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8 views12 pages

6 TH

Uploaded by

alokkumar216
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Plasticty

Two important observations concerning the above tension test are the following:
(1) after the onset of plastic deformation, the material will be seen to undergo
negligible volume change, that is, it is incompressible.
(2) the force-displacement curve is more or less the same regardless of the rate at
which the specimen is stretched (at least at moderate temperatures).

Cartesian tensor
In geometry and linear algebra, a Cartesian tensor uses an orthonormal
basis to represent a tensor in a Euclidean space in the form of components.
Converting a tensor's components from one such basis to another is done
through an orthogonal transformation.
The most familiar coordinate systems are the two-dimensional and
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems. Cartesian tensors may
be used with any Euclidean space, or more technically, any finite-dimensional
vector space over the field of real numbers that has an inner product.
The Compatibility Relations
Differentiating the first of 1.2.5 twice with respect to y , the second twice with respect to x and the third once each with respect to x and y yields

This compatibility condition is an equation which must be satisfied by the strains at all material particles.
Physical Meaning of the Compatibility Condition
When all material particles in a component deform, translate and rotate, they need to meet up again very much like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle
must fit together.

Strain gauge and rosette


A strain gauge is a device which is used to measure strain (deformation) on an object subjected to forces.
Strain can be measured using various types of devices classified depending upon their principle of operation. Some of them are as follows:
1. Mechanical type, 2. Optical type 3. Pneumatic type 4. Electrical type
Earlier, mechanical type of device such as extensometer or extension meter was used to measure strain by measuring change in length.
Photoelectric strain gauge was also introduced which uses a light beam to produce electric current corresponding to deformation.
The most commonly used strain gauge is an electrical resistance strain gauge
This strain gauge works on the principle that when a metallic wire type gauge is strained (here due to forces on object in contact), the resistance
of the wire will be changed due to changes in its length, diameter and resistivity. Resistance (R) = ρL/ A.
Where ρ is resistivity; L is length of wire; A is area of crossection of wire.
This change in resistance will be in proportion with the strain produced which can be easily measured using Wheatstone bridge.
Rectangular strain gauge rosette A rectangular strain rosette consists of three strain gauges arranged as follows:-
We know normal strain in any direction (θ) is given by εn = 1 2 (εx + εy) + 1 2 (εx – εy) cos 2θ + γxy 2 Sin 2θ where εx = normal strain at a point in
x-direction εy = normal strain at a point in y- direction γxy = shear strain at a point on x face in y direction So, normal strain at θ = 0°
Delta strain gauge rosette A delta strain gauge also consist of three strain gauges arranged as shown below.
εA = (εn)θ=0°, εB = (εn)θ=60° εc =, (εn)θ=120°
We know normal strain in any direction (θ) is given by εn = 1/2=(εx + εy) + 1/2 (εx – εy) cos 2θ + γxy/2 Sin 2θ So, normal strain at θ = 0°
Star strain gauge rosette This rosette consist of three strain gauges in three directions as shown below
εA = (εn)θ=0°, εB = (εn)θ=120, εc = (εn)θ=240°
We know normal strain in any direction (θ) is given by εn = 1/2 (εx + εy) + 1/2 (εx – εy) cos 2θ + γxy/2 Sin 2θ So, normal strain at θ = 0°
OCTAHEDRAL SHEAR STRESS CRITERION (VON MISES)
Since hydrostatic stress alone does not cause yielding, we can find a material plane called the octahedral plane, where the stress state can be
decoupled into dilation strain energy and distortion strain energy1 . On the octahedral plane, the octahedral normal stress solely contributes to
the dilation strain energy and is

This is the average of the three principal stresses. For example, if s1 = s2 = s3 = p where p is the pressure, then sh = p. The remaining stain energy
in the state of stress is determined by the octahedral shear stress and is given by

We expect yielding when the octahedral shear stress is equal to or exceeds a stress criterion value for failure for a given material, which is the
octahedral stress criterion h0 t :
Principal stresses and directions
The normal and shear traction components σnn and σnt will vary according to the orientation of the cutting-plane. It is reasonable to
assume that among these planes, there is one on which the shear tractions vanish, i.e., σnt = 0. This plane is called the principal plane,
and its orientation is called the principal orientation�→�. The normal component of the traction σnn acting on the principle plane
has the magnitude λ and it is named the principal stress.
The traction acting on the principal plane can be expressed by a simple vector argument and by using Eq.
Torsion – Non-Circular Cross-Sections
Torsional stress is much more difficult to calculate when the cross-section is not circular. Below I show how to calculate the torsional
stress and angle of twist for an equilateral triangle, rectangle, square, and ellipse. However, there can be many more cases where you
will have to derive these equations on your own.
Generalized Hook’s Law

The generalized Hooke’s Law also reveals that strain can exist without stress. For example, if the member is experiencing a load in
the y-direction (which in turn causes a stress in the y-direction), the Hooke’s Law shows that strain in the x-direction does not equal
to zero. This is because as material is being pulled outward by the y-plane, the material in the x-plane moves inward to fill in the
space once occupied, just like an elastic band becomes thinner as you try to pull it apart. In this situation, the x-plane does not have
any external force acting on them but they experience a change in length. Therefore, it is valid to say that strain exist without stress in
the x-plane.

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