and vibrant civic expression, access to information and safety of journalists.
spaces as well as independent and pluralistic quality Moreover, UNESCO has developed a standard-setting
journalism, to advising and assisting Member States in instrument, the framework of Internet Universality
developing and interpreting laws and policies related to Indicators, for assessing digital issues at the country level
non-discrimination, freedom of opinion and expression, and promoting the concept of an internet aligned with
access to information and press freedom. human rights, openness and accessibility. The framework
of requires a multi-stakeholder approach, and helps
Education and media and information literacy: governments, companies, civil society organizations
Strengthening education systems to build learners’ and other actors to assess internet development at the
resilience to and awareness of hate speech, as well as national level. This includes addressing challenges such as
educating them on their online and offline responsibilities developing policies on hate speech.
and rights, is at the heart of UNESCO’s educational
initiatives.4 In particular, UNESCO focuses its efforts on
the promotion of global citizenship education, based on
Unpacking experts’ perspectives
the three domains of learning (cognitive, socio-emotional
and behavioural) to instil respect for diversity and human To inform the upcoming Global Ministerial Conference
rights, social justice, gender equality and environmental and Multi-stakeholder Forum, including content and
sustainability – fundamental values that help to raise the design, UNESCO and the OSAPG held an Experts’ Virtual
defences of peace within learners against exclusionary Meeting on Education as a tool for prevention: Addressing
rhetoric and hateful ideologies. For instance, UNESCO’s and countering hate speech from 13 to 18 May 2020. The
global citizenship education programme engages with meeting comprised academics, youth representatives,
the history of genocides and atrocity crimes to help civil society, lawyers, human rights experts and education
young people to better understand their dynamics, causes specialists from across the world, covering the fields of
and consequences (e.g. hate speech and propaganda). addressing and countering hate speech, education, and
This is further bolstered by the promotion of human the promotion of freedom of opinion and expression. The
rights education and education for the rule of law, two Experts’ Meeting – which was held over a plenary and
forms of education that can also be used to address and three working group sessions – focused on deepening
counter hate speech (UNESCO, 2020). Moreover, UNESCO’s an understanding of what hate speech is, what enables
curricula for training teachers in Media and Information it and how it operates. Topics included reviewing
Literacy (MIL), capacity development activities for young existing evidence, exchanging good practices, building
people, and social media campaigns have strengthened responsible online and offline citizenship, and developing
critical thinking skills needed for addressing and a strategy to mobilize and strengthen Member States’
countering hate speech. capacity to respond to hate speech through formal, non-
formal and informal education. This report provides a
Policy and legal efforts: UN policy-level efforts
summary of the Experts’ Meeting, outlines key thematic
recognize the importance of safeguarding freedom
areas and offers actionable recommendations for Member
of opinion and expression, with the promotion and
States and other key stakeholders.
development of free, independent and pluralistic media,
understood as a force for peace and sustainability as well
4 The educational dimension to address hate speech stems from the Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action (UNESCO, 2016), notably Target 4.7 of
Sustainable Development Goal 4, which calls on countries to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Retrieved
from http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/education-2030-incheon-framework-for-action-implementation-of-sdg4-2016-en_2.pdf
5 While linked, it is important to note that hate speech, disinformation and conspiracy theories constitute separate phenomena, with their own histories, characteristics and legal
status, often requiring their own unique forms of policy and educational responses.
7
Part I.
Decoding the
phenomenon
Part I. Decoding the phenomenon
To develop a better understanding of the phenomenon of hate speech, the first theme
deliberated in working group sessions was the clarification of the concept itself. This
involved a discussion of its multifaceted nature and complexity, specifically the root
causes, drivers and conditions conducive to hate speech, as well as challenges and possible
educational responses. The limitations of the report should be recognized, given that
the phenomenon of hate speech is examined from an educational standpoint and the
subsequent legal analysis offered falls within this purview.
Definition and legal provisions provides a working definition for the UN system. In this
document, hate speech is understood as ‘any kind of
To begin with, it is crucial to acknowledge that in communication in speech, writing or behaviour that attacks
accordance with international human rights law – in or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with reference
particular Article 3 of the Convention on the Prevention to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1951)6, other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality,
and more specifically Article 20 (2) of the International race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factors’.9 This
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966):7 ‘any definition goes beyond a definition of prohibited hate
advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that speech as defined in the ICCPR,10 which would necessitate
constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence legitimate restrictions to freedom of opinion and
shall be prohibited by law’. That means only hate speech expression.
that reaches the threshold of incitement as defined by the
ICCPR and the Genocide Convention may be prohibited From the outset, it is important to recognize that the term
by law. ‘hate speech’ is a common phrase used by many actors,
including those in the international law and international
While the issue of hate speech is addressed in a number human rights law spheres. However, this conventional
of international and regional standard-setting documents, phrase is not explicitly defined by international law, due
no internationally agreed upon definition of hate speech to its ambiguity and multifaceted nature. Hate speech in
exists. For instance, the Council of Europe defines hate essence concerns the restriction of speech, and the need
speech as ‘the use of one or more particular forms of to find a balance between such restrictions and freedom
expression – namely, the advocacy, promotion or incitement of opinion and expression as stipulated by Article 19
of the denigration, hatred or vilification of a person or of the ICCPR. While freedom of opinion and expression
group of persons, as well any harassment, insult, negative is a fundamental ‘cornerstone’ human right, it is not an
stereotyping, stigmatization or threat of such person or absolute right. Under exceptional circumstances and in
persons and any justification of all these forms of expression accordance with human rights law, States may place some
– that is based on a non-exhaustive list of personal restrictions. Several key questions emerge about where
characteristics or status that includes race, colour, language, and how we draw the line and, more importantly, who
religion or belief, nationality or national or ethnic origin, as decides what constitutes hate speech.
well as descent, age, disability, sex, gender, gender identity
and sexual orientation’. The International Convention The Rabat Plan of Action – which remains a principal
on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination instrument of reference – is a useful starting point. The
defines hate speech as ‘a form of other-directed speech Plan provides guidance to States and considers the
which rejects the core human rights principles of human distinction between the freedom of expression and
dignity and equality and seeks to degrade the standing incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence. It
of individuals and groups in the estimation of society’.8 includes a six-part threshold test: (1) the social and political
The UN Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech context; (2) status of the speaker; (3) intent to incite the
6 Article 3 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1951): https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crimeofgenocide.aspx
7 Hereinafter ICCPR. See also the freedom of opinion and expression key international standards: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Standards.aspx
8 For more details, refer to Appendix 2 in the ‘Legal Instruments’ section.
9 See p. 2. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/advising-and-mobilizing/Action_plan_on_hate_speech_EN.pdf
10 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) - Article 19 and 20: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx
9
audience against a target group; (4) content and form of the responding to hate speech, States should act under the
speech; (5) extent of its dissemination (6) likelihood of harm, principal notion that ‘all human beings are born free
including imminence (OHCHR, 2012). The human rights and equal in dignity and rights’ (ARTICLE 19, 2015). The
organization ARTICLE 19 has a typology, better known Camden Principles on Freedom of Expression and Equality
as the ‘Hate Speech Pyramid’, that is also a useful and remind us that the ‘right of everyone to be heard, to speak
important illustration for unpacking the phenomenon and to participate in political, artistic and social life are, in
of hate speech. The pyramid, in accordance with turn, integral to the attainment and enjoyment of equality’.
international law and human rights law, distinguishes Furthermore, ‘when people are denied public participation
between ‘hate speech which must be prohibited’,11 meaning and voice, their issues, experiences and concerns are
‘advocacy of discriminatory hatred constituting incitement rendered invisible, and they become more vulnerable to
to hostility, discrimination or violence’; ‘hate speech that may bigotry, prejudice and marginalisation’ (ARTICLE 19, 2009).18
be prohibited’12 to ‘protect the rights or reputations of others, Inherently, this has specific implications for the field of
or for the protection of national security or of public order, education. UNESCO’s Convention against Discrimination
or of public health or morals’ in limited and exceptional in Education (1960) is the first international instrument
circumstances; and ‘lawful hate speech’13 that should that covers the right to education extensively and has
be protected from restriction. It is in this last, blurred a binding force in international law. It encompasses the
terrain of ‘lawful hate speech’ where our modus operandi idea that education is not a luxury, but a fundamental
is tested. Given that there is no internationally agreed human right and underscores States’ obligations to
upon definition of hate speech, regional human rights proscribe any form of discrimination in education while
instruments provide varying standards for defining and promoting equality of educational opportunities. That
limiting hate speech. Domestic legislation often reflects said, drawing on interlinkages between education, hate
this lack of clarity (ARTICLE 19, 2015). speech, freedom of expression and the principle of non-
discrimination is a complex endeavour. Rising levels of
As a result, there are many countries where the term hate complexity have implications for education systems and
speech is either not used or not translatable. In Myanmar, signal the emergence of a new global context for learning.
for example, where the social media platform Facebook
was used as a tool to incite to violence,14 the term hate
speech is closer to something that could be phrased as
Educational approaches
‘dangerous speech’,15 and refers to pejorative language
directed at another group of people.16 Though not a legal It is important for individuals and groups to adapt
term, dangerous speech can be understood as any form understandings of hate speech, in particular the ‘identity
of expression (speech, text or images) that can increase factor’, to their socio-political contexts, while ensuring
the risk that its audience will condone or participate in compliance with international human rights law. This
violence against members of another group. Dr. Susan fosters a sense of inclusion and empowerment of those
Benesch, Founder and Director of the Dangerous Speech who often are the targets of hate speech, which is
Project, coined this term after observing that ‘fear- therefore a vital component of any successful educational
inducing and divisive rhetoric rises steadily before outbreaks response. Moreover, it is crucial to distinguish hate speech
of mass violence and that it is often uncannily similar, that is prohibited (i.e. incitement to discrimination,
even in different countries, cultures, and historical periods’ hostility and violence, involving an inciter, an audience
(Dangerous Speech Project, 2020). and a target of victims)19 from other forms of hate speech,
including hate speech that is offensive to some, but may
Fundamental to this discussion are the principles of
still be protected under the right to freedom of expression
equality and non-discrimination.17 Under international
(i.e. hate speech that causes distress). To this end,
human rights law, States are obligated to guarantee
educational approaches could include intergenerational
equality in the enjoyment of all human rights. When
11 This is elaborated in Article 20 (2) of the ICCPR, wherein States are required to prohibit certain severe forms of ‘hate speech’, including through criminal, civil and administrative
measures. See also Article 3 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), which stipulates the prohibition of ‘direct and public
incitement to genocide’. Also see the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998) Article 25 (e), which refers to incitement to commit genocide.
12 In adherence with requirements set forth in Article 19(3) of the ICCPR.
13 As articulated by Article 19 (2) of the ICCPR, which raises concerns in terms of intolerance and discrimination, and requires an appropriate and proportional response by
States. It is also important to recognize – with respect to educational responses – the complexities surrounding these legal distinctions, particularly with respect to ‘lawful hate
speech’, which may be confusing for learners, requiring further unpacking in an education setting.
14 Human Rights Impact Assessment – Facebook in Myanmar: https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/bsr-facebook-myanmar-hria_final.pdf
15 Retrieved from https://www.article19.org/resources/hate-speech-explained-a-toolkit/
16 https://www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/2020.02.04-A19-Hate-Speech-Law-Policy-Paper-final-3.pdf
17 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1: https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/
18 See also Cherian George, ‘Hate Spin: The Manufacture of Religious Offence and Its Threat to Democracy’ (MIT, 2016): https://prezi.com/nmrqv4fxdezs/hate-spin/
19 Jeroen Temperman 2016, p 371
10
or transnational hate speech analyses. For example, The current situation makes other challenges all the more
research and analysis on transnational networks of white salient. A major issue is that hate speech regulations differ
supremacy groups could be beneficial, as well as further considerably around the world, with some countries
exploration into unpacking the generational gap on free lacking legislative frameworks, and others failing to
speech (i.e. the disparity between older and younger adequately implement necessary laws, notably in terms
generations’ understanding of what amounts to hate of compliance with international human rights law,
speech and what is understood as free speech). including when measures to address hate speech are
designed or utilized to limit freedom of expression .23
Educational approaches must also include and consider A related challenge arises from the fact that victims
the perspectives of those who perpetrate, consume may not consistently report incidents of hate speech to
and disseminate, or are targets of hate speech. As authorities, due to a plethora of reasons ranging from a
such, individual identity factors (e.g. status, gender and lack of understanding of what amounts to hate speech,
socioeconomic class) and their interrelationships (e.g. to what constitutes hate speech in a given context and
gender differences with regards to the effects of ‘sexting’) its contemporary forms (including memes, sports team
are of particular relevance. A key manner in which learners chants, etc. that are often covert and subtle). In addition,
can build resilience to as well as address and counter hate the capacity of private tech and social media companies
speech is by creating educational frameworks that teach to counter the spread of hate speech on their platforms, in
about perpetrators and/or targeted groups, with a view line with international human rights standards, is of prime
to unpack what often lies behind hate speech, such as importance in this context. This raises specific challenges
stereotypes, prejudices, disinformation and conspiracy related, for instance, to the questionable efficiency of
theories.20 automated systems and algorithms to properly identify
hate speech and ensure moderation, highlighting the
need for greater transparency on how hate speech
Challenges policies are implemented and evaluated.
One of the main challenges surrounding the phenomenon Underpinning many of these challenges is the ‘elephant
of hate speech and how it flourishes includes identifying in the room’ – structural discrimination, socially
how it can thrive in contexts of excessive fear and whether entrenched prejudices and stigmatization, which create
it is intentional. For example, during the COVID-19 crisis, an environment wherein expressions and acts of hatred
many have been confronted with a ‘disinfodemic’21 with a flourish. There is a paramount need for social media and
rise in misinformation (i.e. the spread of false information tech companies to adopt and implement a clear and
that is not created with the intention of causing harm). comprehensive anti-discrimination framework, with
Yet, there have also been reported cases of hate speech responsive and efficient institutional mechanisms of
and physical assaults against people of Asian descent accountability.
who are being accused of not only spreading but also
creating the COVID-19 virus (UN, 2020). Also, there
have been reports of a resurgent anti-Semitic Jewish- Research needs
plot-to-control-the-world theory, as well as those
instrumentalizing COVID-19-related hate speech based When addressing hate speech, theory-, research- and
on religious or national identity to incite further hatred victim-based approaches are to be applied. Theory-based
against ‘others’ for political gain (OHCHR, 2020). Certainly, approaches will help to conceptualize and build analytical
right-wing proponents seem to be capitalizing on the models to explain and hypothesize about the causes
current atmosphere of fear and uncertainty caused by the and effects of hate speech. At the same time, research-
pandemic, combined with socio-economic challenges, based approaches are needed to enable theories and
to attract people to their hateful rhetoric.22 There is a concepts to be tested. Empirical research – in multiple
dire need for good governance capable of assuaging the cultural, political and social contexts – helps to capture,
public’s fears during crises. monitor, analyze and define hate speech and the myriad
factors that surround the phenomenon. For online hate
20 Addressing conspiracy theories has gained urgency in the current context. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has given birth to many such theories accusing China or even
the US army of creating the virus: https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/china-covid19-origin-narrative. Also, more recently there has been another anti-Semitic theory positioning George
Soros as responsible for the George Floyd protests: https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-06-22/george-soros-conspiracy-theories-surge-amid-george-floyd-protests
21 For more details refer to https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/disinfodemic_deciphering_covid19_disinformation.pdf
22 More details of how far-right extremists are exploiting the COVID pandemic can be found in the following article: https://www.voanews.com/covid-19-pandemic/how-far-right-
extremists-are-exploiting-covid-pandemic
23 More recently, and within the COVID-19 pandemic context, with respect to restrictions on LGBTQI+ rights: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.
aspx?NewsID=25884&LangID=E
11
speech, new methods of computational, or ‘big data’, Moreover, additional research is required in order to
research are needed to measure the presence and spread collect policies that are being introduced by Member
of such content, particularly on social media platforms, States, and to map anti-hate speech educational
social messaging services and online messaging boards. programmes to assess and measure the impacts of hate
Understanding psychological, behavioural and cognitive speech before, during and after the implementation of
outcomes associated with the impact of hate speech will counter-effort interventions and prevention programmes.
require complex models of causes, effects and interacting This should bear in mind the gravity of the offline
factors that lead to the production and dissemination of implications of online hate speech, including detrimental
such speech. Particular attention to the perspective and effects at the individual, community and society level.
interests of victims of hate speech is important in this Further research is needed about the clear association
respect. between hate speech and hate crimes,24 hate speech and
offline violence against targeted communities,25 and the
Besides mapping the root causes and power dynamics connection of exposure to radical online material and
of all forms of intolerance and discrimination, further extremist ideology.26
research is required with regards to measuring the
impacts of hate speech, both on targeted groups and
the wider public (e.g. the relationship between online
violence and offline violence). Collectively, such research
will yield a greater understanding of how and when
incitement to hatred results in actual violence. This
necessitates more research on the linkages between
bullying/cyberbullying and hate speech, the effect of
hate speech on mental health, and what motivates
people to behave hatefully towards others. To such
ends, ethnographic inquiry into groups such as far-
right, jihadist, incel and religious violent extremist is
instrumental, with specific focus on their messaging
systems and strategies, particularly via online platforms,
as well as ideological justifications for espousing hatred
of others. In addition, and although there is some
substantive research on how these groups operate
and their motivations, keeping up with their strategies
and metamorphosis in digital environments, evolving
networks and renewed modes of recruitment is a constant
challenge.
24 Mossie, Z., & Wang, J. H. (2019). ‘Vulnerable community identification using hate speech detection on social media’. Information Processing & Management, 57(3).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2019.102087: See also OSCE ODIRH for a more detailed definition of what is a hate crime https://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime
25 Weber, M., Viehmann, C., Ziegele, M., & Schemer, C. (2020). ‘Online hate does not stay online—how implicit and explicit attitudes mediate the effect of civil negativity and hate
in user comments on prosocial behavior’. Computers in Human Behavior, 104, 106-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106192
26 Hassan, G., Brouillette-Alarie, S., Alava, S., Frau-Meigs, D., Lavoie, L., Fetiu, A. & Sieckelinck, S. (2018). ‘Exposure to extremist online content could lead to violent radicalization: A
systematic review of empirical evidence’. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 71–88. DOI: 10.3233/DEV-170233
12
Part II.
Addressing citizenship
in the digital era
Part II. Addressing citizenship in the digital era
The second theme distinguishes the notion of responsible global citizenship from that of
responsible digital citizenship and identifies key educational approaches in these domains.
Global citizenship education encompasses among other outcomes the knowledge and
skills to recognize and counter messages of hate. It strives to empower youth, build their
resilience, and encourage their moral and social engagement.
One of the current challenges of responsible global media innovation acts as an antidote to hate speech on
citizenship building is adapting goals and strategies to social media platforms by empowering young people
the digital world, so that citizens possess knowledge and to share relevant learning content with their peers, use
skills – technological and argumentative – to critically the media in classrooms and workplaces, and create
analyze and counteract online hate speech. However, it is counter-narratives against hate speech. In the field of
important that global citizenship curricula address both education, MIL curricula needs to foster critical thinking
the online and offline contexts since hate speech in each skills necessary to adequately assess information in terms
setting differs (i.e. in terms of dynamics as well as who of accuracy (i.e. detect fake news and conspiracy theories
the victims, bystanders and perpetrators are, and what and separate them from legitimate reporting), and
they think, etc.) and raising awareness of such differences online wellbeing built around the principle of empathy
will help to create more targeted educational responses. towards others, and a sense of responsibility for one’s
Online environments, while able to act as a force for good, online behaviour. MIL skills are a fundamental citizenship
have become echo chambers for hateful rhetoric and competency for addressing and countering hate speech.
fertile ground for the emergence of various hate groups,
making the need for responsible digital citizenship
building ever more urgent. Social pedagogy and social-
emotional learning
Media information literacies as a The current moment exposes the need for greater
measure to address and counter investment in social-emotional skills to foster ‘a sense
of belonging to a common humanity, sharing values
hate speech and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for
It is often in the field of media and information that differences and diversity, as well as feel and assume a
people are confronted with harmful content, including sense of responsibility for the future’ (UNESCO, 2019).
hate speech. In the digital era, social media platforms Mainstreaming social-emotional learning (SEL) throughout
have become central stations where racist, sexist and education (formal, non-formal and informal) and at all
xenophobic content, and other types of hateful speech levels is paramount (UNESCO MGIEP, 2020). Effective SEL
accumulate and are easy to access and share. Media and programmes are rights-based, scientifically accurate and
Information Literacy (MIL) competencies serve as enablers grounded in evidence, participatory and inclusive, gender
of peace and interreligious and intercultural dialogue responsive, culturally appropriate, and carefully adapted
and can provide the tools to address and counter hate for specific age groups and audiences. SEL is a powerful
speech. MIL equips people with skills to access, search, educational tool to address and counter harmful social
evaluate, use and contribute to information and media norms and practices, including in crisis situations. Effective
content critically. Media and information literate citizens SEL programmes should also be part of a larger ecosystem,
are knowledgeable and discerning processors and reaching beyond classrooms to involve the whole school,
producers of information, which allows them to actively families, communities and media (UNESCO, 2020).
tackle hate speech, and contribute to social inclusion and Social pedagogy is a para-academic and public discipline,
peace in online and offline spaces. For example, UNESCO’s which refers to the reflexive and inclusive adoption of
MIL Youth Hackathon provided young people across the various digital technologies across formal, non-formal and
globe with an opportunity to develop projects to tackle public contexts.27 Digital media’s capability to mobilize
social challenges such as hate speech and cyberbullying, social consciousness of hate speech across cultural scenes
using MIL as a tool. This resulted in a number of youth- such as music, visual arts, literature and spoken word
led initiatives, including the Virtual Organization on MIL performances provides a unique opportunity for social
for Cyber Peace. In addition, UNESCO’s MIL CLICKS social pedagogy to impact and influence public sensibilities.
27 Nelson, B. J., & Venkatesh, V. (in press). ‘Manifeste pour une pédagogie sociale: cultiver une inclusivité réflexive à l’ère du narcissisme et du solipsisme nourris par les médias
sociaux’. In D. Morin, S. Aoun, & S. Al-Baba Douaihy (Eds.), ‘Le nouvel âge des extrêmes?’ Les démocraties occidentales, la radicalisation et l’extrémisme violent. Montréal, Canada:
Presses de l’Université de Montréal.
14
Part II. Addressing citizenship in the digital era
Indeed, it is the inclusive nature of social pedagogy that as greater clarity on policies and definitions, and the
makes it particularly well-suited for fostering pluralism, a use of automation for content moderation and ranking
principle on which responsible digital citizenship rests. algorithms is paramount. There is also a significant
need for technology companies to invest in adequate
human rights training for employees, particularly for
Human rights education and those involved in social media content management or
freedom of expression moderation.
One of the principal roles of digital citizenship It is crucial to recognize the importance of appeals,
programming is fostering knowledge and understanding review grievance mechanisms accessible to users, and
of human rights and freedom of expression (including meaningfully engage in multi-stakeholder partnerships,
freedom of the press and freedom of information), with a view to more effectively address the offline and
democracy and the rule of law.28 The concept online aspects of hate speech. Technology companies
underpinning human rights education is best articulated need to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon
by the UN Declaration on Human Rights Education and of mobile phone addiction, strive to find ways of dealing
Training (2011), wherein it is recognized that human with it, as well as revisit, update and monitor social media
rights in education should: ‘(a) provide knowledge and platform policies directed at youth. Such policies may
understanding of human rights norms and principles, the include codes of conduct for social media platforms,
values that underpin them and the mechanisms for their digital service acts and recommendations on how to deal
protection; (b) include learning and teaching in a way that with online hate speech.32
respects the rights of both educators and learners; and (c) In addition, the algorithmic classification and
empower persons to enjoy and exercise their rights, as well as transmission of information on social media platforms
respect and uphold the rights of others’ (OHCR, 2011). This can be problematic when hate speech – sometimes
is fundamental when attempting to address and counter embedded within disinformation and conspiracy theory
hate speech through education. Pedagogies linked to campaigns – is propagated at exponentially rapid rates.
human rights education (e.g. empathy-based education, Consequently, there is a need for further development
critical thinking, critical pedagogy and social pedagogy) of social media technologies and machine learning
are also fundamental to addressing and countering hate components, for which multi-stakeholder, non-partisan
speech. Such pedagogies produce insights that help collaborations between researchers, government, media,
build resilience and promote prosocial behaviours and educational establishments, civil society organizations
moral engagement – all of which represent desirable and technology platforms are required. Additionally,
outcomes of global citizenship education. Incorporating technology companies need to address the significant
programmes addressing the above-mentioned principles gap in human resources if they are to effectively address
within education can empower stakeholders to address hate speech and respond adequately to the rate at which
and counter incidents of hate speech, and work as an it is being disseminated on their platforms. This will
antidote to the silencing effect such speech can impose.29 require significant investment in human resources, as well
as adequate and effective training. Lastly, bridging the
digital divide and ensuring affordable digital access will
The role of technology companies amplify the voices of learners and teachers worldwide and
help to address and counter hate speech. While the agile
Encouraging transparency and accountability of
use of digital space by youth presents opportunity, there
technology companies remains a challenge.30 In particular,
still are many for whom access to digital technology and
there is a need to explore the possibility of a plurality
the internet is limited.33
of measures for addressing and countering online hate
speech, and to move away from the binary of keeping
or removing content.31 In this respect, transparency on
how technology companies address hate speech, as well
28 See also UNESCO Declaration of Principles on Tolerance (1995): http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13175&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

29 See the framework of Competences for Democratic Culture, an instrument from The Council of Europe, which inspires approaches to teaching competences for democratic
culture building: https://rm.coe.int/prems-008318-gbr-2508-reference-framework-of-competences-vol-1-8573-co/16807bc66c. One example of such an effort to address hate
speech may be ‘Learning Democracy at Utøya’, which is a nationwide initiative supported by the Ministry of Education in Norway. The programme deals with hate speech and
anti-democratic forces through the empowerment of young people and contains components directed at schools as well as youth organizations. https://theewc.org/projects/
learning-democracy-at-utoya/
30 OSAPG and ESRC Human Rights Big Data and Technology Project (in press). Summary Report of roundtable with social media companies on the implementation of the United
Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech.
31 EFF comments to the French Avia Law https://cdn2.nextinpact.com/medias/lettre-faba-cc-06-01-2020-submitted-with-all-exhibits-pdf-a-format.pdf
32 Christchurch Call to Action (2019): https://www.christchurchcall.com/call.html and see also: ‘Paris Call for Trust and Security in Cyberspace’ (2018): https://pariscall.international/en/
33 Learn more from UN Secretary-General’s Roadmap for Digital Cooperation: https://www.un.org/en/content/digital-cooperation-roadmap/
15
Part III.
Tackling the issue from
an educational perspective
Part III. Tackling the issue from an educational perspective
United Nations’ intersecting efforts Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect
and the UN Alliance of Civilizations (religious sites).34
The third working group examined the theme of
educational policies and programmes developed by the
UN and employed by Member States. The programmes Curricular-related approaches
aim to develop measures to address and counter hate
speech, identify their efficiency, or lack thereof, and help Pedagogies linked to global citizenship education
Member States gain a broader understanding of how and human rights education (e.g. empathy-based
to tackle hate speech. These programmes include the education, critical thinking, critical pedagogy and social
frameworks of Global Citizenship Education (GCED) and pedagogy) are important because they produce insights
Media Information Literacy (MIL) initiatives. All of these that empower individuals to take a moral stance and
have adopted multi-stakeholder and interdisciplinary actively engage in countering hate speech. However,
approaches to help young people engage with media the standardization of education is leading to a testing
and information systems effectively, and develop critical culture, which often places greater emphasis on the
thinking and life-long learning skills to socialize and cognitive dimension of learning vis-à-vis the social-
become active citizens that support peace and human emotional and behavioural components. This could lead
rights, solidarity, and just and peaceful societies. to teaching and learning for testing purposes rather
than the humanistic vision and purpose articulated by
Implementation of educational programmes addressing the right to education.35 Yet, it should be recognized
sensitive issues is another area in need of attention. that cognitive gains can be enriched when the social
Such programmes could be carried out in the spirit of and emotional aspects of learners are engaged, or when
social-emotional learning and deal with sexual and participatory and action-oriented pedagogies are used
reproductive health and relationship education, tolerance to engage students in ways that they find meaningful
and acceptance of difference, stigmatization and and memorable (UNESCO, 2019). A move towards agile
discrimination. In addition, educational initiatives offering curricula adapted to the diversity and plurality of modern
psychosocial support and fostering mental wellbeing societies is fundamental.
of youth could play a crucial role in strengthening our
understanding of the dynamics of hateful rhetoric and Since the phenomenon of hate speech impacts young
of how to best approach it in and out of the classroom people both in and outside the classroom, educational
environment. policies need to be school-wide or even society-wide.
As such, education should not be restricted to formal
Similarly, disaster and emergency management contexts, but include informal and non-formal settings,
programmes could help to build resilience while while incorporating perspectives from stakeholders in
programmes promoting independent quality journalism public safety, civil society, religious communities, media,
and advocating information literacy would equip the justice system, mental health and social services, as
students with necessary skills to resist hateful discourse well as youth themselves. Educational approaches need
and disinformation often present during crises. Such to account for students’ different ages, backgrounds
programmes could prove instrumental in reversing the and levels, and whether or not they have been exposed
tide of prejudice and scapegoating, which can result in to hate speech. Particular attention should be paid to
hate crimes. discrimination or violence based on sexual orientation
and gender identity/expression, as prescribed by SDG 4:
Finally, interdisciplinary programmes combining
all learners, without discrimination, should be provided
teaching on religion, faith and universal rights such as
with a learning environment free from discrimination
the #Faith4Rights initiative can serve as examples of
and violence (UNESCO, 2020). Above all, however, the
good practices to address and counter hate speech. The
conceptualization of terms relating to hate speech
programme builds on a wealth of tools developed by
has to be a participatory process in which students,
UN entities, such as UNESCO (intercultural competencies
without discrimination on any grounds, are given room
and prevention of violent extremism), the UN Office on
to understand for themselves and according to their
contexts the roots of hate and fear. Providing youth with
34 34 #Faith4Rights programme was drafted jointly by faith-based actors, academics and UN human rights stakeholders and launched in January 2020. Retrieved from: https://
www.ohchr.org/Documents/Press/faith4rights-toolkit.pdf
35 Right to education handbook, UNESCO (2019): https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366556?posInSet=3&queryId=7355f986-a97b-4c29-80b8-818dde44a958
17
Part III. Tackling the issue from an educational perspective
skills and insights into how to recognize and respond means that we need to design appropriate responses
to hate speech36 will enable them to develop or better to addressing and countering hate speech through
understand reporting mechanisms, such as flagging education: with youth, for youth and most importantly
incidents of hate speech appropriately. by youth. Creating policies for youth empowerment and
putting young people and their perspectives at the centre
of co-creating interventions is of utmost importance.
Professional skill development Youth need to take centre stage and be partners in
of teachers consulting with public policy officials, experts in social
services, mental health, public safety and community
For young people to become key actors of change in policing. This calls for greater investment and support
addressing and countering hate speech, teachers need to for youth-led initiatives and, most importantly, the direct
be provided with adequate and continuous professional involvement of young people, without discrimination on
development opportunities to ensure they are capable of any grounds, in the decisions that affect them and the
creating safe and diverse spaces where contentious issues, future they will inherit.
such as what hate speech is and how to actively engage it,
can be openly discussed. This will also entail ensuring that
there is diversity in teaching and administrative personnel Multi-modalities and multi-
in education settings. In addition, while teachers’ freedom stakeholder approaches
of expression needs to be protected, it is also important
to prepare teachers for situations in which they may be Because the issue of addressing and countering hate
asked to set aside their own beliefs and values so that a speech is a complex endeavour, and there is no simple
pluralist discussion can take place. To such ends, teachers solution, educational policies and curricula programmes
must learn to become impartial and provide arguments need to be comprehensive and diverse in approach,
for views they may not hold themselves. Similarly, given inclusive of various contexts and multi-stakeholder
the multifaceted nature of the hate speech phenomenon perspectives, as well as representative of the spirit of
as well as the diversity of modern contexts, providing plurality and respect of human rights on which they
teachers with a one-size-fits-all ‘recipe’ to implement in depend for their success. While not all initiatives need
the classroom may no longer be enough. It is essential to focus on hate speech, they need to promote a sense
that educators are properly trained in human rights, and of diversity and inclusivity.37 Consequently, the scope
possess the self-confidence to discuss related issues, as of interventions needs to include formal, informal and
well as conceptualize and define what hate speech is to lifelong learning. Policies must reach beyond education
students. Showing critical engagement with the issue can so as to affect full participation in society, especially as
empower students when they are confronted with hateful they relate to combating hate speech and the seriously
rhetoric, as well as other potentially harmful content such harmful effects of racism, xenophobia, antisemitism, anti-
as mis- and disinformation. Muslim hatred, anti-LGBTQI+ hatred and all other forms of
intolerance and discrimination.
Harnessing the power of youth

It is crucial to recognize, harness and promote the power
of youth. There are many young people all over the world
designing solutions within their communities to address
and counter hate speech and contribute to a culture of
peace. This is why it is important to actively engage youth
at all stages of interventions, so that young peoples’ voices
are heard, and their needs and concerns understood. This
36 It is important to acknowledge that spreading hate is not just about ‘speech’. The NGO, ARTICLE 19, for example, indicates that hate speech can be expressed through ‘any
expression imparting opinions or ideas – bringing an internal opinion or idea to an external audience. It can take many forms: written, non-verbal, visual, artistic, etc., and may
be disseminated through any media, including internet, print, radio, or television’, see: https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/38231/’Hate-Speech’-Explained---A-Toolkit-
%282015-Edition%29.pdf. Furthermore, some violent extremist groups are deploying a variety of musical forms, with lyrics that convey hate, but may not be recognizable to
teachers. Teachers and learners need training in recognition of how groups use a multiplicity of messaging, and why this appeals to in young people. Hate can also be buried in
nationalism or patriotism.
37 UNESCO’s Futures of Education: Learning to become initiative can serve as a relevant example. The initiative is built on the basis of plural ‘futures’ in recognition of diversity. The
International Commission on the Futures of Education started their work in a context of complexity, uncertainty and fragility even before COVID-19 to reimagine education,
learning and knowledge for all humanity. The COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated existing vulnerabilities and inequalities. For more information see https://en.unesco.org/
futuresofeducation/
18
Part IV.
Actionable
recommendations
Part IV. Actionable recommendations
A list of key actionable recommendations follows for the consideration of Member States
in addressing and countering hate speech through education:38
● Safeguarding human rights – Educational system, sporting entities, public safety, religious or
responses addressing and countering hate speech community leaders and faith-based organizations,
require full respect of fundamental human rights, as well as governmental, inter-governmental and
including the right to education and the right to non-governmental organizations. In addition, it is
freedom of opinion and expression, and principles important to ensure that stakeholders are equipped
of equality and non-discrimination. Education with qualities such as empathy, appreciation of
institutions must teach about hate speech in pluralism, critical thinking, reasoning, media and
theoretical forms, and governments must also information literacy, pluralistic dialogue, and social
guarantee that policies and legislation can ensure media and internet-related knowledge and skills.
that places of learning do not become breeding
grounds for hateful ideologies. The principles of
● Professional development and training –
equality and non-discrimination must be upheld, Education policy-makers, teacher-trainers, school
with rights to education, freedom of opinion and leaders and teachers must receive appropriate
expression, and other fundamental human rights training. Programmes should include policy
protected and promoted, both inside and outside knowledge, open-source toolkits and strategies
school. This includes the provision of ‘holistic’ human tailored to specific populations, and guidance in
rights education (i.e. education about, through and youth-appropriate language. In addition, teachers
for human rights), as outlined in the United Nations need to be offered practical guidance for the
Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training. classroom – how to become aware of their own
implicit biases and prejudices, how to manage
● Investing in more research and collecting and controversial or sensitive discussions, how to let
analyzing data – The provision of relevant and students agree or disagree within the classroom
high quality education can help to create conditions context, etc. They also need training on how to
that make it difficult for hateful ideologies to carry out both primary and secondary prevention
proliferate, and educational content and teaching/ interventions with youth regardless of whether they
learning approaches can develop learners’ resilience have been exposed to or at risk of hate speech, both
to hate speech. More research and data are as victims and as perpetrators.
required to further unpack our understanding of
the phenomenon and develop more effective and
● Include learnng outcomes associated with
contextualized educational responses. Specifically, addressing and countering hate speech –
more research is required on the phenomenon of Learning outcomes need to be part of formal
hate speech online and offline, who is behind it, how school curricula and categorized as required skills,
it spreads, root causes and what connection it has as opposed to ‘soft skills’, and given equal value
to offline violence, as well as disaggregated data on to those associated with literacy and numeracy.
those targeted and affected. Also, education to address hate speech needs to
be complemented with pedagogies that promote
● Involvement of multiple stakeholders – Long- anti-bullying and anti-discrimination, and be
lasting partnerships depend on multiple participants inclusive and respectful of perspectives and rights
intersecting formal and informal settings and create of minorities and vulnerable groups, as well as
strategies to address and counter hate speech in and focus on gender equality. Hate speech should be
outside schools and higher education institutions. taught against the backdrop of the root causes
Such partnerships may include, but are not limited of intolerance and discrimination, taking into
to, education bodies, civil society, community consideration the specificities of each type of
agencies, mental health and social service providers, intolerance and discrimination, as well as the rise of
media and internet companies, the judicial populism and violent extremist ideologies. Finally,
38 A key challenge is getting Member States to support educational recommendations – especially if States have political or legal stumbling blocks that limit freedom of
expression. To create change on the ground, policies need to be based on concrete projects that give priority to education and capacity-building within a shared vision and
framework.
20
Part IV. Actionable recommendations
educational curricula should address the link ● Creating policies for youth empowerment
between hate speech and atrocity crimes.39 This – Putting young people and their perspectives at
could include country and region-specific education the centre of co-creating interventions is of utmost
on the association between past atrocities and hate importance. Youth need to take centre stage and be
speech and discrimination. partners in consulting with public policy officials,
experts in social services, the judicial system, mental
● Media Information Literacy (MIL) mainstreamed health, public safety and community policing.
– MIL needs to be recognized as an enabling
tool for addressing and countering hate speech. ● Focus on building open educational resources
While learning to recognize instances of hate – Such resources and databases can house
speech committed by others may be relatively and share good practices and lessons learned
straightforward, acknowledging one’s own acts from across the globe, consolidated at both the
of hateful rhetoric or discriminatory behaviour local and global level, and the kinds of multi-
remains a challenge for many. MIL has the capacity stakeholder partnerships that have been successful
to equip everyone with the skills necessary to foster in implementing hate speech educational
responsible and respectful online presence. interventions.
39 The value of teaching about the history of genocides and atrocity crimes, such as the Holocaust (Shoah) for instance, has been referred to as an efficient means to raise
awareness about the dynamics of hate speech, state-sponsored propaganda and group-targeted violence (Jews in this case), and to harness learners’ critical thinking and
empathy. Learn more at: https://en.unesco.org/themes/holocaust-genocide-education
21
Appendices
Appendix 1. Meeting agenda
Appendix 2. List of references by experts
Appendix 3. List of experts

Education as a tool for prevention:

addressing and countering hate speech
Agenda – Expert meeting

Plenary Session
13 May 2020
[Paris local time]
14:40 – 14:55 Connecting to online platform Microsoft Teams
15:00 – 15:05 Welcome and Introduction by Chair

• Vibeke Jensen, Director, Division of Peace and Sustainable Development, UNESCO
15:05 – 15:20 Opening remarks

• Stefania Giannini, Assistant Director-General for Education, UNESCO
• Adama Dieng, UN Under-Secretary-General and Special Adviser of the Secretary-General for the
Prevention of Genocide
15:20 – 16:50 Framing the discussion

• Presentation of the UN’s work on hate speech (Strategy and Plan of Action – why now?),
Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect (OSAPG)
• UNESCO’s work on hate speech and implications for its mandate (challenges and
opportunities – education as a preventative tool?), UNESCO
• Tour de table and general comments from the experts
Unpacking expert’s own understanding of the process – what is your key expectation and
what would be your key recommendation for Member States and other key stakeholders with
respect to addressing and countering hate speech?
2-3 minutes per expert
16:50 – 17:00 Closing remarks

• Moez Chakchouk, Assistant Director-General for Communication and Information, UNESCO
17:00 – 17:10 Next Steps

• Vibeke Jensen, Director for the Division of Peace and Sustainable Development, UNESCO
23
WORKING GROUPS SESSIONS

Working Group 1: Understanding the issue – what is hate speech,
what are its root causes and how does it proliferate?
The aim of this working group is to unpack hate speech: (1) for conceptual clarification and (2) to develop a better
understanding of this phenomenon, including root causes, drivers and conditions conducive to hate speech.
Working Group 1: Understanding the issue – what is hate speech,

what are its root causes and how does it proliferate?
14 May 2020
[Paris local time]
15:00 – 15:10 Introduction by Mr Guilherme Canela De Souza Godoi, UNESCO (Chair)
and Ms Susan Benesch (co-Chair)
• Outline working modalities of the Working Group
15:10 – 16:00 Understanding the issue – what constitutes hate speech?
• Unpacking hate speech: (1) for conceptual clarification and (2) to develop a better understanding
of this phenomenon, including root causes, drivers and conditions conducive to hate speech.
[Please ensure that the cross-cutting themes of online hate speech, media and information literacy,
as well as gender and youth dimensions are covered in your discussion.]
16:00 – 16:50 An educational perspective
• Identify three key challenges and three key opportunities for addressing and countering hate
speech through education.
16:50 – 17:00 Strategic round-up
• Conclusion and outlining the next steps.
Working Group 2: Digital conundrum – what are the key competencies for ‘responsible’ digital citizenship?
Citizenship education encompasses the knowledge and skills to recognize hate speech, and enables individuals to counteract
messages of hatred. One of its current challenges is adapting goals and strategies to the digital world, providing not only
argumentative but also technological knowledge and skills that a citizen may need to critically analyze and counteract
online hate speech. The aim of this working group is to engage with this subject further, with a view to identify a set of skills,
competences, values and attitudes required for ‘responsible’ digital citizenship, and policies to uphold them.
Working Group 2: Digital conundrum – what key competencies are required for ‘responsible’
digital citizenship?
15 May 2020
[Paris local time]
15:00 – 15:10 Introduction by Mr. Castro Wesamba, OSAPG (Chair) and Mr. Olunufesi Suraj (co-Chair)
15:10 – 16:00 Digital conundrum – what are the key competencies for ‘responsible’ digital citizenship?
• Distinguishing the idea of ‘responsible citizenship’ from that of ‘responsible digital citizenship’ and
identifying key competencies required for the latter.
[Please ensure that the cross-cutting themes of online hate speech, media and information literacy, as
well as gender and youth dimensions are covered in your discussion.]
24
Working Group 3: Tackling the issue – how can we develop effective formal and non-formal education
policies and practice?
The aim of this working group is to explore possible strategies, education policies, practices and pedagogies – both in formal
and non-formal settings – that Member States have at their disposal or can develop to address and counter hate speech. Such
strategies may have implications for other relevant public services, including training for police. The objective is to identify what
works and, more importantly, what does not work, with a view to better inform Members States on how to tackle hate speech.
Working Group 3: Tackling the issue – how can we develop effective education policies
and practices?
18 May 2020
[Paris local time]
14:00 – 14:10 Introduction by Ms Cecilia Barbieri, UNESCO (Chair) and Mr Vivek Venkatesh (Co-Chair)
14:10 – 15:00 Tackling the issue – how can we develop effective education policies and practices?
• Explore possible strategies, education policies, practices and pedagogies that Member States
can develop to address and counter hate speech.
[Please ensure that the cross-cutting themes of online hate speech, media and information literacy,
as well as gender and youth dimensions are covered in your discussion.]
25
Appendix 2. Resources
The references below were identified by experts during and after the meeting. These references
are compiled under seven different categories:
1. Legal Instruments,
2. General Policies and Guidelines,
3. Education Related Policies and Guidelines,
4. Counter-Hate Initiatives and Programmes,
5. Educational Resources,
6. Academic References, and
7. Media Resources.
1. Legal Instruments The Rabat Plan of Action. Prohibition of advocacy of national,

racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to
Camden Principles on Freedom of expression and Equality.
discrimination, hostility or violence. Available at: https://
Developed by ARTICLE 19, the principles assert the
www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomReligion/Pages/
affirmative relationship between freedom of expression,
RabatPlanOfAction.aspx [accessed 4 September 2020]
equality and universality of human rights. Available at:
https://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/standards/the- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Proclaimed
camden-principles-on-freedom-of-expression-and-equality.pdf by the United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10
[accessed 4 September 2020] December 1948 (General Assembly resolution 217 A) as
a common standard of achievements for all peoples and
Convention on the Rights of the Child. The 1989 Convention
all nations. It sets out fundamental human rights to be
on the Rights of the Child is a treaty that recognizes specific
universally protected and has been translated into over 500
rights for children. Available at: https://www.unicef.ca/en/
languages. Available at: https://www.un.org/en/universal-
policy-advocacy-for-children/about-the-convention-on-the-
declaration-human-rights/ [accessed 4 September 2020]
rights-of-the-child?ea.tracking.id=20DIAQ01OTE&19DIAQ02OT
E=&gclid=CjwKCAjwqpP2BRBTEiwAfpiD-3DGZ1yE8mPYSlP6ez The Council of Europe Against Online Hate Speech: Conundrums
HuBkTsW1FKG51KkUR2_MCv6yAGI707ufBXahoC_EsQAvD_Bwe and Challenges. Report, Doc. No. MCM (2013)015, from the
[accessed 4 September 2020] Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for
Media and Information Society, ‘Freedom of expression
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
and Democracy in the Digital Age: Opportunities, Rights,
Racial Discrimination. United Nations convention committing
Responsibilities’, Belgrade, 7-8 November 2013. Available at:
all members to the elimination of racial discrimination.
https://www.ivir.nl/publicaties/download/Expert_paper_hate_
Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/
speech.pdf [accessed 4 September 2020]
pages/cerd.aspx [accessed 4 September 2020]
The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Treaty
Crime of Genocide. Human rights treaty adopted by the
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on
United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948. All
December 1966 to respect the civil and political rights
participating countries are advised to prevent and punish
of individuals. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/en/
genocide actions. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/
professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx [accessed 4 September
ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CrimeOfGenocide.aspx[accessed 4
2020]
September 2020]
26
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Treaty Tackling Hate. This briefing explores how States and other
that established the International Criminal Court. Available stakeholders should respond to rising levels of intolerance
at: https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/documents/rs-eng. and hate in societies in all parts of the world, by acting on
pdf [accessed 4 September 2020] UN standards to promote inclusion, diversity and pluralism.
Available at: https://www.article19.org/resources/tackling-hate-
Understanding the International Criminal Court (ICC). The
action-un-standards-promote-inclusion-diversity-pluralism/
establishment of the International Criminal Court for the
[accessed 4 September 2020]
prosecution of the perpetrators of the most serious crimes
committed in Member States territories or by their nationals. UNESCO Countering Online Hate Speech. Provides a global
Available at: https://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/PIDS/publications/ overview of the dynamics characterizing hate speech online
UICCEng.pdf [accessed 4 September 2020] and measures to counteract and mitigate it. Available
at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000233231
United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech. The
strategy recognizes that over the past 75 years, hate speech
has been a precursor to atrocity crimes, including genocide, UNESCO School for Judges: Lessons in freedom of information
from Rwanda to Bosnia to Cambodia. Available at: https:// and expression from and for Latin America’s courtrooms.
www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/hate-speech-strategy. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/
shtml [accessed 4 September 2020] pf0000263857 [accessed 4 September 2020]
UNESCO Legal Standards on Freedom of Expression. A toolkit

for the judiciary in Africa. Available at: https://unesdoc. 3. Education related policies & guidelines
unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366340.locale=en [accessed 4
Addressing Antisemitism Through Education: Guidelines for
September 2020]
Policymakers. UN guidance on combating antisemitism
UNESCO Caja de herramientas para escuelas judiciales both for policy-makers and teachers, including UNESCO’s
iberoamericanas. Formación de formadores en libertad principles on tolerance, given rising homophobia and
de expresión, acceso a la información pública y seguridad xenophobia. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/
de periodistas. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000263702 [accessed 4 September 2020]
ark:/48223/pf0000251593 [accessed 4 September 2020]
The Belgrade Recommendations on Draft Global Standards
User Rights. Council of Europe resources related to human for Media and Information Literacy Curricula Guidelines.
rights for internet users. Available at: https://www.coe.int/ Recommendations on draft global standards for media and
en/web/freedom-expression/internet-users-rights [accessed 4 information literacy curricula guidelines. Available at: https://
September 2020] en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/belgrade_recommendations_
on_draft_global_standards_for_mil_curricula_guidelines_12_
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. An international november.pdf [accessed 4 September 2020]
agreement governing treaties between states. Available
at: https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20 Education 2030 Framework for Action. Incheon Declaration
1155/volume-1155-I-18232-English.pdf [accessed 4 September and Framework for Action for the implementation
2020] of Sustainable Development Goal 4. Available at: https://
www.sdg4education2030.org/education-2030-framework-
action-unesco-2015 [accessed 4 September 2020]
2. General policies & guidelines Related to hate
speech and freedom of expression Education about the Holocaust and Genocide. Education about
the Holocaust and genocide is part of UNESCO’s efforts to
Faith for Rights. A framework for cross-disciplinary reflection
promote Global Citizenship Education (GCED), a priority of
and action on the connections between religions and human
the Education 2030 Agenda. Available at: https://en.unesco.
rights. Available at: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Press/
org/themes/holocaust-genocide-education [accessed 4
Faith4Rights.pdf [accessed 4 September 2020]
September 2020]
Side-Stepping Rights. In this policy brief, ARTICLE 19 examines
Global Citizenship Education: A Guide for Policymakers.
the compliance of dominant social media platforms with
Published by the Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for
international freedom of expression standards and gives
International Understanding (APCEIU) to assist UNESCO
practical recommendations on what companies should do
Member States to integrate and strengthen GCED in their
to demonstrate their commitment to protecting freedom of
national education policies and further achieve Sustainable
expression. Available at: https://www.article19.org/resources/
Development Goals Target 4.7. Available at: http://www.
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unescoapceiu.org/board/bbs/board.php?bo_table=m412&wr_
4 September 2020]
id=87&page=2 [accessed 4 September 2020]
27
Global Citizenship Education and the Rise of Nationalist 4. Counter-hate initiatives & programmes
Perspectives: Reflections and Possible Ways Forward. This
document seeks to provide clarification on evidence of Anti-Defamation League. A leading anti-hate organization
the rise of nationalist perspectives and its causes, and to and a global leader in exposing extremism and delivering
lay out how GCED is challenged by this phenomenon. It anti-bias education, and a leading organization in training
recommends ways forward for the work of UNESCO and law enforcement. Available at: https://www.adl.org/ [accessed
other education stakeholders promoting GCED. Available 4 September 2020]
at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265414 Connect Futures. An organization that works with young
[accessed 4 September 2020] people, practitioners and communities in order to prevent
Preventing Violent Extremism Through Education: A Guide extremism and serious violence. Available at: https://www.
for Policy-Makers. This Guide offers technical guidance connectfutures.org/ [accessed 4 September 2020]
for education professionals (policy-makers, teachers Dangerous Speech. An in-depth exploration of dangerous
and various education stakeholders) on how to address speech and how to identify it, dangerous speech on the
concrete challenges posed by violent extremism within internet, and promising efforts to reduce the harmful effects
societies. Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ of speech. Available at: https://dangerousspeech.org/about-
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Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture. The European Wergeland Centre. A resource centre on
An instrument from The Council of Europe to inspire education for intercultural understanding, human rights
approaches to teaching competences for democratic and democratic citizenship. Available at: https://theewc.org/
culture. Available at: https://rm.coe.int/prems-008318-gbr- [accessed 4 September 2020]
2508-reference-framework-of-competences-vol-1-8573-
co/16807bc66c [accessed 4 September 2020] Global Kids Online Initiative. An international research project
that aims to generate and sustain a rigorous cross-national
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4). The goal is to ensure evidence base about children’s use of the internet by creating
inclusive and equitable quality education and promote a global network of researchers and experts. Available at:
lifelong learning opportunities for all. Available at: https:// http://globalkidsonline.net/about/ [accessed 4 September
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Futures of Education. A global initiative to reimagine
UNESCO Convention Against Discrimination in Education 1960. how knowledge and learning can shape the future of
The UNESCO General Conference, meeting in Paris from 14 humanity and the planet. Available at: https://en.unesco.org/
November to 15 December 1960 at its eleventh session, futuresofeducation/initiative [accessed 4 September 2020]
affirmed that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
asserts the principle of non-discrimination and proclaims Living with Controversy and Teaching Controversial Issues
that every person has the right to education. Available at: Through Human Rights Education. A Council of Europe
http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=12949&URL_ professional development programme for teachers which
DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html [accessed 4 is designed to support and promote the teaching of
September 2020] controversial issues in schools in Europe. Available at: https://
theewc.org/resources/living-with-controversy-teaching-
UNESCO Target 4.7. The target is to ensure all learners acquire controversial-issues-through-education-for-democratic-
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development, including among others through education for 2020]
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and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of Institute partnership dedicated to the well-being of children
cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable made vulnerable by the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Sub-Saharan
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education-outcome-document-first-meeting-international
28
Soliya.net. Initiative that combines the power of interactive LGBTQI Inclusive Education Report. Provides information about
technology and the science of dialogue to offer proven cross- the concrete measures that all Council of Europe Members
cultural exchange and learning opportunities. Available at: States (as well as Belarus and Kosovo) have taken to ensure
www.soliya.net [accessed 4 September 2020] inclusive education and to tackle discrimination on the
grounds of actual or perceived sexual orientation, gender
Stop Funding Hate Campaign. Campaign that takes on divisive
identity and expression, and variations in sex characteristics.
media hate campaigns by persuading advertisers to pull their
Produced by IGLYO (the International Lesbian, Gay,
support. Available at: https://stopfundinghate.info/ [accessed
Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Intersex Youth & Student
4 September 2020]
Organisation). 2018. Available at: https://www.education-
Taboo Talk. A real-life platform for people to come together index.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Education_Report_
and talk about pertinent issues in a brave space with trained April_2018-4.pdf [accessed 4 September 2020]
facilitators. Available at: https://www.amust.com.au/2017/01/
Managing Controversy: Developing a Strategy for Handling
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Controversy and Teaching Controversial Issues in Schools. A
self-reflection tool for school leaders and senior managers by
5. Educational resources The European Wergeland Centre. Available at: https://theewc.
org/resources/managing-controversy/ [accessed 4 September
Bookmarks/Connexions. A manual for combating hate speech
2020]
through human rights education. Available at: https://www.
coe.int/en/web/no-hate-campaign/bookmarks-connexions Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers.
[accessed 4 September 2020] UNESCO’s MIL curriculum and competency framework.
Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/
Digital Citizenship Education Handbook. From the Council of
pf0000192971 [accessed 4 September 2020]
Europe, the handbook is designed to help educators and
other interested adults to understand and deal with digital MIL CLICKS. Media and Information Literacy: Critical-thinking,
citizenship education. Available at: https://theewc.org/ Creativity, Literacy, Intercultural, Citizenship, Knowledge and
resources/digital-citizenship-education-handbook/ [accessed 4 Sustainability. A social media initiative on MIL competencies.
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September 2020]
‘Hate Speech’ Explained: A Toolkit. Developed by ARTICLE 19,
this toolkit provides a guide to identifying ‘hate speech’ and From Hate to Hope: Building Understanding and Resilience. A
how to effectively counter it, while protecting the rights to trilingual, interactive, non-credit massive open online course
freedom of expression and equality. Available at: https:// (MOOC) developed by the UNESCO Chair on the Prevention
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Historical Thinking Matters. A US history website that teaches
students how to read primary sources critically and how No Hate Speech Youth Campaign’s Compendium of Resources.
to critique and construct historical narratives. Available at: A total of 270 resources on how to combat hate speech.
http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/ [accessed 4 September Available at: https://www.coe.int/en/web/no-hate-campaign/
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Insights from Formers. A project that draws from the voices SELFIE. Self-reflection on Effective Learning by Fostering
of those who have engaged in hatred, such as former the use of Innovative Educational Technologies is a tool
extremists, who share their experiences and thoughts designed to help schools embed digital technologies into
on how to build resilience against radicalization leading teaching, learning and student assessment. It highlights
to violent extremism and hatred. Developed by Project what is working well, where improvement is needed and
SOMEONE. Available at: https://projectsomeone.ca/ what the priorities should be. Available at: https://ec.europa.
insightsfromformers [accessed 4 September 2020] eu/education/schools-go-digital/about-selfie_en [accessed 4
September 2020]
We CAN! /Alternatives. Manual of communicative and

educational approaches and tools for youth and other
human rights activists to develop their own counter and
alternative narratives to hate speech. Available at: https://
www.coe.int/en/web/no-hate-campaign/we-can-alternatives
29
6. Academic references Verma, R. & Apple. M (2020) Disrupting Hate: Teacher Activists,
Democracy and Global Pedagogies of Interruption. New York
Learn History (When It’s Already on Your Phone). Book about Routledge (Forthcoming in press)
how to teach history more effectively and help students
learn how to skilfully navigate competing and often extreme
claims about the past and present. Available at: https://books. 7. Media resources
google.fr/books?id=PIZuDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&d- Action on UN Standards to Tackle Hate. Video. Available at:
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Comment sauver la présomption d’innocence sur Internet?
Graafaland, Julie Hooft (2018). New Technologies and Article in Le Point about protecting the presumption of
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participation, parent involvement and teacher training
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hateful-content-online-3/ [accessed 4 September 2020]
30
(This list is arranged in alphabetical order)
Mr Ahmed Reid, Chairperson of the Working Group of Experts on people of African descent.
Mr Ahmed Shaheed, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief.
Mr Alexander Hinton, Professor of Anthropology and Global Affairs at Rutgers University, Director of the Center for the
Study of Genocide and Human Rights, and UNESCO Chair on Genocide Prevention.
Ms Ana Perona-Fjeldstad, Director of the European Wergeland Centre.
Mr Dan Shefet, Lawyer, Association for Accountability and Internet Democracy (AAID) & Cabinet Shefet.
Mr Ibrahim Salama, Chief of Human Rights Treaties Branch, OHCHR.
Ms Katharina von Schnurbein, European Coordinator on combating anti-Semitism, European Commission.
Mr Leon Saltiel, Representative at UN Geneva and UNESCO, and Coordinator on countering antisemitism for the World
Jewish Congress.
Ms Lynn Davis, Emeritus Professor of International Education, University of Birmingham.
Ms Marija Vasileva-Blazev, Special Advisor, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth.
Ms Mona Rishmawi, Chief of the Rule of Law, Equality and Non-Discrimination, OHCHR.
Ms Naglaa Elemary, Professor of Media Studies, British University in Egypt.
Mr Nicholas Ceolin, Communication Lead, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth.
Mr Olunusesi Suraj, Coordinator, UNESCO University Network on Media and Information Literacy & Intercultural
Dialogue, Senior Lecturer, Department of Mass Communication, Faculty of Social Science, University of Lagos.
Mr Omar Costilla Reyes, Postdoctoral research fellow at MIT on Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence.
Ms Patricia Melendez, Head of Civic Space, ARTICLE 19.
Mr Peder Nustad, Head of Education, Center for Holocaust and Minorities Studies.
Mr Rubén Ávila, Education and Research Officer, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer & Intersex
Youth and Student Organisation (IGLYO).
Ms Susan Benesch, Founder and Director, Dangerous Speech Project and Faculty Associate, Berkman Klein Center for
Internet and Society at Harvard University.
Mr Vernor Muñoz Villalobos, Head of Policy and Advocacy, Global Campaign for Education and Former Special
Rapporteur on the Right to Education.
Ms Victoria Ibiwoye, Youth Representative on the SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee.
Mr Vivek Venkatesh, UNESCO Chair in the Prevention of radicalization and violent extremism and Director, Centre for the
Study of Learning and Performance.
Ms Yangsook Lee, Deputy Head, Institute of Global Citizenship Education, Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for
International Understanding (APCEIU).
31
Addressing and countering hate speech is a multi-layered endeavour, which includes tackling
its root causes and drivers, preventing it from translating into violence and dealing with its
wider societal consequences.
Within the framework of the Education 2030 Agenda, and more specifically target 4.7 of
Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4), as well as the United Nations Strategy and Plan of
Action on Hate Speech – which places specific emphasis on the role of education as a tool for
addressing hate speech – UNESCO and the United Nations Office on the Prevention of Genocide
and the Responsibility to Protect (OSAPG) convened a series of virtual meetings of experts from
13 to 18 May 2020. This report highlights some of the key discussion areas and unpacks the role
of education as a preventive tool. It argues that strengthening educational responses to build
the resilience of learners to exclusionary rhetoric and hate speech is paramount for sustainable
development and peace for all.
Stay in touch
Section of Education https://on.unesco.org/
globalconvention
UNESCO
7, place de Fontenoy @unesco
75352 Paris, France
@unesco
Sustainable
Development
Goals

Education As A Tool For Prevention Addressing and Countering Hate Speech

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Education As A Tool For Prevention Addressing and Countering Hate Speech

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Education as a tool for

prevention: Addressing and

Cover photos: David Carillet/Shutterstock.com

Designed and printed by UNESCO

ED-2021/WS/3 - CLD 93.21

Introduction and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Part I. Decoding the phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Part II. Addressing citizenship in the digital era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Part III. Tackling the Issue from an educational perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Part IV. Actionable recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Introduction and background

In an ever more complex and interconnected world that generates unprecedented

So what can be done? highlights the importance of education (through global

28 See also UNESCO Declaration of Principles on Tolerance (1995): http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13175&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

Harnessing the power of youth

Appendix 1. Meeting agenda

Appendix 2. List of references by experts

Appendix 3. List of experts

Appendix 1. Meeting agenda

Education as a tool for prevention:

Agenda – Expert meeting

14:40 – 14:55 Connecting to online platform Microsoft Teams

15:00 – 15:05 Welcome and Introduction by Chair

15:05 – 15:20 Opening remarks

15:20 – 16:50 Framing the discussion

16:50 – 17:00 Closing remarks

17:00 – 17:10 Next Steps

WORKING GROUPS SESSIONS

Working Group 1: Understanding the issue – what is hate speech,

1. Legal Instruments The Rabat Plan of Action. Prohibition of advocacy of national,

UNESCO Legal Standards on Freedom of Expression. A toolkit

We CAN! /Alternatives. Manual of communicative and

Appendix 3. List of experts

(This list is arranged in alphabetical order)

Mr Ahmed Shaheed, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief.

Ms Ana Perona-Fjeldstad, Director of the European Wergeland Centre.

Mr Ibrahim Salama, Chief of Human Rights Treaties Branch, OHCHR.

Ms Katharina von Schnurbein, European Coordinator on combating anti-Semitism, European Commission.

Ms Lynn Davis, Emeritus Professor of International Education, University of Birmingham.

Ms Marija Vasileva-Blazev, Special Advisor, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth.

Ms Naglaa Elemary, Professor of Media Studies, British University in Egypt.

Mr Nicholas Ceolin, Communication Lead, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Youth.

Ms Patricia Melendez, Head of Civic Space, ARTICLE 19.

Ms Victoria Ibiwoye, Youth Representative on the SDG-Education 2030 Steering Committee.

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