TYPOLOGY OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE

CONTRASTED LANGUAGES
1. Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of English
and Ukrainian Words.
2. Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages.
3. Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech.
4. Morphological Categories of the Noun.
Literature
1. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского
языков / Аракин В.Д. – Л. : Просвещение, 1989. – 259 с.
2. Жлуктенко Ю.О. Порівняльна граматика англійської та української
мов / Жлуктенко Ю.О. – К., 1960. – 160 с.
3. Корунець І.В. Порівняльна типологія англійської та української
мов / Корунець І.В. – Вінниця : Нова Книга, 2003. – 464 с.
4. Ющук І.П. Українська мова / Ющук І.П. – К. : Либідь, 2004. – 640 с.
1. Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the Morphemic Structure of
English and Ukrainian Words
The morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages are
characterised by a considerable number of isomorphic as well as of several
allomorphic features. The isomorphic features are due to the common Indo-European
origin of the two languages, while allomorphisms have been acquired by English and
Ukrainian in the course of their historical development and functioning as
independent national languages.
The main typological constants that make the object of contrasting at the
morphological level of English and Ukrainian are three. These are
1) the morpheme;
2) the parts of speech;
3) their morphological categories.
The principal typological constant of the morphological level is, of course, the
morpheme which is endowed in both contrasted languages with some minimal
meaning. As to its structure, the morpheme may be
a) simple (one-phoneme): a-, -s, -t (alike, says, burnt) in English and -a, -u,
-у, з-, c-, etc. in Ukrainian (весна, хати, беру, з'їсти, сховати) or
b) compound (-ment, -hood, -ward, -ство, -ський, -цький) as in
management, brotherhood, seaward, суспільство, сільський, ткацький. The
complexity of its nature, structure and meaning makes the morpheme one of the main
objects of contrastive study at the morphological level. Moreover, the morpheme in
English and Ukrainian has some peculiar features, which are characteristic of each of
these contrasted languages.
The morpheme is a minimal meaningful unit and it can be in the contrasted
languages either free or bound. Free or root morphemes are lexically and
functionally not dependent on other morphemes. They may be regular words (cf.
boy, day, he, four, день, кінь, річ, він, три) or they may constitute the lexical core of
a word. Eg.: boyhood, daily, fourth, денна, нічний, тричі, etc. In other words, root
morphemes in English, Ukrainian and other languages are not dependent on other
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morphemes in a word. Bound morphemes, on the other hand, can’t function
independently. Cf.: days, spoken, fourteen, overcome, government, дивно, розумом,
дні, нашим), etc. Bound morphemes like -s, -en, - teen, over-, -ment, -о, -ом, -і, ~им
in either of the two languages can’t exist independently, i.e. they are not free but
always dependent on roots or stems of their words.
Root morphemes. Due to its historical development, English has also a much
larger number of regular root morphemes, than Ukrainian. Free root-morphemed
words, though fewer in Ukrainian, are still represented in all lexico-morphological
classes as nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc. of both contrasted languages. Cf. arm, pen,
boy, work, do, red, he, she, it, five, this, ten, here, far, etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: ніс,
лоб, чуб, ти, варт, хто, три, тут, де, він, etc.
Free root morphemes in English and Ukrainian can also be functionals: but, till,
on, not, through, just (a moment), мов, геть, так, певне, може, ох, дзень, гав, не,
ні, від, на, під, etc.
Affixal morphemes in the contrasted languages split into
a) Derivational morphemes which are in English and Ukrainian mainly suffixes
and sometimes also prefixes. Among the noun-indicating/form-ing suffixes in
English are -асу, -ance, -ion, -dom, -er, -ess, -hood, -ics, -ism, -ity, -ment, -ness, -
ship, -ty and others. Cf. democracy, alliance, delegation, freedom, writer, falsehood,
politics, feudalism, government, management, fitness, likeness, penmanship,
friendship, loyalty, etc. The adjective-indicating suffixes are: -able, -al, -ial, -fold, -
ful, -ic, -ile, -ish, -less, -ous, -some, -ward, -y and some others. Cf. capable, formal,
presidential, manifold, grateful, laconic, futile, selfish, meaningless, dangerous,
tiresome, eastward, happy, silly, etc. The verb-indicating suffixes are -ate, -en, -esce,
-ify, -ise. Cf. negotiate, facilitate, blacken, shorten, acquiesce, beautify, purify,
demobilise, organise. The adverb-indicating suffixes are -ly, -wards, -ward, -ways:
quickly, slowly, southward/southwards, sideways, etc.
Ukrainian word-forming suffixes are more numerous. Thus, masculine gender
suffixes of nouns in Ukrainian are: -ник, -івник, -їльник, -ч, -ік/-їк, -ець/-єць, -
ар/-яр, -ир, -ист, -іст, -тель, -аль and others. Eg.: медик, господарник, рахівник,
керманич, кравець, хімік, прозаїк, боєць, шахтар, муляр, бригадир, збирач, діяч,
окуліст, вихователь, скрипаль, etc.
Suffixes of feminine gender in Ukrainian usually follow the masculine gender
suffix in the noun stem, the most frequent of the former being -к/а/, -иц/я/, -ес/а/, -
ух/а/, -ш/а/, -івн/а/, etc. Cf. виховат-ель-к-а, рад-ист-к-а, спів-ан-к-а, уч-ен-иц-я,
ткач-их-а, поет-ес-а, коваль-івн-а, морг-ух-а, директ-ор-ш-а, Семенів-на. The
corresponding English suffixes (-or, -ess, -me, -rix, -ine, and -ette) identify the
masculine and feminine sex and not the grammatical gender. Cf. actor, emperor,
actress, poetess, directrix, emperatrix, heroine, suffragette. English nouns with the
so-called gender suffixes do not differ functionally from other nouns which have no
such suffixes. Eg: The actor/actress sang and The bird sang. Ukrainian gender nouns,
however, always require corresponding gender forms in attributes and predicates.
Eg.: молодий артист співав. Гарна артистка співала. Ранкове небо сіріло. Малі
пташки співали, чорний ворон сидів, сива ворона сиділа, сіре котеня нявкало.
Ukrainian suffixes can form nouns of the feminine gender denoting non-human
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beings as animals, birds, insects, as well as some class nouns, abstract and collective
nouns, for example: сніг-ур-к-а, переп-іл-к-а, цвірк-ун-к-а, паруб-от-а, рід-н-я,
бор-н-я, біган-ин-а, бороть-6-а, сприт-ність, свіж-ин-а, балака-ни-на.
Suffixes of the neuter gender are mostly used in Ukrainian to identify abstract
and collective nouns and names of materials, babies, cubs, nurslings, as in the
following nouns: жіно-цтв-о, учитель-ств-о, нероб-ств-о, бади-лл-я, заси-лл-я,
збі-жж-я, кло-чч-я, смі-тт-я, горі-нн-я, велі-нн-я, терп-інн-я.
Prefixes in the contrasted languages modify the lexical meaning of the word.
They may sometimes change even the lexico-grammatical nature of the derivative
word. As for example:
English Nouns: co-existence, enclosure, insight, prorector. Verbs: avert,
adjoin, bewrap, subordinate. Adjectives: anomalous, eccentric, non-standard, unable.
Statives: ablaze, asleep. Adverbs: together. Prepositions: below. Conjunctions:
because, unless, until.
Ukrainian: безмір, віддаль, зав'язь, підвид, праліс; вбігати, накричати,
обійти, обмити, підвести; антивоєнний, надмірний; вголос, заміж, по-нашому,
по-німецьки, поміж, понад; оскільки, позаяк, прихід, походеньки, розбити,
переміряти, якнайкраще, щонайшвидше, etc.
Word-forming prefixes pertain mostly to the English language where they can
form different parts of speech.
Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages express different
morphological categories. The number of genuine English inflexions today is only 14
to 16. They are noun inflexions, for example: -s (-es), -en, -ren (boys, watches, oxen,
children); inflexions of the comparative and the superlative degrees of qualitative
adjectives: -er, -est (bigger, biggest); the inflexions of absolute possessive pronouns:
-s, -e: (hers, ours, yours, mine).
Apart from the genuine English inflexional morphemes there exist some
foreign inflexions borrowed and used with nouns of Latin, Greek and French origin
only. Among them are Latin inflexions -um - -a (datum — data, etc.); the few pairs
of Greek inflexional oppositions in singular and plural are the following: -is --es
(analysis — analyses, basis — bases).
The number of inflexions in Ukrainian is great since every notional part of
speech has a variety of endings. The endings express number, case and gender of
nominal parts of speech and tense, aspect, person, number, voice and mood forms of
verbs. For example: Петра, Петрові, йому, всіма; червоний - червоного -
червоному – червоним.
Because of the difference in the structural nature of the contrasted languages,
their paradigms of the same notionals naturally differ, the Ukrainian paradigms being
much richer than the English ones.
Some morphological relations and categories in English and Ukrainian (though
much rarer) are expressed with the help of analytical means — prepositions,
analytical word forms, and particles. Analytically expressed are also the degrees of
comparison of some adjectives and adverbs (cf. more calm, most calm; more (most)
interesting/important; more (most) quickly (slowly), etc. In Ukrainian the
construction is less frequently used (cf. більш/менш важливий, найбільш/найменш
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важливий; більш/менш важливо, найбільш/ найменш важливо, більш/найбільш
економна, etc.)
The future tense in Ukrainian can also be expressed analytically though it is
closely connected with the modal meaning of certainty (cf. я буду на зборах, ми
будемо боротися).
Only analytical in form is the expression of the passive voice in English,
whereas in Ukrainian the present passive has generally a synthetic form, like the past
and future passive which can also have a synthetic form of expression; cf. the plant is
being built, the plant was being built, the plant will have been built. And in
Ukrainian: завод будується (будувався), завод будуватиметься, завод буде
будуватися, завод був/буде збудований, though the future form may also be
збудується (коли цей завод збудується).
Common/isomorphic in the contrasted languages are also some other
morphological phenomena of word-building nature. Among these are first of all to
be mentioned such phenomena as agglutination and suppletivity.
Agglutination at the morphological level represents a mechanical adding of
one or more affixal morphemes in pre-position, post-position or in interposition to the
root morpheme.
In present-day English there exists a larger number of words belonging to
different parts of speech and formed by agglutinating prefixes; for example, the
verbs: assure, co-exist, bedim; adjectives: post-war, pre-war; adverbs and
prepositions: inside, before, afterwards, unwell, etc.
Prepositive agglutinators in Ukrainian: жити — дожити — прожити —
пережити, спати — проспати (переспати), плакати — оплакати.
Post-positive agglutination is observed in both contrasted languages, being in
Ukrainian even more frequent than in English. All Ukrainian infinitives without
exception are formed by mechanical adding to the root the post-positive morphemes -
ти/-ть, -ся, -ки, -оньки, -тусі/-туні, eg: набити, пролити, змити, опрацювать,
злитися, спатки, їстки, питоньки, купці, спатусі/спатуні, etc. In English most of
the indefinite form infinitives are pure root-morphemed words (cf. come, live, love,
fly, sit, read, swim, warm). There are only some five verbal morphemes that are
agglutinated post-positively. These are -ate, -en, -esce, -ify, -ise, eg: create, blacken,
acquiesce, purify, civilise, etc. A notable difference in Ukrainian exists, however, in
the larger amount (up to four) of affixal preposed agglutinators added to the root
morpheme, eg: вхід, вихід, схід, ухил, недосвіт, недовиторг, вздовж, навкруг,
навздогін, недоперерозподілити.
Post-positive agglutination is often used to form nouns in both contrasted
languages as well. For example, in English: attendance, diary, freedom, employee,
etc. Similarly in Ukrainian: чужак, бідняк, дудaр, etc.
Isomorphic is also the post-posed agglutination of two affixal morphemes to a
stem. The stems thus formed can be of different lexico-grammatical nature:
thirteenth, foolishly, nationally, powerfully, down-wards.
Root morphemes in the contrasted languages can be agglutinated pre-posed and
post-posed simultaneously as in the English words disagreeableness. incorruptibility,
indisputableness, irresponsibility. incommunicableness. unrealistically. Or in
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Ukrainian: безвідповідальність, заробітчанин, нереалістично,
некомунікабельність, перешіптуватися, запобігливість, etc.
Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages are also mostly
agglutinated to the root or to the stem like other affixal morphemes. Cf. in English
nouns: arms, armies, children; in adjectives: longer, longest; in pronouns: hers,
mine; Similarly in Ukrainian: брати/косарі дерева, дівчата; зелений (зелена,
зелене, зелені), батьків, батьковим; п'ята (п'ятий, п'яте, п'яті), п'ятого; ваша
(вашій, ваше, ваші), вашого; маю, матиму, матимемо.
Suppletivity. As a means of grammatical expression suppletivity is observed
in words, word-forms and morphemes of all Indo-European languages. At the lexical
level it helps express, both in English and Ukrainian, sex distinctions, eg: boy -- girl,
bull - cow, man - woman, cock — hen, хлопець — дівчина, чоловік — жінка, півень
— курка, etc.
Suppletive forms of a verb paradigm can be used in English and Ukrainian to
express some morphological categories. The most striking in this respect is the verb
"to be" which has more forms to express different categorial meanings in English
than in Ukrainian. Thus, in English "am, is, are — was, were" which are respectively
the corresponding forms for tense (the Present and Past Indefinite), for number
(singular or plural) and for person.
The Ukrainian verb "бути" possesses only one suppletive form in present tense
— "є", which is used for all persons in singular and plural (cf. я є, ти є, ми є, всі є,
кожен є). But: Я був, ти була, ви буди, etc.
As to the suppletive forms of other notionals, they are of form-building, i. e. of
categorial nature expressing in the contrasted languages degrees of comparison in
some qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Cf. good — better — best, bad — worse —
worst and little — less — least. In Ukrainian: добрий — кращий — найкращий,
добрий - ліпший -найліпший, поганий — гірший — найгірший.
Common in English and Ukrainian are also almost all qualitative adverbs with
the suppletive forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: well — better —
best; badly — worse — worst; little — less — least; добре — краще — найкраще;
погано — гірше — найгірше; зле — гірше — найгірше; гарно — краще —
найкраще.

2. Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages

The identification of the parts of speech in the contrasted languages is not
always an easy matter though the main subdivision of words into notionals and
functionals seems to be indisputable. There are several classifications:
C. Fries for example, suggested a purely functional approach to the
classification of English words. He singled out class 1 - words (those performing the
function of the subject), class 2- words (those performing the function of the
predicate), class 3 - words (adjectivals), i. e. attributives, and class 4 - are were in
Fries' classification adverbial function words or word-groups. C. Fries tried to avoid
even mentioning the usual term of "parts of speech". The term is also avoided by this
grammarian in his classification of "function words", which are allotted to 15
different groups and include also some pronouns, adverbs and verbs.
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 C. T. Hockett distinguishes in English "parts of speech" and "classes of
words". Among the notionals three pure "classes of words" (or regular parts of
speech) are distinguished: "class N words", "class V words" and "class A words".
These "classes" are mainly singled out with regard to the morphological properties of
these notionals. In other words, they may follow either the noun or the verb and an
adjective pattern.
Hence, the grammarian singled out apart from the N, A, V classes of words
some double and triple wordstem classes. These are, for example, the NA class,
represented by many words, such as American, human, innocent, private, savage,
sweet, which may function both as nouns and adjectives (cf. American scientists, an
American). The NV class are words which can respectively have the meaning and
perform the function of the noun and verb (cf. a book, to book smth.). The AV class
represents words which can show the adjective and the verb pattern (cf. clean hands,
to clean the room).
The variability of some English notionals, which can often shift from one part
of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form/structure is
certainly the main typological (allomorphic) difference pertaining to the nature of
some notional words as compared to the corresponding classes of words in Ukrainian.
There is much common ground for a typological contrasting of the functional
parts of speech (conjunctions (and, but, or, if, either - or, neither - nor, etc.),
prepositions (at, in, on, under), interjections (ah, oh, alas, humph), and some particles
(not, to). Most of these functional have absolute semantic and functional equivalents
in Ukrainian. For example: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or,
чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As a result, these and
a number of other functionals in English and Ukrainian are typologically relevant, i.
e. isomorphic, in other words common.
It must be pointed out, however, that some parts of speech both among the
notionals and among the semi-notionals/functionals are still disputable in the
contrasted languages.
On the ground of identical or similar semantic, morphological/formal and
syntactic/functional properties pertaining to common lexico-grammatical classes of
words, the number of notional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian may be
considered (from the typological point of view) all in all the same - seven. Namely:
noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, stative - іменник, прикметник,
займенник, числівник, дієслово, прислівник, слова категорії стану.
As to the functionals (semi-notional words) their number in the contrasted
languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is
missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions,
prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in
English), сполучники, прийменники, модальні слова та вирази, частки, вигуки.

3. Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech

The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by a
common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness". This meaning
(thingness) finds its realisation not only in concrete nouns (book, boy, house, tree,
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fish, meat, etc.) but also in abstract nouns (love, hatefulness, business, information,
etc.). Hence, typologically isomorphic are also the main paradigmatic classes of
nouns, which are two: 1) common nouns and 2) proper names.
Each of these two main classes of nouns is sub-categorised in English and
Ukrainian into several minor groups which can be found below
Common nouns: Concrete nouns, Abstract nouns, Collective nouns, Names of
materials, Class nouns.
The Main Classes of Proper Names: Names/Nicknames of people(s),
nationals, Family names, Geographical names, Names of companies, newspapers,
journals, etc.
Isomorphism is equally observed in the existence of some other grammatically
and typologically relevant groups of nouns in English and Ukrainian. Among these
are, first of all, life nouns (boy, girl, cat, cock, goat, wolf — хлопець, дівчина, кіт,
півень, цап, вовк); inanimate nouns (atom, bell, door, stone — атом, дзвін, двері,
шлях); count nouns (pen, star, tree, wall — ручка, зірка, дерево, стіна), and
noncount nouns (air, honesty, slavery — повітря, чесність, рабство), etc. There is
some allomorphism, however, in the realisation of the meaning (and category) of
number and quantity in some groups of nouns in the contrasted languages.
Among these are some collective nouns, which may be used in English both in
singular and in plural Cf: My family is small — My family are early risers. Hence, in
plural these collective nouns become nouns of multitude, as militia, police, cattle,
having always, however, a singular meaning in Ukrainian (cf. вся родина зійшлася,
поліція/міліція слідкує за порядком, etc.).
The most characteristic divergent feature of English nouns as compared with
the Ukrainian ones is their usually indistinct lexico-grammatical nature at language
level. As a result, determiners (usually the definite or the indefinite article or
demonstrative pronouns) are used to identify these nouns: the bear, the round of talks,
that round of talks. Besides, English nouns are often determined by the -'s/-s- element
(cf. today's weather, London's population, etc.).
From the morphological side, the noun is characterised in the contrasted
languages by the existence of a system of suffixes and prefixes performing, as a rule,
isomorphic functions in both contrasted languages. These suffixes fall into several
common in English and Ukrainian subgroups. Among them are traditionally
distinguished productive and unproductive suffixes, native and borrowed (or
international) suffixes, as well as different semantic groups of suffixes which, when
added to various roots or stems, may form agent nouns.
4. Morphological Categories of the Noun
The only morphological category of the noun which is almost always marked
in present-day English is that of number. Like in Ukrainian, it is mostly realised
synthetically, i.e. through zero and marked inflexions respectively. Eg: child —
children, ox — oxen, and corresponding bushes, watches, countries, An irregularity
can be observed in the position of the English inflexion -s in various compounds, eg:,
forget-me-not = forget-me-nots, merry-go-round = merry-go-rounds, passer-by =
passers-by.
Completely allomorphic, i.e. pertained only to the English language is the
7
formation of plural number by way of sound interchange: foot — feet, tooth — teeth,
goose — geese; man — men.
Unlike English, Ukrainian number inflexions are partly predetermined by the
declension groups to which the nouns are allotted, and partly by the gender of nouns
and final consonant or vowel, which can respectively be hard, soft or mixed (sibilant).
The major allomorphic feature in the system of noun categories is the
existence in Ukrainian (as in Russian and Byelorussian) of dual number (двоїна),
which is often mixed up with the plural or replaced by it by many Ukrainians. The
nouns express dual number only in connection with the numeral adjuncts two, three
and four. This number is mostly indicated by stress which differs, as a rule, from that
of the plural form: верба - в'ерби but дві (три, чотири) верб'и; душа — 'душі but
дві (три, чотири) душі'. In some nouns the stress in plural and dual number forms
may coincide, eg: сповідь — сповіді — дві/три сповіді; борець - борц'і, два/три,
чотири борц'і.
Typologically isomorphic, on the other hand, is the existence in English and
Ukrainian of the classes of singularia and pluralia tantum nouns mostly expressing
quantity. The singularia tantum include some semantic groups of mainly common
nouns which rarely denote singular notions like
1) parts of the world: the North, the South, the East, the West, the North-West
the North-East (північ, південь, захід, схід, північний захід), etc. The great majority
of singularia tantum nouns are names of materials: iron, copper, snow, milk, bread;
срібло, золото, сніг, хліб, сіль, молоко, etc. These and other nouns in both
contrasted languages denote plurality of substances and things, whereas abstract
notions have a singular expression of number.
No complete coincidence can be observed in the semantic classes of the
pluralia tantum nouns in English and Ukrainian where common lexico-semantic
classes are not completely the same either. Completely coincide only nouns to the
semantic group of geographic names: Athens, the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the
Andes; Афіни/Атени, Нідерланди, Карпати, Анди, Бровари, Лубни, Суми, etc.
Nouns denoting remnants are only partly common too. They are: scraps,
leavings, remains (of food), siftings, sweepings; висівки, недопитки, перебірки,
одвійки, помиї, вишкрібки,недоїдки, etc.
Not always coinciding, however, are nouns denoting in English and Ukrainian
some abstract notions (contents, goings-on, means, manners, savings; злидні,
манери, надра, заощадження) and names of some games which are not always the
same in the contrasted languages either, eg: cards, billiards, drafts, darts, skittles
(карти, шахи, шашки, кеш). Among these are the nouns більярд and барак which
belong to common class nouns in Ukrainian.
The Category of Case and its Realisation in English and Ukrainian
Unlike the category of number, the category of case in present-day English has
always been disputable. Some grammarians found in present-day English two cases
(O. Jespersen, V. Yartseva, B. Rohovska, B. Khaimovich), others found in English
four cases (G. Curme, M. Deutschbein), and still other grammarians were inclined to
see in English five, six and more cases (J. Nesfield, F. Sonnenschein). The Russian
grammarian G. N. Vorontsova recognised no cases in English at all, since the -'s sign
8
she treated as a postpositive particle expressing possession. R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum
and co-authors speak of common and genitive cases (-'s genitive and of-genitive). As
to Ukrainian nouns they may have 6 or 7 marked singular and plural oppositions in
the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative case,
eg: хмара, хмари, хмарі, хмару, хмарою, (на) хмарі, хмаро (first decl.), vocative
case; or in plural: степи, степів, степам, степи, степам, степами, (у) степах,
степи (second decl., vocative case).
No identity exists in the contrasted languages in the expression of the category
of gender either and many languages make these distinctions different and unequal.
Thus, in Ukrainian, Russian, German and other languages there are three
grammatical genders — masculine, feminine, and neuter. In present-day English no
gender distinctions of the kind are possible.
The morphological category of gender and the objective (natural) category of
sex may also be indicated in Ukrainian by the following means:
a) by a marked inflexion in the nominative case (книжка, село, яйце, батько,
мати, сестра);
b) by the zero inflexion (дуб, час, ніч, річ, вість);
с) by suffixes only or by the root suffixes + endings (робітник, вівчар,
стрілець, орач, вчительк-а, робітниц-я, поетес-а, поетик-а);
d) by means of a modifying word: наше київське метро (кашне, кіно), цей
кабальєро, такий великий ґну, гарний поні, ця молода леді/дама, пані, etc.

In English nouns is the use of appositional pronouns and nouns to indicate the
sex of living beings as in boy-friend - girl-friend, man-servant — maid-servant,
woman/female novelist — man/male novelist,
When personified, English life and lifeless nouns may be referred to different
(sometimes quite unexpected genders). Thus, the wolf, the dog, the buffelo like the
tiger, the lion, the elephant or the eagle are referred to masculine gender.
Consequently, the wolf or the bear, or death is always he. All weaker, timid or sly
animals and birds are referred to the feminine gender. Hence, the cat, the fox or the
hare, the nightingale, or tomtit are each referred to feminine gender (she). The
names of vessels (boat, ship, steamer, cruiser) and vehicles (coach, car, carriage) are
usually associated with famine gender. So are the names of hotels and inns. The
countries are also mostly of famine gender.