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NUMBER SYSTEM AND NUMBER THEORY
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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DIVISIBILITY OF INTEGERS
Ø Divisibility Rules
Division Algorithm
Dividend Remainder
General representation of result is, = Quotient +
Divisor Divisor
Dividend = (Divisor X Quotient) + Remainder
“Divisible by” means “when you divide one number by another number, the result is a whole number.
“Divisible by” and “can be evenly divided by” mean the same thing.
The expressions abc, abc, and abc are the same abc = abc = 100a + 10b + c.
They repres~nt a three-digit number such as 234 = 234 = 234.
Ø Divisibility Rule for 2, 4, 8, and 16
A number is divisible by 2 if the last digit of the number is divisible by 2 or 21.
A number is divisible by 4 if the last two digit of the number are divisible by 4 or 22.
A number is divisible by 8 if the three digits of the number are divisible by 8 or 23 .
A number is divisible by 16 if the last four last four digits of the number are divisible by 16 or 24.
Ø Divisibility Rule for 5, 25, 125, and 625
A number is divisible by 5 if the last of the number is divisible by 5 or 51.
A number is divisible by 25 iflast two digits of the number form a number that is divisible by 25 or 52.
A number is divisible by 125 if the last three digits of the number form a number that is divisible by
125 or 53.
Ø Divisibility Rule for 3 and 9
A number is divisible by 3 ifsum of the digits of the number is divisible by 3.
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of the digits of the number is divisible by 9.
Ø Divisibility Rule for 7, 11 and 13
1. If you double the last digit and subtract if from the rest of the number and the answer is divisibly
by 7, the number is divisible by 7, you can apply this rule to that answer again if necessary.
2. To find out if a number is divisible by 11, add every even place digit, and call that sum’x’. Add
together the remaining digits, and call that sum ‘y’. Take the positive difference of x and y. If the
difference is zero or a multiple of eleven, then number is divisible by 11. Repeat the rule if
necessary.
3. Delete the last digit from the number and then subtract 9 times the deleted digit from the remaining
number. Ifwhat is left is divisible by 13, then number is divisible by 13. Repeat the rule if
necessary.
4. If the positive difference of the last three digit and the rest of the digits is divisible by 7, 11, or
13, then the number is divisibly by 7, 11, or 13, respectively.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Ø Divisibility Rule for 17 and 19

1. Five times the last digit of the number and subtract from previous number the result obtained
should be either 0 or divisible by 17.
2. Double the last digit of given number and add to remaining number The result obtained
should be divisible by 19.
Ø Divisibility Rule for 6, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18,24 and 36
A number is divisible by 6, if the number is divisible by both 2 and 3.
A number is divisible by 10, if the number is divisible by both 2 and 5.
A number is divisible by 12, if the number is divisible by both 3 and 4.
A number is divisible by 14, if the number is divisible by both 2 and 7.
A number is divisible by 15, if the number is divisible by both 3 and 5.
A number is divisible by 18, if the number is divisible by both 2 and 9.
Ø Divisibility of integers
An integer a ≠ 0 divides b, if there exists an integer x such that b = ax and thus we write as a|b( read
a divided b). This can also be stated as b is divisible by a or a is a divisor of b or b is a multiple of a.
If a does not divide b we write as a|b.
Properties :
1. a | b ⇒ a | bc for any integer c.
2. a | b and b | c ⇒ a | c (Transitive property)
3. a | b and a | c ⇒ a | (bx + cy) for any two integers x and y (linear property)
4. a | b and b | a ⇒ a = ± b
5. a | b, a > 0, b > 0 ⇒ a ≤ b
6. m ≠ 0, a | b ⇔ ma | mb (multiplication property)
7. a|1 ⇔ a= ± 1
8. If a | b and c | d, then ac | bd.

Theorem 1 : If c = ax + by and d | a but d c, then d b.

Proof : Here, we have d | a ⇒ there exists an integer q1 such that a = dq1

⇒ c = ax + by
= dq1x + by
Let if possible d | b, then there exists an integer q2 such that b = dq2
∴ c = dq1x + dq2y = d(q1x + q2y)
⇒ d|c
Here, contrapositively
d c⇒ d b. [Contrapositive of p ⇒ q is ~ q ⇒ ~ p ]

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Theorem 2 : For any two integers a and b ( > 0) there exists integers q1 and r1 such that a = bq1 + cr1,
b
0 ≤ r1 ≤ , c = 1 or – 1.
2
Proof : By division algorithm, we have
a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b ....... (1)
Now, there are following cases
b b
Case 1 : If r < . If we take q = q1, r = r1, c = 1, then (1) gives a = bq1 + cr1, 0 ≤ r1 < .
2 2
b b
Case 2 : If r > . Then, 0 < b – r < . If we take
2 2
q1 = q + 1, r1 = b – r and c = – 1, then (1) gives
b
a = b (q + 1) – (b – r) = bq1 + cr1, 0 ≤ r1 <
2
b b
Case 3 : If r = . If q = q1, r = r1 and c = 1, then from (1), we have a = bq1+ cr1, r1 = .
2 2
Further, if we replace q1 by (q + 1), r1 by (b – r) and c by – 1, we get
a = b (q + 1) – (b – r)
b
= bq1 + cr1, r1 =
2
Deductions :
1. Every integer having one of the following form
a) 3q (or) (3q ± 1) (Taking b = 4 in the above theorem)
b) 4q (or) (4q ± 1) (or) (4q ± 2) (Taking b = 4 in the above theorem)
c) 5q (or) (5q ± 1) (or) (5q ± 2) (Taking b = 5 in the above theorem)
2. Every odd integer having one of the following form
a) 2q + 1 b) 2q – 1 c) 4q ± 1 d) ± (4q + 1)
Theorem 3 : Every square number is of the form 9k or 3k + 1 where k is an integer.
Proof : Since any integer can be written in the form 3q or 3q ± 1, (3q)2 = 9q2 = 9k
and (3q ± 1)2 = 3(3q2 ± 2q) + 1 = 3k + 1
Theorem 4 : The square of an odd integer is of the form 8q + 1.
Proof : Let k be any odd integer. Then, we have k = 4q1 + 1
or k = – (4q1 + 1) for integer q1
Then, k2 = [ ± (4q1 + 1)]2 = 16q12 + 8q1 + 1

( )
= 8 2q12 + q1 + 1 = 8q + 1 where q = 2q12 + q1
Hence, square of an odd integer is of the form 8q + 1.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Theorem 5 : Proove that the product of any r consecutive numbers is divisible by r !

Proof : Let Pn = n(n + 1)(n + 2) .....(n + r – 1) ................(1) be the product of r consecutive integers
begining with n.
We shall prove the theorem by induction method on 'r'.
For r = 1, pn = n is divisible by 1! ,for all n.
∴ The theorem is true for r = 1
i.e., the product of 1(consecutive) integer is divisible by 1!..
Let us assume the theorem to be true for the product of (r – 1) consecutive integers.
i.e., every product of (r – 1) consecutive integers is divisible by (r – 1)!.
Changing n to n + 1 in (1)
∴ Pn+1 = (n + 1)(n + 2) ...(n + r)
Multiplying both sides by n
nPn+1 = n(n + 1)(n + 2) ...(n + r) = n(n + 1)(n + 2).....(n + r – 1)(n + r)
nPn+1 = (n + r)Pn
(or) n(Pn+1– Pn) = r ·Pn

Pn n ( n + 1)( n + 2 ) ..... ( n + r − 1)
(or) Pn+1–Pn = r· = r· .
n n
(or) Pn+1– Pn = r(n + 1)(n + 2) .....(n + r – 1)
(or) Pn+1 – Pn = r. Product of (r – 1) consecutive integers = rP..................(2)
where P denotes the product of (r – 1) consecutive integers.
But the product P of (r – 1) consecutive integers is divisible by (r – 1)!.
∴ P = k(r – 1)!
∴ (2) becomes Pn+1–Pn = rk(r – 1)! = kr(r – 1)! = k.r!
i.e., r! (Pn+1–Pn), ∀ n
Put n = 1
∴ r!|(P2–P1)
But P1 = 1.2.3.......r = r! is divisible by r!
i.e., r!|P1
∴ r!|(P2–P1)+P1 i.e., r!|P2
Put n = 2,
∴ r!|(P3–P2)
But r!|P2 ∴ r!|(P3–P2)+P2
i.e., r!|P3 and so on.
Generalising we can say that r!|Pn for all n.

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Divisibility of algebraic expressions :

1) an – bn = (a – b) (an – 1 + an – 2 b + .... + bn – 1)
(an – bn) is always divisible by (a – b) if n is any positive integer
Ex: 20072006 – 19962006 is divisible by (2007 – 1996) = 11
2) (an – bn) is divisible by a + b when n is any even positive integer.
Ex: 50100 – 47100 is divisible by 50 + 47 = 97.
3) an + bn = (a + b) (an – 1 – an – 2 b + ..... – abn – 2 + bn – 1)
an + bn is always divisible by a + b if n is odd but not n is even.
Ex: 52007 + 42007 is divisible by 5 + 4 = 9.
4) (a1 + a2+ a3 + ...... + an)! is divisible bya1!. a2!.... an!.
Ex: ( 2 + 3 + 4)! = 9! is divisible by 2!.3!.4! = 9 × 32
Ø Euclids Division lemma :
If a and b are any two integers , a ≠ 0 , thern there exist unique integers q and r such that b = aq + r,
0 ≤r < a .
b, a, q and a are called dividend , divisor, quotient and remainder respectively.

SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1 : If ( a − s ) ( ab + st ) , then ( a − s ) ( at + bs ) ; a, b, s, t ∈ z .
Solution : Since (ab + st) – (at + bs) = (a – s) (b – t) and the hypothesis is that (a – s) |(ab + st).
Thus (a – s)| (at + bs).
a+ b a− b
Example 2 : If a and b are any two odd integers, then one of the two numbers and
2 2
is odd and the other is even.
Solution : Let us assume that
a = 2k1 + 1 and b = 2k2 + 1
where, k1 and k2 are any two integers.
a+b
Then = ( k1 + k2 ) + 1 ............ (1)
2
a−b
also, = k1 + k2 ............ (2)
2
a+b
From (1) and (2), we conclude that if k1 and k2 both are even (or both odd) then is an even
2
a−b
integer and is an odd integer.
2
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Example 3 : Show that if a is any positive integer, then a2 + a + 1 is not a square number.
Solution : Since, we have
a2 < a2 + a + 1 < a2 + 2a + 1 = (a + 1)2
The next square number greater than a2 is (a + 1)2.
Hence, a2 + a + 1 is not a square number.

a 4 + 4 a 2 + 11
Example 4 : If a is odd integer, then Show that is an integer.
16
Solution : Let us suppose a = 2n + 1
a 4 + 4 a 2 + 11 ( 2 n + 1) + 4 ( 2 n + 1) + 11
4 2

Then, consider =
16 16
n ( 5n + 3)
= n + 2n + 1 +
4 3
(on simplificaiton)
2
n ( 5n + 3)
Clearly, is an integer ⎡⎣Q 2 | n ( 5n + 3) ∀n ∈ z ⎤⎦
2

Example 5 : Show that the number of the form

(
a a2 + 2 ) is an integer where a is an integer
3
greater than or equal to 1.
Solution : Since, we know that every integer a is of the form 3n, 3n + 1 or 3n + 2.
( ) = n 9n + 1 , which is an integer.
a a2 + 2
If a = 3n, then
3
( 2
)
a (a + 2 )
2

If a = 3n + 1, then = ( 3n + 1) (3n + 2 n + 1) , which is an integer.

2

3
a (a + 2 )
2

If a = 3n + 2 then = (3n + 2 ) (3n + 4 n + 2 ) , which is an integer.

2

3
Example : 6 When the number 19779 and 17997 are divided by a certain by a certain three
digit. number, tney leave the same remainder. Find the largest such divisor and the remainder.
How many such divisor are there ?
Solution : Let the divisor be d and the emainder ber.
Then by Euclidean Algorithm, we find
19779 = dp1 + r
and
17997 = dp2 + r
By subtracting eq. (2) from eq(1) , we get
1782 = d(q1 – q2)
∴ d is a three - digit divisor of 1782.
therefore, possible values of d are 891,594,297 and 198, 162
hence the largest three - digit divisor is 891 and the remainder is 177.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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EXERCISE
1. Prove thatan integer is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
2. If n is an integer. Prove that product n(n2 – 1) is multiple of 6.
3. If r is an integer. show that r(r2 – 1) (3r + 2) is a divisible by 24.
4. If m, n are positive integers, show that (m + n) is divisible by m!n!.
5. If (4x – y) is a multiple of 3, show that 4x2 + 7xy – 2y2 is divisible by 9.
6. Prove that 4 does not divide (m2 + 2) for any integer m.
7. Prove that 8n – 3n is divisible by 5.
8. Prove that for every positive integer 1n + 8n – 3n – 6n is divisible by 10.
9. Show that 12025 + 22025 + ...... + 20242025 is divisible by 2025.
10. Use the divison Alogrithm to establish that
a) the square of any integer is either of the form 3k(or) 3k + 1.
b) the cube of any integer has one of the forms 9k, 9k + 1 or 9k + 8;
c) the fourth power of any integer is either of the form 5k (or) 5k + 1.
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
11. For n ≥ 1 , prove that is an integer.
6
12. Verify that if an integer is simultaneously a square and a cube (as is the case with 64 = 82 = 43), then
it must be either of the form 7k or 7k + 1.

GCD & LCM

Greatest Common Divisor : If a and b are arbitrary integers, then an integer d is said to be a
common divisor of a and b if both d | a and d | b. Since 1 is a divisor of every integer, 1 is a common
divisor of a and b; hence, their set of positive common divisors is non - empty. Now every integer
divides 0, so that if a = b = 0, then every integer serves as a common divisor of a and b. In this
instance, the set of positive common divisors of a and b is infinite.
However, when at least one of a or b is different from zero, there are only a finite number of positive
common divisors. Among these, there is a largest one, called the greatest common divisor of a and b
and is written as (a, b).

1. ( a, b ) ≥ 1 2. ( a, b ) = ( a , b )

3. ( a, 0 ) = a , a ≠ 0 4. ( a, b ) = ( a + kb, b ) ∀k ∈ Z
5. (a, b) = ( b, a)
6. If (a, b) = g and d sis a common divisor of a and b, then d|g

7. For any non - zero m ∈ Z , (ma, mb) = m (a, b)

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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⎛ a b⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
8. If d|a and d|b and d > 0, then d | aandd | bandd > 0 ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ (a, b)
d d d

⎛ a b⎞
9. If (a, b) = g, then ⎜ , ⎟ = 1
⎝ g g⎠

10. If (a, b) = 1 and (a, c) = 1, then (a, bc) = 1

11. If a|bc and (a, b) = 1, then a | c
If (a, b) ≠ 1, then we cannot conclude that a|c
For example, a = 6, b = 21, c = 10
6|21 × 40, but (6, 21) = 3 and (6,10) = 2 and 6 divides neither 21 nor 10.
12. If a, b ∈ N (a, b) = 1 and a × b = ck , k ∈ N , then each of a and b a perfect kth power.
13. If (a, b) = g, then there exist two integers x and y such that h = xa + yb.
Definition :
Let a and b be given integers, with atleast one of them different from zero. The greatest common
divisor of a and b, denoted by (a, b), is the positive integer d satisfying
1) d | a and d | b,
2) if c | a and c | b, then c ≤ d .
Example : The positive divisors of – 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, while those of 30 are 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15,
30; hence, the positive common divisors of – 12 and 30 are 1, 2, 3, 6. Since 6 is the largest of these
integers, it follows that (– 12, 30) = 6, similarly (8, 17) = 1, and (– 8, – 36) = 4.
Euclid's Algorithm : Let a and b be any two positive integers, then we obtain an integer k ≥ 1 such that
a = q1b + r1 ; 0 ≤ r1 < b
b = q2 r1 + r2 ; 0 ≤ r2 < r1
................. .............. (1)
.................
.................
rk – 2 = qk rk – 1 + rk; 0 < rk < rk – 1
rk – 1 = qk + 1 rk.
From (1), we have (a, b) = (b, r1) and therefore (a, b) = (b, r1) = (r1, r2) = ......... = (rk–1, rk) = rk
hence, rk is the required g.c.d (a, b) that is to say we can find the greatest common divisor by using
Euclidean algorithm.
Theorem 1 : Let a and b be the positive integers such that a > b and let rk = 0 in Euclid's algorithm.
Then, rk – 1 is the g.c.d of a and b.
Proof : We have r k–2 =q r k k–1 [Q from (1) & r = 0]k
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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⇒ rk – 1 | rk – 2
Further, we have
rk – 3 = rk – 2 qk – 1 + rk – 1
= rk – 1 qk qk – 1 + rk – 1
= rk – 1 [qk qk– 1 + 1]
⇒ rK – 1 | r K – 3
Continuing this process, finally, we get
rK – 1 | a and rK – 1 | b
Now, Let c divides a and b. Since, a = bq1 + r1, then c divides b and r1. Also, b = r1q2 + r2, which
implies c divides r1 and r2. continuing the process, we get c divides rk – 1. Hence (a, b) = rk – 1.
Theorem 2 :Any common divisor of a and b is a divisor of their greatest common divisor (a, b).
Proof : If c|a, c|b then from (1), we have c|r1. Also, since c|b and c|r1, then c|r2. continuing this
process, at last we obtain c|rk. Hence, c|(a, b).
Theorem 3 : (a, b) c = (ac, bc), c > 0
Proof : By multiplying each equation of (1) by c, the integer a, b and r1 become ac, bc and ric
respectively and hence, (ac, bc) = (a, b)c.
Theorem 4 : If (a, b) = 1, then (ac, b) = (c, b).
Proof : Since (ac, b)|ac and (ac, b)|bc, we have
(ac, b)|(ac, bc) = (a, b) |c| = |c|
But (ac, b)|b, therefore (ac, b) | (c, b)
Further, since (c, b)|ac and (c, b) | b, then (c, b) | (ac, b).
Hence, (ac, b) = (c, b).
Deductions : From above theorem, we can easily obtain the following useful properties :
1) If b|ac and (a, b) = 1, then b|c and therefore (ac, b) = b which together with theorem (4) gives
(c, b) = b. Therefore b|c on the other hand, if (a, b) = 1, then (a, bn) = 1.
2) If a|c, b|c and (a, b) = 1, then ab|c. In fact, from a|c, it follows that c = ac1 so that b|ac1
Consequently b / c, and ab / ac, that is ab / c.
3) If (a, c) = 1 and (b, c) = 1, then (ab, c) = 1. For, by theorem (4), we have (ab, c) = (b, c) = 1.
4) If (a, b) = 1, then (ab, a + b) = 1. For, from (a, a + b) = 1, (b, a + b) = 1, it follows that
(ab, a + b) = 1.
Theorem 5 : If a and b are any two integers not both zero, then (a, b) uniquely exists.
Proof : We know that the (a, b) is not affected by the sign of a and b.
Therefore, we assume that both a and b are positive and a ≥ b . By division algorithm, we have
a = bq1 + r1, 0 ≤ r1 < b ........... (1)
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Now, there are following cases.

If r1 = 0, then b|a and (a, b) = b. Therefore, (a, b) exists.
If r1 ≠ 0, then by division algorithm, we have b = r1q2 + r2, 0 ≤ r2 < r1 ............. (2)
If r2 = 0, then r1|b and so from (1)
a = (r1 q2) q1 + r1
= r1 (q1q2 + 1)
Which implies r1|a
Further, let s|a, s|b ⇒ s|a – bq1
⇒ s|r1 [Q using (1)]
∴ (a, b) = r1 which shows the existence of (a, b) at this stage.
If r2 ≠ 0, we again apply the same process.
After n steps we get zero remainder.
Thus, we get a sequence of integers ri such that

0 ≤ rn < rn −1...... < r2 < r1 < b

rn – 2 = rn – 1 qn + rn, n ≥ 3 and rn – 1 = qn + 1 rn

Therefore, rn rn −1 , rn rn − 2 ...., rn b and rn a

Further, if s is a common factor of a and b, then s|a and s|b, which implies.
s|a – bq
⇒ s|r1
⇒ s|r2
................
................
⇒ s|rn
Hence, (a, b) = rn
Now, we shall prove the uniqueness of (a, b).
Let, if possible, d1 and d2 are two g.c.d's of a and b. Then by definition d1 ≥ d2 and d1 ≤ d2. i.e, d1=
d2, Hence (a, b) is unique.
Theorem 6 : If g is the greatest common divisor of a and b, then there exists integers x and y such that
g = (a, b) = ax + by.
Proof : Consider the linear combination ax0 + by0, where x0 and y0 range over all integers. This set
of integers {ax0 + by0} includes positive and negative values, and also 0 by the choice x0 = y0 = 0.
Choose x and y such that ax + by is the least positive integer l in the set, so l = ax + by.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Next, we prove that l | a and l | b, let if possible l a.l a implies there exist integers q and r such
that a = lq + r with 0 < r < l. Therefore, we have
r = a – lq
= a – q (ax + by)
= a(l – qx) + b(– qy)
and thus r is in the set {ax0 + by0}. This contradicts the fact that l is the least positive integer in the set
{ax0 + by0}.
Now, since g is the greatest common divisor of a and b, we may write a = gA, b = gB and
l = ax + by = g(Ax + By). Thus g | l which gives g ≤ l . Now g < l is impossible, since g is the greatest
common divisor, therefore g = l = ax + by.
Deductions :
1) The greatest common divisor g of a and b can be characterized in the following two ways.
a) It is the least positive value of ax + by where x and y range over all integers.
b) It is the positive common divisor of a and b that is divisible by every common divisor.
2) If an integer d is expressible in the form d = ax + by, then d is not necessarily the g.c.d of (a, b).
However, it does not follow from such an equation that (a, b) is a divisor of d. In particular, if
ax + by = 1 for some integers x and y, then (a, b) = 1.
Deductions :
⎛ a b⎞ 1
1. If d | a and d | b and d > 0, then ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = ( a, b)
d d d
⎛ a b⎞
2. If (a, b) = g, then ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = 1 .
g g
Proof : If g = (a, b), then we have g | a and g | b.
a b
therefore, and both are integers.
g g
Also, g = (a, b)
⎛ a b⎞ ⎛ a b⎞
= ⎜⎝ g ⋅ , g ⋅ ⎟⎠ = g ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠
g g g g

⎛ a b⎞
⇒ ⎜⎝ g , g ⎟⎠ = 1 .

Theorem 7 : Let a > 1, and m, n be positive integer then (am – 1, an – 1) = a(m, n) – 1

Proof : When m = n, then result is obvious.
Now, suppose that m > n, m = qn + r, then
am – 1 = (an – 1) am – n + am – n – 1
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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= (an – 1) am – n + (an – 1) am – 2n + am – 2n – 1
= (an – 1) (am – n + am – 2n + .... + am – qn) + ar – 1.
Hence, (am – 1, an – 1) = (an – 1, ar – 1) = (ar – 1, a r – 1) = ..............
1

= (ad – 1, a0 – 1) = ad – 1 where d = (m, n)

PRIMES :
An integer p > 1 is called a prime number if it has exactly two distinct divisors namely 1 and P.
In other words p is a prime if there is no d, 1 < d < p, such that d|p. A number more than 1 which is
not prime is calledf a composite.
Some properties of a prime number p.

1. p | ab ⇒ p a or p b
2. p|an ⇒ p|a ⇒ pn|an, n ∈ N
3. Every integer than 1 is divisible by at least one prime.
4. For n > 1, there is at least one prime p such that n < p < 2n. A slight generalisation for n > 3,
there always wxist at least one prime p with n < p < 2n – 2. Another way let pn be nth prime for
n ≥ 1 , then pn+1 < 2pn.
5. The number of primes less than or equal to real number x is ≈ x / ln x .
Relatively Prime Integers : If the greatest common divisors of a and b is 1, then a and b are said to
be relatively prime.
Also, a1, a2, ..... an are said to be relatively prime in pairs.
If (ai, aj) = 1 for all i = 1, 2, ..., n and j = 1, 2, ......, n with i ≠ j.
Note:1) The fact that (a, b) = 1 is some times expressed by saying that a and b are coprime or by
saying that a is prime to b.
2) If (ai, aj) > 1, whenever i ≠ j, the numbers a1, a2,......, an are said to be relatively prime in
pairs. If (a1, a2 .... an) are relatively prime in pairs, then (a1, a2, .... an) = 1.
Theorem 8 : (EUCLID'S LEMMA)
If a | bc and (a, b) = 1, then a | c.
Proof : We have (a, b) = 1.
Therefore, there exists integers x and y such that
ax + by = 1
⇒ c(ax + by) = c.1
⇒ c = cax + cby
Now, a | ac and a | bc
⇒ a | acx + bcy ⇒ a | c.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Deductions :

1) If a and b are integers, p is a prime such that p | ab and p a, then p | b.

2) If p| a1 a2 .... an, then there exists some ai such that p | ai.

Theorem 9 : If a and b are integers, not both zero. Then a positive integer g = (a, b) if and only if
i) g | a and g | b.
ii) whenever c | a and c | b, then c | g.
Proof : Let, g = (a, b). Then, clearly g | a and g | b. Therefore, condition (i) is satisfied. Now, since
g = (a, b), therefore, there exists integers x and y, such that g = ax + by.
Now, c | a and a | b implies c | ax + by. Thus, condition (ii) is satisfied.
Conversely, let g be any positive integer satisfying
conditions (i) and (ii). To show g = (a, b). Using equation (ii), we have, if c is a common divisor of a and
b, then c | g, therefore g ≥ c and hence, g is the greatest common divisor of a and b, i.e., (a, b) = g.
Theorem 10 : For any integer x, (a, b) = (b, a) = (a, – b) = (a, b + ax).
Proof : Denote (a, b) by d and (ab + ax) by g. Here, it is clear that (a, – b) = d.
Now, we know that there exist integers x0 and y0 such that d = ax0 + by0
Therefore, we can write
d = a(x0 – xy0) + (b + ax)y0
Which shows that the greatest common divisor of a and b + ax is a divisor of d, i.e, g | d. Now, we
shall prove that d | g. Since d | a and d | b, we have d | b + ax.
Since, we know that every common divisor of a and b + ax is a divisor of their g.c.d., i.e., a divisor of
g. Thus d | g.
Hence, we conclude that d = ± g.
How ever, d and g are positive, by definition so d = g.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 1 : Find the greatest common divisor of 525 and 231.
Solution : We have 525 = 2 × 231 + 63
231 = 3 × 63 + 42
63 = 1 × 42 + 21
42 = 2 × 21
Hence, (525, 231) = 21.
Example 2 : Find g.c.d of 12378, 3054.
Solution : 12378 = 4.3054 + 162,
3054 = 18.162 + 138,
162 = 1.138 + 24,
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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138 = 5.24 + 18,

24 = 1.18 + 6,
18 = 3.6 + 0
∴ (12378, 3054) = 6.
Ø In order to represent 6 as a linear combination of the integers 12378 and 3054, we start with the
next - to - last of the displayed equations and successively eliminate the remainders 18, 24, 138 and
162.
6 = 24 – 18
= 24 – (138 – 5.24) = 6.24 – 138
= 6(162 – 138) – 138 = 6.162 – 7.138
= 6.162 – 7 (3054 – 18.162)= 132.162 – 7.3054
= 132 (12378 – 4.3054) – 7.3054
= 132.12378 + (– 535) 3054
Thus, we have
6 = (12378, 3054) = 12378x + 3054y, where x = 132 and y = – 535.
It might be well to record that this is not the only way to express the integer 6 as a linear combination
of 12378 and 3054; among other possibilities, one could add and subtract 3054.12378 to get
6 = (3186) 12378 + (– 12913) (3054).
Greatest common divisor of more than two integers
If (a1, a2, ....., an) = 1, then we say that the integers a1, a2, ...., an are mutually relatively prime. If each
pair of integers ai and aJ from the set is relatively prime, then these integers are called pairwise relatively
prime.
Clearly, if integers are pairwise relatively prime, then they must be mutually relatively prime. The
converse is not true.
For example. Since, (16, 10, 15) = 1, therefore, 6, 10 and 15 are mutually relative prime, but any two
of these integers are not relatively prime. Hence, they are not pairwise relatively prime.
Working procedure : To find the greatest common divisor of (a, b, c) of three integers a, b and c, we
shall first find the g.c.d (a, b) and then g.c.d((a, b), c); the result is the required g.c.d (a, b, c).
Example 1 : Find the greatest common divisor of 136, 221, 391.
Solution : We have (136, 221, 391) = (136, (221, 391))
= (136, 17) = 17.
Example 2 : Let a = qc + r, b = q1 c+ r1 show that (a, b, c) = (r, r1, c)
Solution : We have (a, b, c) = ((a, c), b) = ((c, r), b)
= (r, (b, c))
= (r, (c, r1))
= (r, r1, c)
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE :

Let m ≠ 0 be a multiple of a and b. Then, m is called a common multiple of a and b. Clearly ab is a
common multiple of a and b.
Among the common multiple of a and b there is no greatest ineger, but there is a unique positive least
integer, which is called the least common multiple of a and b and denoted by [a, b].
Definition :
If a and b are two non - zero integers, then a positive integer m is called their least common multiple if
i) a | m and b | m
ii) there exists a positive integer n such that if a | n and b | n, then m ≤ n , equivalently m | n.
Theorem 1 : A common multiple of a and b is a multiple of the least common multiple [a, b].
Proof : Let k be a common multiple of a and b. Dividing k by [a, b] = m, we get
k = qm + r, 0 ≤ r < m
Since a | k and a | m, so a | r.
Similarly, we can show that b | r.
If r ≠ 0 , then r is a common multiple of a and b. This contradicts the assumption that m is the least
common multiple.
Therefore, r = 0 and k = qm, i.e., Kis a multiple of m.
Theorem 2 : If a > 0, b > 0 be two integers, then [a, b] (a, b) = a.b
Proof : Let [a, b] = m and (a, b) = d.
Since, a | m and b | m, we have ab | ma, ab | mb and hence ab | (ma, mb), that is ab | md.
⎛ ab ⎞ ⎛ ab ⎞ ab
Also, since a | ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ and b | ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ that is is a common multiple of a and b.
d d d
ab
By previous theorem, m | , therefore md | ab.
d
∴ md = ab.
Verification : For example, [6, 9] = 18, (6, 3) = 3 here 18.3 = 6.9
Deduction : If (a, b) = 1, then, we have [a, b] = ab, so that ab is the least common multiple of a and
b. Conversely, if the least common multiple of a and b is ab, then (a, b) = 1. Hence, a necessary and
sufficient condition for [a, b] = ab is (a, b) = 1.
⎛ k k⎞ k
Theorem 3 : If k > 0 is a common multiple of a and b, then ⎜⎝ a , b ⎟⎠ = a, b
[ ]
Proof : Since, we have
⎛ k k⎞
⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ ab = (kb , k a)
a b
= k (a, b)
a⋅b
[ ]
= k a, b
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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DEDUCTIONS :
⎛ k k⎞
1. If k = [a, b], then ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = 1 .
a b
⎛ k k⎞
Conversely, if ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = 1 , then k = [a, b].
a b
⎛ k k⎞
2. If k > 0, then a necessary and sufficient condition for k = [a, b] is ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = 1
a b
Theorem 4 : Let a and b be two positive integers, then (a + b) [a, b] = b[a, a + b]
ba ( a + b)
(
Proof : We have b [a, a + b] = a, a + b
)
( a + b) ab
=
( a, b)
= ( a + b ) [ a, b ] .
Theorem 5 : The least common multiple of two non - zero integers is unique.
Proof : Let a and b be any two non - zero integers. Let, if possible, there are two least common
multipliers m1 and m2 of a and b. By definition a and b divide both m1 and m2.
Again, by definition of l.c.m.,
m1 | m2 and m2| m1
Hence, m1= m2
i.e., least common multiple is unique.
Ø Least common multiple of a, b, c
abc
[ a, b, c] =
( ab, bc, ca) .
Sophie Germain Identity :
a4 + 4b4 = ( a2)2 + (2b2) + 2.a2 ,2b2 – 2a2 .2b2
= (a2 + 2b2)2 – ( 2ab)2
= ( a2 + 2b2 + 2ab) ( a2 + 2b2 – 2ab)
= ((a + b)2 + b2) ( a–b)2 + b2)
This is very useful for proving whether a given number is a prime or composite.
Example : Prove that n4 + 4 is a composite number for all n > 1, n ∈ N .
Solution : Since n4 + 4 = ( n4 + 4n2 + 4) – 4n2 = (n2 + 2)2 – ( 2n)2
= ( n2 + 2n + 2)(n2 – 2n + 2) = [ ( n + 1)2 + 1][( n – 1) 2 + 1]
For n > 1, ( n ± 1) + 1 > 1 and hence n4 + 4 is a composite number for all n > 1 , n ∈ N .
2

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Example : If a and b are relatively prime, show that ( a + b) and (a – b) are either relatively
prime or their gcd is 2.
Solution : If d is the gcd of (a + b) and (a – b) then d|( a + b) and d|(a –b) and therefore , d|(a + b) ±
(a – b)
⇒ d 2 a and d 2 b
⇒ d|(2a,2b)
But (a, b) = 1
∴ (2a, 2b) = 2
∴ d|2.
Hence , d is either 1 or 2.
21m + 4
Example : Prove that the fraction isirreducible for every natural number m.
14m + 3
Solution : Assuming the contrary, if p is a number which divides both 21m + 4 and also 14m + 3,
then p should divide,
3 ( 14n + 3) – 2 ( 21m + 4) = 1
Thus , p = 1
Therefore, the gcd of (14m + 3) and *21m + 4) is 1.

21m + 4
So is irreducible
14 m + 3
EXERCISE
1. Find gcd (143, 227), gcd (306, 657) and gcd (272, 1479).
2. For positive integers a, b and n ≥ 1 and (a, b) = 1, then show that (an, bn) = 1.
3. Show rthat GCD of a + b and a – b is either 1 or 2, if (a, b) = 1.
4. Find GCD of 858 and 325 and express it in the form m858 + n325.

12 n + 1
5. Prove that is irreducible for every positive integer n .
30 n + 2
6. Show that gcd (n!+1,(n+1)!+1) = 1 for any n ∈ N .
7. Prove that every two consecutive integers are coprime.
8. If a and b are relatively prime. Then show that any common divisor of ac and b is a divisor of c.
9. If a dn b are any two odd primes . Show that (a2 – b2) is composite.
10. If p > 1 and 2p – 1 is prime, then prove that p is prime.
11. Find the least possible value of a + b where a, b are positive integers such that 11 divides a + 13b and
13 divides a + 11b.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC

Every integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a roduct of primes. the factorisation is unique but for
the order of the factors.
Any number n can be written as
α α α
n = p1 1 × p2 2 × p3 3 × ..... × pmm
a

Where p1, p2, p3 ..... pm are distinct primes and α1 , α 2 , α 3 ,....α m are natural numbers.
Notes :
1. A number n = p1α1 × p2a2 × p3α 3 × ..... × pmα m is a perfect square, if and only if each
α i (i = 1, 2, 3,,...m ) is an even number.
2. If n =- p1 × p2 × ......... × pm , then n is called a square- feree number. That is if each α i ( i = 1,
2,.......m) is 1, then n is square - free integer.
Number of positive divisors of A composite number
If a composite number is n = p1α1 × p2a2 × p3α 3 × ..... × pmα m

Then the number of poisitive divisors of n is τ ( n) = (α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1) ..... (α m + 1) . this is read as 'tan of
n'.
For example, if we take a number 24 = 2 3 × 3 1 , then number of divisors of 24 is
τ ( 24 ) = (3 + 1)(1 + 1) = 8
You can easily see that 1,2,3,4,6,8,12,24 are the 8 divisors of 24.
Notes :
1. If n is a perfect square, τ ( n) isodd as ll the α i are even

2. If n is not a perfect squre τ ( n) is even

3. The number of ways of writing n as the product of two factors (order immaterial) is if n is a
τ ( n) + 1
perfect squre,
2

τ ( n)
If n is not a perfect square,
2
4. The number if ways, in which a composite number can be expressed as a product of two
relative prime factors ( order not donsidered), is 2m–1, whre m is the nmber of distinct prime.
For examole, 58 × 37 × 415 can be resolved into product of two factors, in 23–1 = 22 = 4 ways so that
the factors are co - prime number.
here they are
58 × ( 37× 415)
37 × ( 58 × 415)
415 × (37 × 58 ) and finally 1 × (415 × 37 × 58) .
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Now σ ( n ) , This is read as sigma of n) then sum if the positive divisors ifn, is given by

p1α1 +1 − 1 pα2 2 +1 − 1 pα m + − 1
1
σ ( n) × × ....... × m
p1 − 1 p2 − 1 pm − 1

Where n = p1α1 × p2α 2 × ......... × pmα m

25 − 1 32 − 1
For example, σ ( 48 ) = σ 2 4 × 3( ) 5
2 −1 3 −1
= 31 × 4 = 124

σ k ( n) , then sum of the kth power of the positive divisors of n

k (α1 +1)
p1 − 1 p2k (α 2 +1) − 1 k (α +1)
pm m − 1
× × ........ × .
p1k − 1 p2k − 1 pmk − 1

Product of divisors of N : Product of divisors of N = N 2 {( 1 )( 2 ) ( k )} = N 2 ( )

1 n 1 n 1 .... n 1 1d N
+ + +
Ø
Ø Numberof odd factors of a given number :
To get the number of odd factors of a number N first of all express the number N as

( ) ( )
N = p1a × p2b × p3c × ... × eα

(where p1, p2, p3, .... are the odd prime factors and e is the even prime factor).

Then the total number of odd factors = ( a + 1)( b + 1)( c + 1) ... (where a, b, c,... are powers of odd
primes only)
Example 1: Find the number of odd factors (or divisors) of 24.
Solution : 24 = 23 × 31
Here 3 is the odd prime factor
So, total number of odd factors = (1 + 1) = 2
Ø Number of even factors of a composite number :
Number of even factors of a number = ( Total number of factors of the given number – Total number
of odd factors)
Example 2 : Find the number of even factors (or divisors) of 24.
Solution : 24 = 23 × 31
Here 3 is the odd prime factor
So, total number of odd factors = (1 + 1) = 2
∴ the number of even factors = 8 – 2 = 6
Example3 : Find the smallest integer with exactly 24 divisors.
Solution : If n is the required number and n = p1α1 , p2α 2 ,....... pkα k

Then τ ( n ) = (α1 + )(α 2 + 1) ..... (α k + 1)

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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But 24 can be written as the product of 2 or 3 or 4 factors. Corresponding to each factorisation, we

can get a smallest composite number.
24 2 23 148576
12 × 2 211 × 31 6144
6×4 25 × 33 864
8×3 27 × 32 1152
6×2×2 25 × 31 × 51 480
4×3×2 23 × 32 × 5 360
3×2×2×2 22 × 3 × 5 × 7 420
The samllest number having 24 divisors is 360.
Example 4: Find the sum of the cubes of the divisors of 12.
Since 12 = 22 × 3
3(2 +1)
−1 3 ( ) −1
3 1+1
2
σ 3 (12) = × 3
23 − 1 3 −1

2 9 − 1 36 − 1
= × = 73 × 28 = 2044
7 26

Example 5: " N = P1, P2, P3 and P1,P2, P3 are distinct prime numbers. if ∑ d = 3N
d/N

N
1
⎡⎣ orσ ( N ) ⎤⎦ = 3N shown that ∑ =3
d i =1 i

Solution : The divisors of N are

1, P1, P2, P3, P1, P2, P3, P2, P3, P1P2,P3
it is given that
N
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑d = + + + + + + +
1 P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P1P3 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3
i =1 i

P1P2 P3 + P2 P3 + P1P3 + P1P2 + P3 + P2 + P1 + 1

= P1 P2 P3
But the numerator is the sum of the divisors of N
N

i.e. ∑ d = N = P P P
1 3P1 P2 P3
3
d| N
3 1 2 3 and hence ∑d =
P1 P2 P3
=3
i =1 1

Example : Let f(n) be sum of numbers of divisors of divisors of n. prove that f(18) = f(2).f(32).
Solution : Divisors of 18 are 1,2,3,6,9 and therefore,
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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f (18) = ∑ τ ( q ) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 6 = 18
q|18

f ( 2) = ∑ τ ( q ) = 1 + 2 = 3
q|2

( )
f 32 = ∑ τ ( q ) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
q|32

∴ f(2) ,f(3) = 3 × 6 = 18 = f(18)

(
Example 6: Show that F p1α1 × p2α2 = F p1α1 × p2α 2 ) ( ) ( )
Soluton : Any divisor of p1α1 is p1r where 0 ≤ r ≤ α1
α1 α3

( ) r =0
( )
F p1α1 = ∑ τ 3 p1r = ∑ (r + 1) = sum of the cubes of the first α + 1 natural number.
r =0
3
1

⎡ (α + 1)(α 2 + 2) ⎤
2

Similarly , F p ( ) α2
2 =⎢ 2
2
⎥
⎣ ⎦

(
F p1α1 . p2α 2 = ) ∑ τ (p .p )
0 ≤ r ≤ α1
3
r
1
s
2

0 ≤ s ≤α 2

α1 α2

∑∑ (r + 1) (s + 1)
3 3
=
r =0 s=0

⎡ (α 2 + 1)(α 2 + 2) ⎤
α1 2 α1

= ∑ ( r + 1) ⎢
3

2
α2
⎥ = F p2 ( ) ∑ (r + 1) 3

r =0 ⎣ ⎦ r =0

⎡ (α 1 + 1)(α 1 + 2) ⎤
3

= F p ( ) α2
2 ⎢
2
α α
⎥ = F p2 2 F p1 1 ( ) ( )
⎣ ⎦
Hence proved.
Example 7: Prove that sim of the cubes f the number of divisores of the divisors of a given
number is equal to square of their sum. ) For edample, if N = 18.'. The divisors of 18 are
1,2,3,6,9,18.
Number of diviors of divisors of 18 are 1,2,2,4,3,6 respectivel;y.
Sum of the cubes of these numbers
13 + 23 + 23 + 43 + 33 + 63 = ( 13 + 23 + 33 + 43) + 23 + 63
= 100 + 224 = 324
Sqauare of the sim of these divisors = ( 1 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 6)2 = 182 = 324.
Solution : The solution is based on the result derived in previous problems.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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We should show that F(N) = f(N)2, where F and f are as defined in previous problems.
[This interesting property of numbers was originally givenby Liouville and Srinicasa
Ramanujam, rediscovered it'.
If n = P1α1 .P2α 2 ........Pnα n , then

( )
F ( n) = F P1α1 .P2α 2 ........Pnα n and P1, P2, ......Pn distinct prime numbers and we have proved earlier
that F is multiplicative.

∴ ( ) ( ) ( )
F ( n) = F P1α1 .P2α 2 .....Pnα n = F P1α1 F P2α 2 .....F Pnα n ( )
⎡ (α i + 1)(α i + 2 ) ⎤
2

But F Pi ( )
α1
= 1 + 2 + .......α i = ⎢
3 3

⎣
3
2
⎥ for all i ∈ N
⎦
We have

⎡ (α + 1)(α1 + 2) ⎤ ⎡ (α 2 + 1)(α 2 + 2) ⎤ ⎡ (α n + 1)(α n + 2) ⎤

2 2 2

F (n) = ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ .... ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦

⎡⎣(α1 + 1)(α1 + 2)(α 2 + 1)(α 2 + 2) ...... (α n + 1) × (α n + 2 )⎤⎦

2

(2 )
2
n

( α
Now, f p1α1 . pα2 2 .... pn n )
=f ( p ) . f ( p ) ........ f ( p )
α1
1
α2
2
αn
n [Q f is multiplicative]

=
(α1 + 1)(α1 + 2) (α 2 + 1)(α 2 + 2) .... (α 2 + 1) (α n + 2 )
2 2 2

(α n + 1)(α n + 2 )
(α 1 + 1)(α 1 + 2)(α 2 + 2) ...... 2n
From (1) and (2) we see that F(n) = [f(n)]2.
Perfect Number :
If the sum of the divisors of a number n, other than itself, is equal to n, then n is called a perfect
number. For example, the first two perfect numbers are 6 and 28.
6=1+2+3
28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14
There are 50 perfect numbers known to date ( december 2017) all even, and it is conjectured that
there is no odd perfect number.
Example 8: Show that n = 2m–1(2m – 1) is a perfect number, if (2m – 1) is a prime number
Solution : Let n = 2m–1 × p, where p = 2m – 1 is a prime number.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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The divisors of 2m–1 × p are

1,2,22, 23, ..... 2m–1, p 2p, 22p, ....., 2m–2p, 2m–1 p
Now , we should sum all these divisors except the lsat one, 2m–1p.
S = ( 1 + 2 + 22 + ....... + 2m–1) + p ( 1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2m–2)

=
(
1 2m − 1 ) + p ⎡⎣1(2 m −1
)
− 1 ⎤⎦
2 −1 2 −1
= 2m
–1+ p(2m–1
– 1)
= p + p(2m–1 – 1) [Q [ = 2m – 1]
= p.2m–1
= 2m–1 ( 2m – 1) = n
Example 9: N =- 2n–1 (2n – 1) and (2n – 1) is a prime number 1 < d1 < d2 < ..... < dk = N are the
1 1 1 1
divisores of N. Show that 1 + + + .... + =2
d1 d2 dk
Solution : Let 2n – 1 = q
We alreaddy saw that 1, d1, d2 , ...... dk are 1, 2, 22, .. 2n–1, q, 2q, .... 2n–1q respectively.
1 1 1 1
So, S = + + + .... +
1 d1 d2 dk

1 1 1 1 1 ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤
= + + 2 + ... + n−1 + × ⎢ + + 2 + ..... + n−1 ⎥
1 2 2 2 q ⎣1 2 2 2 ⎦

2n − 1 1 2 − 1
S = n −1 +
n

=
( ) (
2n − 1 q + 2n − 1 ) ( )
∴
2 q 2 n −1 q 2 n −1

=
(2 n
)
− 1 ( q + 1)
=
(2 − 1)(2 ) 2
n n
n
=2
q2 n −1
(2 − 1)(2 ) = 2
n n −1 n−1

CONGRUENCES
The theory of congruences was introduced by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 – 1855), one of the greatest
mathematician of all times. Gauss contributed to the theory of numbers in many outstand ing ways,
including the basic idea of this chapter. Although pierre de fermat (1601 – 1665) has earlier studied
number theory in a some what systematic way, Gauss was first to develop the subject as a branch of
mathematics, rather than just a scatted collection of interesting problems. In his book 'Disquisitioner
Arithmetic', written at age 24, Gauss introduced the theory of congruences, which gained ready
acceptane as a fundamental tool for the study of number theory.
CONGRUENCE : Let a , b and n be integers , n > 0 . Then we say that ‘a is congruent to b modulo
n’, if n ( a − b) .We denote this by a ≡ b ( mod n).
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Example : 27 ≡ 2(mod 5) (Since 27 - 2 i.e., 25 is divisible by 5).

50 ≡ 8(mod 7) (Since 50 - 8 i.e., 42 is divisible by 7).
28 ≡ 1(mod 9) (Since 28 - 1 i.e., 27 is divisible by 9).
PROPERTIES OF CONGRUENCES :
Congruences have many properties in common with inequalities. some properties are listed in the
following theorems.
Theorem 1 :
Congruence relations satisfy the following properties of equivalences.
1) Reflexive law : If a is any integer, then a ≡ a (mod m)
2) Symmetric law : If a ≡ b (mod m), then b ≡ a (mod m)
3) Transitive law : If a ≡ b (mod m), b ≡ c (mod m), then a ≡ c (mod m)
Proof : 1) we have
a – a = 0. m which gives m | (a – a)
⇒ a ≡ a (mod m)
2) a ≡ b (mod m) ⇒ m(a – b)
⇒ m|b – a ⇒ b ≡ a (mod m)
3) a ≡ b (mod m), b ≡ c (mod m)
⇒ m | (a – b), m | (b – c)
⇒ m | (a – b + b – c)
⇒ m | (a – b + b – c)
⇒ m | (a – c)
⇒ a ≡ c (mod m)
Theorem 2 : If a1 ≡ b1 (mod m), a2 ≡ b2 (mob m), then

a1 ± a2 ≡ b1 ± b2 (mod m)
a1a2 ≡ b1 b2 (mod m)
ca1 ≡ cb1 (mod m), for any integer c.
Note : 1) In particular, if a ≡ b (mod m), then for any integer n, we have a n ≡ b n (mod m)
2) If a ≡ b (mod m), then f ( a ) ≡ f ( b ) (mod m) for every
Polynomial "f" with integer coefficients
Theorem 3 : (Cancellation Law)
If ca ≡ cb (mod m), (c, m) = 1, then a ≡ b (mod m)
Proof : Since ca ≡ cb (mod m)
Therefore, m | c(a – b) and (c, m) = 1
Then, m | (a – b)
⇒ a ≡ b (mod m)
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Deduction : If ca ≡ cb (mod m), (c, m) = d, then a ≡ b ⎛⎜ mod ⎞⎟

m
⎝ d⎠
m c
Proof : From m | c(a – b), we have | ( a − b)
d d
⎛ c m⎞ m
But, ⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ = 1, Hence, | (a − b)
d d d

Theorem 4 : If a ≡ b (mod m), a ≡ b (mod n) and k = [m, n], then a ≡ b (mod k).
Proof : As per given,
a ≡ b (mod m) ⇒ m | (a – b)
also a ≡ b (mod n) ⇒ n | (a – b)
Therefore, a – b is common multiple of m and n. Then, it is also the multiple of their least common
multiple k, thus k | (a – b),
⇒ a ≡ b (mod k)
Deduction : If a ≡ b (mod m), a ≡ b (mod n) and (m, n) = 1
Then, a ≡ b (mod mn)
Theorem : A positive integer N is divisible by
i) 2 if and only if the last digit ( unit’s digit ) is even;
ii) 4 if and only if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4;
iii) 8 if and only if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 8;
iv) 3 if and only if the sum of all the digits is divisible by 3;
v) 9 if and only if the sum of all the digits is divisible by 9;
vi) 5 if and only if the last digit is 0 or 5;
vii) 25 if and only if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 25;
viii) 125 if and only if the number formed by the last three digits is divisible by 125;
ix) 11 if and only if the difference between the sum of the digits in the odd places (starting from the
right) and the sum of the digit in the even places (starting from the right ) is a multiple of 11.
Proof : Let N ≡ a n a n-1 .....a 0 = an 10 n + an −110 n −1 + ...... + a1 .10 + a0 .

i) ( n n
)
Writing as an10 + an −110 −1 + ...... + a110 + a0 we immediately get the result.

Write N = ( a 10 + a 10 + .... + a 100) + ( a 10 + a ) .

n n −1
ii) n n −1 2 1 0

iii) Write N = ( a 10 + a 10
n
n
n −1
n −1
+ .... + a 1000 ) + ( a 100 + a 10 + a ) .
3 2 1 0

iv) N = {a (10 − 1) + a (10

n
n
n −1
n −1
− 1) + .... + a (10 − 1)} + ( a + a + a
1 n n −1 n −2 + ..... + a0 ) .
since 10n - 1 , 10n-1-1 , ....... are all divisible by 3 , therefore N is divisible by 3 if and only if
an + an-1 +.....+ ao is divisible by 3.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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v) ( ) ( )
Write N = an 10 − 1 + an −1 10 −1 − 1 + ...... + a1 (10 − 1) + {an + an −1 + ..... + a0 } .
n n

vi) (
N = an10n + an −110n −1 + ..... + a110 + a0 )
vii) N = ( a 10
n
n
)
+ an −110n −1 + ..... + a2102 + a110 + a0

N = ( a 10 + an −110 n −1 + ..... + a 10 ) + a 10 + a110 + a0 .

n 3 2
viii) n 3 2

ix) Observe that 10 ≡ −1(mod.11)

102 ≡ −1(mod.11),103 ≡ −1(mod.11)

10 n ≡ ( −1) (mod.11),
n

So that an 10 n + a110 n −1 + a210 n − 2 + ..... + a110 + a0

≡ an ( −1) + an −1 ( −1) + an − 2 ( −1) + ( −1) a1 + a0 ( mod11)

n n −1 n−2

≡ ( a0 + a2 + a4 + .....) − ( a1 + a3 + a5 ...) ( mod11) ,

( ) (
i.,e., N is divisible by 11 if and only if a0 + a2 + a4 + ..... − a1 + a3 + a5... is a multiple of 11. )
Example 1 : Obtain the necessary and sufficient condition that a positive integer n can be
divided by 7.
Solution : Since, we have
1000 ≡ −1 (mod 7)
We can write n = a0 + a1(1000) + a2(1000)2+ ..........+ ak – 1(1000)k – 1, 0 ≤ ai < 1000
Then, we get the required condition
k −1
( a0 + a2 + ...) − ( a1 + a3 + ...) = ∑ ( −1) ai ≡ 0 (mod 7) i

i=0
For example
n = 637693 = 693 + 637 (1000)
⇒ a0= 693, a1 = 637
Since, a0 − a1 = 693 − 637 = 56 ≡ 0 (mod 7)
Hence, 637693 is a multiple of 7.
LEAST AND MINIMAL RESIDUE :
Definition (1) : If a ≡ b (mod m), 0 ≤ b < m ,then b is known as the least residue of a (mod m).
m
Definition (2) : If a ≡ b (mod m) and 0 ≤ b ≤ , then m is called the minimal residue of a (mod m).
2
Note : Minimal residue is also called the absolutely least residue of a (mod m)

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Example 2 : Find the remainder when 548 is divided by 24.

Solution : Here, we have
5 48 = (52)24
= (25)24
≡ (1)24 (mod 24)
≡ 1(mod 24)
Hence, the required remainder is 1
Example 3 : Find the remainder when 2340 is divided by 341
Solution : Here, we have
341 = 11 × 31
340 = 68 × 5
Further, 25 = 32 ≡ −1 (mod 11)
Thus, (2)340 = (25)68 = 3268

≡ ( −1) (mod11)
68

≡ 1 ( mod11)
Similarly,
25 ≡ 1(mod 31)
(25)68 ≡ 1(mod 31)
⇒ 2340 ≡ [(mod (11 × 31)]
≡ 1(mod 341)
Example 4 : Find the remainder when the sum S = 1! + 2! + 3! + ........ + 1000! is divisible by 8.
Solution : We know that k! is divisible by 8 for all k ≥ 4 , we have
S = 1! 2! + 3! + ........ + 100!
≡ 1 + 2! + 3! (mod 8)
=1+2+6
=9
≡ 1 (mod 8)
Hence, the required remainder is 1.
n

Example 5 : Find the positive integer n for which ∑ k ! is a square

1

Solution : We know that when k ≥ 5, k ! ≡ 0 (mod 10) [since each k! for k ≥ 5 have 5 and 2 as it's
factor] so let n ≥ 5 . S denote the given sum. Then
n
S ≡ ones digit in ∑ k!( mod10 )
1

≡ (1!+ 2!+ 3!+ 4!)( mod10 )

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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≡ (1 + 2 + 24 )(mod10 )

≡ (1 + 2 + 6 + 24 )( mod10 )

≡ 3 ( mod10 )
Thus, the ones digit in S is 3 if n ≥ 5 .
But square of every integer must end in 0,1,4,5,6 or 9. Thus, if n ≥ 5 S can be a square.
When n = 1, S = 1 and when n = 3, S = 9 the perfect square but S is not a square when n = 2 or 4.
Thus, there are exactly two positive integers n for which S is a square namely 1 and 3.

EXERCISE
1. If xy = 22 . 34. 57 ( x + y), find the number of integral solution.

1 1 1
2. Find all positive integers x, y satisfying + = .
x y 20

1 1 1
3. For n ∈ N let s(n) denote the number of ordered pairs (x, y) of positive integer for which + = .
x y n
Determine the set of positive integers n for which s(n) = 5.
4. Find the largest positive integer n such that n3 + 100 is divisible by ( n + 10)
5. What is the remainder when 20162016 is divisible by 2017 ?
6. Show that 255 + 1 is divisible by 11.
7. Prove that 22225555 + 55552222 is divisible by 7.
8. If a, b, c are any three integers, then show that abc(a3 – b3) ( b3 – c3)(c3 – a3) is divisible by 7.
9. Find the remainder when 2100 + 3100 + 4100 + 5100 is divided by 7.
10. Find remainder when 1! + 2! + 3! + ...+ 100! is divided by 24.
11. Find the last digit of 4317.
12. Find last two digit of (1! + 2! + 3! + ........ + 100!)2.
13. Find the remainder when P = 11 + 22 + 33 + 44 + ........ + 5050 is divisible by 8.
14. Show that (1! + 2! + 3! + 4!)5 is of the form 5k + 3.
100

15. Prove that ∑ n! is divisible by 1001 but not by 1000.

n =14

16. [(1 + 10!) ( 1 + (10!)2) ( 1 + (10!)3) ......... (1 + (10!)100)]100 is divided by 10!. What is the remainder ?

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FERMAT'S THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Fermat's theorem :
Statement : If p is prime, then ap ≡ a(mod.p)
Proof : Using binomial expansion, we have-

( x1 + x2 ) p = x1p + p c1 x1p−1. x2 + p c2 x1p − 2 x22 + ...... + p c p −1 x1 x2p−1 + x2p

( )
= x1p + x2p + f ( p ) , where f(p) contains those terms which are divisible by p.

≡ (x 1
p
+ x 2p ) (mod p)
(
Similarly, ( x1 + x2 + .... + xa ) ≡ x1p + x2p .... + xap (mod p)
p
) (1)
Now, putting x1= x2 = ..... = xa = 1 in (1), we get
a p ≡ a (mod p)
Fermat's little theorem :
Statement 1: If p is prime and (a, p) = 1, then ap – 1 – 1 is divisible by p, i.e., a p −1 ≡ 1( mod p ) .
Proof : By Fermat's theorem, we have ap ≡ a(mod.p)
It is given that (a, p) = 1. Therefore, we cancel the common factor a .
Then, we have a p −1 ≡ 1 (mod p)
⇒ a p −1 − 1 ≡ 0 (mod p)

⇒ (a p −1
)
− 1 is divisible by p.

Wilson's Theorem : Wilson's theorem gives the necessary and sufficient condition for a number p to
be prime.

Statement 2 : The integer p is prime if and only if ( p − 1)!+ 1 ≡ 0 (mod p)

Solution : If p is prime, since x ≡ 1, 2,....., p − 1 (mod p) are the solution of x p −1 − 1 ≡ 0 (mod p), we
have x p −1 − 1 ≡ ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) ...... ( x − p + 1)( mod p )
Therefore, when p = 2, equation (1) is true.
When p is an odd prime, p – 1 is even and (1) is also true.
Conversely, if (1) holds, to show p is prime. Let if possible, p is composite. Let q be the proper factor of p.
Since 1 < q < p, we have ( p − 1)! ≡ 0 (mod q)
and therefore,
( p − 1)!+ 1 ≠ 0 (mod q)
Which is a contradiction.
Hence, p is prime
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Carmichael Function :
Carmichael function is denoted λ ( n ) and returns smallest natural numbers k such that a k ≡ 1 ( mod n)
for every integer a, where gcd (n, a) = 1
If we know that prime factorisation of n, then we can compute carmichael function.

⎧ φ ( n)
⎪ for n = 2α with a ≥ 3
⎪ 2
⎪
λ ( n) ⎨ φ ( n) for n = pα with p ≥ 3
⎪ φ ( n) for n = 2α with α < 3
⎪ α
(( )
⎪⎩lem λ p1 1 ,.....λ pmm
a
( )) for n = ∏ im=1 piα i , where α i ≥ 0

Carmichaels' s Theorem
If gcd (n, a) =1 , then

a
λ ( n)
= 1( mod n)

this theorem is stronger than Euler's theorem because λ ( n ) ≤ φ ( n )

7!
Example 1 : Find the remainder when 3511 is divided by 19.
Solution : By Fermat;s little theorem we have 318 ≡ 1 (mod 19). This hints that we will want to find

511 in modulo 180 now note that φ (18) = 6. . So by Euler;s theorem we have , 5 ≡ 1 ( mod 18).
7! 6

This hints that we will want to evaluate 117! In modulo6, this is easy because

117! ≡ ( −1) ≡ 1( mod 6)

7!

So there exists a such that 117! = 6a + 1, hence

511 ≡ 56 a.5 ≡ 5 ( mod18)

7!

This means that there exists b such that 5117! = 18b + 5 , so

≡ 318 b.35 ≡ 35 ≡ 15 ( mod19)

117!
35
Euler’s Totient Function :
Definition : The number of integers ≤ n and coprime to n is called Euler’s totient function for n and
denoted by φ (n).
Example: φ ( 1 ) = 1
[Q 1is the only integer ≤ 1 and coprime to 1] φ (2) = 1
[Q 1 is the only integer ≤ 2 and coprime to 1] φ (8) = 4
[Q 1, 3 , 5 , 7 are the only four integers < 8 and coprime to 8].
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Remark : If p is a prime number , then 1 , 2 , 3 , .... (p - 1) are all less than p and coprime to p and are
(p - 1) in total . φ (p) = p - 1.

k ⎛ 1⎞
k
( )
Theorem : φ p = p ⎜ 1 − ⎟ where is p is a prime .
⎝ p⎠
Proof : Number of integers from 1 to pk which are not coprime to pk are p.1 , p.2, p.3, ....p.pk-1 .
Total number of such integers , which are not coprime to pk = pk-1.

( )
∴ φ p k = Number of integers coprime to pk and < pk .

k ⎛ 1⎞
= pk - pk-1 = p ⎜ 1 − ⎟ .
⎝ p⎠
Result : If a and b are coprime to each other, then φ ( ab ) = φ ( a ) φ ( b ) .

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Theorem : φ ( n) = n ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ ... ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ pr ⎠
Where p1 , p2, ....pr are distinct prime factors of n .
Q n = p1 1 . p2 2 ...... pr r
k k k
Proof :
k
(
∴ φ ( n ) = φ p1 1 . p2 2 ...... pr r
k k
)
( ) ( )
= φ p1k1 φ p2k2 ......φ prkr ( )
[ Q p1 , p2 ,.....pr are distinct primes and hence are coprime to each other and φ (ab ) = φ (a) φ (b) , if
a and b are coprime to each other .]

⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= p1k1 ⎜1− ⎟ p2k2 ⎜1− ⎟ ...... prkr ⎜1− ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ pr ⎠

⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= p1k1 . p2k 2 ..... prkr ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ .... ⎜1 − ⎟ = n ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ .....⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ pr ⎠ ⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ pr ⎠

⎡⎣Q n = p1k1 . p2k2 .... prkr ⎤⎦

Example 2 : Find the number of positive integers ≤ 3600 that coprime to 3600.
Solution : n = 3600 = 24 × 32 × 52
⎛ 1⎞⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1⎞
φ ( n ) = φ (3600 ) = φ ( 2 4 × 32 × 5 2 ) = n ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ ⎝ p2 ⎠ ⎝ p3 ⎠

⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 3600 ⎜⎝ 1 − ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 − ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 1 − ⎟⎠ [ Here p1 = 2, p2 = 3 , p3 = 5 ]
2 3 5
1 2 4
= 3600 × × × ⇒ φ (3600) = 960
2 3 5
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Example 3 : If m > 2, show that φ (m) is even .

Solution : If ( a, m) = 1, then ( m - a ,m ) = 1
∴ Integers coprime to m occur in pairs of type a and m - a
∴ φ ( m) is even.
Example 4: For what values of m is φ ( m) odd.
Solution : If m > 2, φ ( m) is even.
φ (1) = 1, φ ( 2) = 1, only for m = 1 , m = 2.
φ ( m) is odd.

LINEAR CONGRUENCE
Definition : An integer x0 satisfying the linear congruence ax ≡ b(mod. m ) is called a solution of the
congruence.
For example, 4 and – 6 are solutions of 3x ≡ 2(mod. 5).
Theorem 1 : If (a, m) = 1, then the linear congruence ax ≡ b (mod.m) has a solution. Furthermore,
if x0 is a solution, then the set of all solutions is precisely {x0 + km : k ∈Z}.
Reamrk : Since any two solutions are congruent modulo m, we say that the solution is unique
modulo m. If there is no chance of confusion, we simply say that the congruence has a unique
solution.
Corollary : Let a, b and p be integers, a ≠ 0, p a prime which does not divide a. Then ax ≡ b(mod.p)
always has a solution which is unique modulo p.
Proof : Since p is a prime and p does not divide a, therefore (a, p) = 1. The result now follows
immediately from the theorem.
Example 1: Solve the linear congruence 8x ≡ 3(mod. 27).
Solutiuon: Since (8, 27) =1, there exists integers r and s such that 8r + 27s = 1.
Now 27 = 8.3 + 3, 8 27 3
24
8 = 3.2 + 2, 38 2
6
3 = 3.1 + 1, 231
2
2 = 1.2, 12 2
2
Thus 0
1 = 3 – 2. 1,
= 3 – (8 – 3.2) . 1,
= 8(– 1) + 3.3,
= 8(– 1) + (27 – 8.3).3, = 27.3 + 8 (– 10).
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Thus we find that 8(– 10) + 27.3 = 1.

Multiplying throughout by 3, we have
8(– 30) + 27.9 = 3,
or 8(– 30) – 3 = – 27.9,
So that 8(–30) ≡ 3(mod. 27).
Thus – 30 is a solution of the congruence. Hence all the solutions are given by x = – 30 + 27k, k ∈Z.
Since – 30 ≡ 24(mod. 27), therefore the desired solution can also be expressed as
x = 24 + 27k, k ∈Z.
This representation expresses the equivalence class of all solutions as [24] rather than as [– 30].
Verification : Since 8(24 + 27k) – 3 = 189 + 27.k = 27(7 + 8k),
therefore, 27 8 (24 + 27k)– 3, for all k ∈Z. Hence 24 + 27k is a solution of the given congruence for
all k ∈Z.
The solution is unique modulo 2.
We have seen that if (a, m) = 1, the congruence ax ≡ b(mod.m) always has a solution. If (a, m) ≠ 1,
the congruence ax ≡ b(mod,m) may, or may not have a solution.
Example 2: Show that the linear congruence 12x ≡ 8(mod. 15) has no solution.
Solution : If x0 be a solution of the given congruence, then 12x0 ≡ 8(mod.15), 12x0 – 8 = 15 k, for some
integer k.Thus 12x0 – 15 k = 8. Since 3 12 x0 and 3 12 k, it follows that 3 12 x0 – 15 k, i.e., must divide
8, which is false. Hence the given congruence has no solution.
Remark : Since (12, 15) = 3, the above example has no solution
Theorem : The linear congruence ax ≡ b(mod.m) has a solution if and only if d b , where d = (a, m).
If a solution exists, there is a unique solution (mod.m1),where m1 = m d . Thus there are exactly d
solutions xi, 0 ≤ xi < m, no two of which are congruent modulo m.
Example 3 : Solve the linear congruence 12x ≡ 9(mod. 15).
How many non - congsolutions modulo 15 are there ?
Solution : 12x ≡ 9(mod. 15),..........................(1)
⇔ 12x – 9 = 15k, for some k ∈Z,
⇔ 4x – 3 = 5k, for some k ∈Z,
⇔ 4x ≡ 3(mod.5)................................(2)
Thus an integer is a solution of the given congruence if and only if it is a solution of (2).
We shall try to find integers r and s such that 4r + 5s = 1.
Since (4, 5) = 1, this is possible.
5 – 4.1 = 1
4 = 4.1
Thus 5.1 + 4(–1) = 1.
Multiplying throughout by 3,we have
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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5.3 + 4(–3) = 3,
⇒ 4(–3) ≡ 3(mod.5).............................(3)
Thus x = – 3 gives asolution of (2) , and hence of (1).
From (2) and (3) ,we find that
x ≡ – 3(mod. 5),
i.e., x ≡ 2(mod. 5).
Hence x = 2 + 5r, t ∈Z,
Which is the solution of (2) and hence that of the given congruence. Since (12, 15) = 3, there will be
three non - congruent solutions modulo 15.
Verification : - If x = 2 + 5t, then
12x = 12(2 + 5t) ≡ 9(mod. 15).
Remark : - The solution can be expressedin another form as ollows:
Since every integer is of one of the forms 3m, 3m + 1, 3m + 2 for some m ∈Z, the solutions can be
written as
x = 2 + 5.3m, 2 + 5(3m + 1), 2+ (3m + 2), m ∈Z,
i.e., x = 2 + 15m, 7 + 15m, 12 + 15 m, m ∈Z,
i.e., x ≡ 2(mod.15), x ≡ 7(mod. 15), x ≡ 12(mod. 15).
Observe that 2, 7 and 12 are the three non - congruent positive solutions less than 15.
Chainese Remainder Theorem : We have so far dealt with the solution of a single linear congruence
in one unknown. The follwoing theorem deals with the solution of a special class of simultaneous in
one unknown. The solution is supposed to have been known to the Chinese mathematics Sun - Tsu
in the first century A.D.
Theorem : If (m1, m2) = 1, then the congruences x ≡ a1(mod.m1) and x ≡ a2(mod. m2) have a common
solution, which is unique modulo m1m2.
Example 4 : Solve the simultaneous congruences :
x ≡ 7 (mod.21) and x ≡ 3(mod.8)
Solution : The general solution of
x ≡ 7(mod.21)
is x = 7 + 21 k, where k ∈Z.....................(1)
(1) satisfies x ≡ 3(mod. 8).
Now, since 7 + 21k ≡ 3(mod.8) .............................(a)
21k ≡ – 4(mod.8)...............................(b)
Also since –16k ≡ 8(mod.8),
(a) + (b) ⇒
5k ≡ 4(mod.8).............(2)
Since (5, 8) = 1, the linear congruence(2) in k has a unique solution modulo 8.
To obtain a solution, we first find integers r and s such that
5r + 8s = 1.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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We can easily see that s = 2, r = – 3 is one such set of integers, so that

5(–3) + 8.2 = 1.
Multiplying throughout by 4, we have
5(– 12) + 8.8 = 4,
so that 5(–12) ≡ 4(mod.8).....................(3)
From (2) and (3),
k ≡ – 12 (mod.8), ≡ 4(mod.8).
If k = 4 + 8l, where l ∈Z,
then from (1), x = 7 + (4 + 8l).21,
i.e., x = 91 + 168l, l ∈Z,
or x ≡ 91(mod. 168) is the desired solution.
Verification : Since 91 ≡ 7(mod 21), 91 ≡ 3(mod.8), and 168l is a multiple of 21 as well as of 8,
therfore (4) is, indeed, the desired solution.
Remark : In the above example, we proceeded to obtain the solution. The follwoing rule can also be
used to solve a pair of simultaneous congruences:
Let r and s be integers such that m1r + m2s = 1. Then x ≡ (a2m1r + a1m2s)(mod.m1m2) is the unique
solution of the congruences x ≡ a1(mod.m1) and x ≡ a2(mod.m2) where (m1, m2) = 1.
To solve the above example with the help of this rule we find integers r and s such that 21r + 8s = 1.
It can be easily seen that r = – 3, s = 8 is one pair of desired values.
∴ x ≡ (3.21r + 7.8s)(mod.168),
i.e., x ≡ ((–63).3 + 56.8)(mod. 168),
i.e., x ≡ 259(mod. 168),
i.e., x ≡ 91(mod.168) is the desired solution.
An Application of Chinese Reminder theorem :
The Chinese reminder theorem can be used to solve the linear congruence ax ≡ b(mod.m),
Where m is not a prime and (a, m) = 1.
Let us write m = m1m2, where m1, m2 are relatively prime. We consider the two linear congruences
ax ≡ b(mod.m1) and ax ≡ b(mod m2) .Suppose that on solving these congruences, we get solutions
as x ≡ a1(mod.m1) and x ≡ a2(mod.m2) respectively. By applying the Chinese remainder theorem we
can get a common solutions, say x ≡ c(mod m1m2).Then it can be easily seen that x ≡ c(mod.m1m2)
is the desired solution of the given congruence.
Example 5: Solve the congruence 32x ≡ 79(mod.1225).
Solution : Since 1225 = 52 . 72, we shall consider the congruences
32x ≡ 79(mod.52).............(i)
and 32x ≡ 79(mod.72).............(ii)
To solve (i), we re - write it as 7x ≡ 4(mod.25).
Since (–7).7 + 2.25 = 1,
x ≡ –28(mod.25),
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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i.e., x ≡ 22(mod.25) is the unique solution of (i).

Similarly, to solve (ii) we re - write it as
32x ≡ 30(mod.49),
⇔ 16x ≡ 15(mod.49).
Since 16.(–3) + 49.1 = 1, therefore 16(–45) + 4.15 = 15.
Hence x ≡ –45(mod.49),
⇔ x ≡ 4(mod.49),
So that x ≡ 4 (mod.49) is the unique solution of the congruence(ii).
We have now to apply the congruence reminder theorem to solve the pair of congruences
x ≡ 22(mod.25) and x ≡ 4(mod.49).
Since 2.25 + (–1)49 = 1,
therefore x ≡ –878 (mod.1225), or x ≡ 347(mod. 1225), is the desired solution.
Verification :
32.347 = 11107 = 1225.9 + 79,
showing that
32.347 ≡ 79(mod.1225).
Example 6: Show that any integer satisfies at least one of the following five congruences.
x ≡ 0 (mod 2), x ≡ 0 (mod 3), x ≡ 1 (mod 4)
x ≡ 5 (mod 6), x ≡ 7 (mod 12)
Solution : We know that any even integer satisfies
x ≡ 0 (mod 2)
For modulo 12, all odd integers can be classified into six classes
12k + 1, 12k + 3, 12k + 5, 12k + 7, 12k + 9, 12k + 11
Where k is any integer, Obviously, the classes 12k + 3, 12k + 9 satisfy x ≡ 0 (mod 3)
The classes 12k + 1, 12k + 1 satisfy x ≡ 1 (mod 4) and the classes 12k + 7, 12k + 11 satisfy x ≡ 7
(mod 12), x ≡ 5 (mod 6), respectively.
Example 7: Find the last three digits of 1241000.
Solution : We want to evaluate the number modulo 1000. Here we fine ourselves in trouble we have
ged (124, 1000) ≠ 1, so we cannot use Euler's theorem or Carmichael's theorem. But luckily Chinese
remainder theortem can help us. First we write 1000 as product of coprime numbers 1000 = 8.125,
now we have
1241000 ≡ 0 ( mod 8)
and 1241000 = ( – 1)1000 ≡ 1 ( mod 125).
Well, what was that for ? Now we have system of congruences, namely
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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⎧⎪1241000 ≡ 0 (mod 8)
⎨
⎪⎩124
1000
≡1 ( mod125)
And remember that according to Chinese remainder theorem this system of congruences has unique
solution in modulo 8.125 = 1000, which is exactly what we want!. Notice that Chinese remainder
theorem does not tell us how to find the solution , fortunately it is nothing hard. From firt congruence
there exists 'a' such that 1241000 = 8a so in second congruence we have

8 a ≡ 1 ( mod125)
i.e., there exists b such that 8a = 125b + 1, looking at this modulo 8 we find that
3b ≡ 1 ( mod 8) ⇔ 3b ≡ 1 + 8 ( mod 8) ⇔ n ≡ 3 ( mod 8) . This means that there exists c such that b = 8c
+ 3, thus
1241000 = 125 (8c + 3) + 1 = 1000c + 376
So the last three digits are 376.
Binomial Coefficient

⎛ n⎞
number ⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ , where 0 ≤ k ≤ n, n ∈ N is called bnomial coefficient and we have

⎛ n⎞ n!
⎜⎝ k ⎟⎠ =
( n − k )!.k !
Binomial Theorem
The following expansion holds for any real numbers x, y

( x + y) ∑ ⎛⎜⎝ in⎞⎟⎠ x n−i yi , n ∈ N

n

i=0

Example : Find last three digits of 999.

Solution : We wish to find remainder when 999 is divided by 1000. Now we will write 9 = 10 – 1 and
use binomial theorem.
⎛ 99⎞ ⎛ 99⎞
999 ≡ (10 − 1) ≡ − ⎜ ⎟ 10 − ⎜ ⎟ .100 (mod 1000)
99

⎝1 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Other terms in the expansion vanish because they are divisible by 1000.
⎛ 99⎞ ⎛ 99⎞ 99! 98.99
Now ⎜⎝ 1 ⎟⎠ = 99 and ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ = = = 4851 .
97!2! 2
Thus
9 99 ≡ 1 + 880 − 485100 ≡ −111 = 889 ( mod1000) )

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Digit sum Characteristic Theorem

Sum of digits of a number is congruent to the number modulo 9. The same holds for modulo 3.
Proof : Since 10 n ≡ 1 (mod 9) for all n ∈ N , any number written in decimal represention such as
anan–1an–2..........a1a0)10 ≡ an + an–1 + .... + a1 + a0 (mod 9)
Example : All two - digit mnumbers from 10 to 99 are written consecutively . i.e., N =
101112......99. Show that 32|N. Form which other two - digit number you should start so that N
is divisible by (a)3 (b) 32.
Solution : N is divisible by 9, if the digit sum is divisible by 8.
The digit sum of N.
The number of 1's occurring in the digits
from 10 to 19 = 11
and from 20 to 99 = 8
so, total of 1's is 11 + 8 = 19
Similarly, no of 2's , 3's,...... 9 are all equal to 19.
So, sum of all the digits = 19 ( 1 + 2 + 3 + ....... + 9)
19 × 9 × 10
= = 19 × 5 × 9 = 855
2
and as 9|855, 1011.....99 is divisible by 9.
When the numbers start from 12, the sum of the digits become 855 – 3 = 852( since 10, 11 account for
the digital sum 3) and hence, is divisible by 3.
a) For divisibility by 3, it could start from 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25,....
b) for divisible by 32 = 9, the numbers may start from any of 18, 19, 27, 28, 36, 37
Example : Find the remainder when 43333333 is divided by 9.
Solution : 4333 = 4 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 13 (mod 9) ≡ 4 (mod 9)
∴ 43333 ≡ 43 (mod 9)
≡ 64 ( mod 9)
≡ 1 (mod 9)
⇒ 43333333 = 1 ( mod 9)
i.e., when 43333333 is divided by 9, then remainder is 1.
.5
..
Example : Find the remainder when x = 555 (24 times 5) is divided by 24.
..5
Solution : Here exponent is 555. (23 times 5) is an odd natural number.
Therefore x = 52m+1 = 5 × (25)m, where m is a natural number. Thus
x = 5 × (24+1)m
= 5 + a multiple of 24.
Hence, the remainder is 5.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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EXERCISE
1. Find the remainder when 4175 is divided by
2. Show that 17 is a prime by proving 16! ≡ −1 (mod 17).

3. If (a, 42) = 1, show that a 6 ≡ 1 (mod 168).

4. Show that 18! ≡ −1 (mod 437)
5. If p is prime prove that ap ( p – 1)! + a is divisible by p.
6. Find the number of positive integers ≤ 3600 that coprime to 3600.
7. If 10m divides the number 101100 – 1, then find the greatest value of m.
8. Find the remainder when 6n – 5n is divided by 25.
9. Find the remainder when 16902608 + 26081690 is divisible by 7.
10. If 97 – 79 is divisible by 2n, then find the greatest value of n, where n ∈ N .
11. Solve the follwoing congruences:
a) 3x ≡ 1(mod. 7) b) 5x ≡ 3(mod. 49) c) 5x ≡ 2(mod. 17) d) 9x ≡ 11(mod. 85)
12. Which of the follwoing linear congruenceshave solutions ? Obtain the solutions when they exist :
a) 4x ≡ 1(mod. 6) b) 6x ≡ 2(mod. 8) c) 6x ≡ 2(mod. 9) d) 12x ≡ 6(mod. 9)
13. Solve the systems of congruences :
a) x ≡ 1(mod.2), x ≡ 1(mod.3) b) x ≡ 3(mod.5), x ≡ 5(mod.7)
c) 3x ≡ 1(mod.5), 2x ≡ 3(mod. 7) d) x ≡ 3(mod.9), 2x ≡ 1(mod.13)

SCALES OF NOTATION
Every natural number that we use is expresseed in expanded notation in the form of

an 10n + an–1 10n–1 + ..... + a1101 + a0, where 0 ≤ ai ≤ 9 and an ≠ 0 and we cab write it as
(anan–1 ..... a1a0)10 and call an, an–1, .....a1, a0 as the digits of the number.
Here an means there are 'an', 10n 's in the number and so on.
Thus, we have a place value for every digit. the numbers, that we use are also called number in base
10 or number in decimal system.
Bases other than 10 can also be used to represent numbers. Supposing b > 1 is the base for the
different place values we have different non - negative integral powers of b.
Thus, every natural numbers m can be represented in base 'b', b > 1, b ∈ N as given below

m = anbn + an–1bn–1 + ....... + a1b1| + a0 where 0 ≤ ai ≤ b − 1 for each i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – 1 and

1 ≤ an ≤ b − 1 .
1. Here 'b' is called the base for the representation.
2. Usually , we write the above as (a a n n–1 ....... a a )
1 0 b
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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3. In base b system we use 'b' different numerals (0, 1, 2, 3,...., b – 1).

4. Given any numbers n, ( say in base 10) and 'b' the base in which the number n is to be represented,
we can find the number in the form given in eq. (1) by the repreated application of the rule
Dividend = Quotient × divisor + Remainder.
5. Base 2, base 8 and base 16 are very often used in computers and they are called binary octal
and hexasecimal systems, respectively.
Example : Express 2910 in bse 2, base 3 and base 5 systems.
Solution : We can write 2910 as
(29)10 = 24 + 23 + 22 + 1
= 1.24 + 1.23 + 1.22 + 0.2 + 1
= (11101)2

2 29
2 14,1 = a0
2 7,0 = a1
or 2 3,1 = a2
2 1,1 = a3
0,1 = a4

(29)10 = ( 11101)2
(29)10 = 33 + 2
= 1.32 + 0.32 + 0.32 + 2 = (1002)3

3 29
3 9,2 = a0
3 3,0 = a1
or 3
1,0 = a2
0,1 = a3

(29)10 = ( 1002)3
(29)10 = 52 + 4 = 1.52 + 0.5 + 4 = (104)5

5 29
5 5,4 = a0
or 5 1,0 = a1
0,1 = a2

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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5 29
5 5,4 = a0
5 1,0 = a1
0,1 = a2

∴ (29)10 = (104)5

Note that divisor dividend

quotient, remainder
Example : Express (1042)10 in base 12 system.
Solution : In base 12 we have 12 numerals. We take them as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B , where
A = (10)10
B = ( 11)10

12 1042
12 86,10 = a0
12 7,2 = a1
0,7 = a2

(1042)10 = ( 72A)12
Example : A three - digit number in base 11, when expressed in base 9, has its digits reversed.
Find the number.
Solution : (xyz)11 = ( zyx)9
112x + 11y + z = 92z + 8y + x
120x + 2y – 80z = 0
60x + y – 40z = 0
20(2z – 3x) = y
sp 20|y, but as 0 ≤ y < 9, y = 0

Therefore, 2z = 3x. As 0 ≤ x, z < 9 , the solution are x = 2, z = 3 and x = 4, z = 6

Thus the two possible solutions are (203)11 and (406)11
Example : Show that N = ( 1 2 3 4 3 2 1)b written in base b, b > 4 is a square number for all b.
Solution : ( 1 2 3 4 3 2 1)b in the expanded notation is b6 + 2b5 + 3b4 + 4b3 + 3b2 + 2b + 1, b > 4
Now N = (b3 + b2 + b + 1)2.
This is true for all real number b and hence is true for all b > 4, b ∈N also.

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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EXERCISE
1. Find all perfect square whose base 9 representation consists only of 1's .
2. a) In base 9, find the greatest perfect square of 4 digits.
b) In base 16, find the greatest perfect square of 4 digits.
3. Express (1042)10 in the base 12 system ?
4. If (2)3 + (3)4 = (x)5, where x is a single digit, then find x.
5. If (11x1y)8 = (12C9)16 then number ordered pairs of (x, y) is/ are.
6. A number N in base 10 is 503 in base b and 305 in base b + 2. What is the product of the digits of N ?
7. A three digit non - zero number 'ABC' in base 5, when converted to base 7, becomes 'CBA'. Find the
value of B.
8. In equation below, A and B are consecutive positive integer and A, B and A + B represent number
bases (132)A + (43)B = (69)A + B. What is A + B ?
9. Let Nb = 1b + 2b + 3b + .... 100b for an integer b > 2 compute the number of values of b for which the
sum of squares of the digits Nb is atmost 512.
10. Find number of traling zeroes
i) 30! is converteed to base 7 ?
ii) 100! is converted to base 6 ?

GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTION

Greatest integer function is also known as Bracket function . If x is any real number , then the largest
integer which does not exceed x is called the integral part of x and will be denoted by [ x ] .
The function which associates with each real number x , the integer [ x ] is often called the bracket
function . For example , [3] = 3, [ −4] = −4, [3.7] = 3,

[−4, 2] = −5, ⎡⎢ 3 ⎤⎥ = 1, [−π ] = −4, [π ] = 3, [e] = 2

5
⎣ ⎦
Note : 1) [x] is the greatest integer ≤ x.
2) If a and b are positive integer , such that a = qb + r , 0 ≤ r < b
a r r
Then = q + , where 0 < < 1
b b b
⎡a⎤
∴⎢ ⎥ = q
⎣b⎦
⎡a⎤
i.,e ., ⎢ ⎥ is the quotient in the division a by b.
⎣b⎦

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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Properties of greatest integer function :

1) [ x ] ≤ x < [ x ] + 1 and x − 1 < [ x ] ≤ x, 0 ≤ x − [ x ] < 1

2) If x ≥ 0, [ x ] = ∑ 1
1≤ i ≤ x

3) [ x + m] = [ x ] + m, If m is integer.
4) [ x] + [ y ] ≤ [ x + y ] ≤ [ x] + [ y ] + 1
5) [ x ] + [− x ] = 0, If x is an integer
= -1 otherwise.
⎡ [ x] ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
6) ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ , if m is a positive integer.
⎣ m ⎦ ⎣ m⎦
7) − [− x ] is the least integer greater than or equal to x.This is denoted as ( x) ( read as ceiling x ).
For example , ( 2.5) = 3, ( -2.5 ) = -2.
8) [ x + 0.5] is the nearest integer to x. if x is midway between two integers , [ x + 0.5] represents
the larger of the two integers.
⎡n⎤
9) The number of positive integers less than or equal to n and divisible by m is given by ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣m⎦
∞
⎡n⎤
10) If p is a prime number and e is the largest exponent of p such that p n! then e =
e
∑⎢ p ⎥ i
i =1 ⎣ ⎦
⎡ [ a] ⎤ ⎡ a ⎤
11) If a is real number , c is natural number , then ⎢ c ⎥ = ⎢ c ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x + 1⎤
For every positive real number ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ = [ x]
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
12)

⎡ n ⎤ ⎡ n + 1⎤ ⎡ 2n ⎤
If n and k are positiive integers and k is greater than 1, then ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ≤
⎣ k ⎦ ⎣ k ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ k ⎥⎦
13) .

⎡ n + 1⎤ ⎡ n + 2 ⎤ ⎡ n + 4 ⎤ ⎡ n + 8 ⎤
If n be any positive integer, then ⎢ + + + + ..... = n
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 16 ⎥⎦
14)

⎡ 1⎤ ⎡ 2⎤ ⎡ n − 1⎤
15) For every real number x, [ x ] + ⎢ x + ⎥ + ⎢ x + ⎥ + .... + ⎢ x + = [ nx ]
⎣ n⎦ ⎣ n⎦ ⎣ n ⎥⎦
16) [ x ] + [ y ] ≤ [ x + y ], x = [ x ] + { x} and y = [ y ] + { y} , where both { x} and { y} , are greater than
or equal to 0 but less than 1.
⎡n⎤ ⎡ n ⎤ ⎡ n ⎤
17) The highest power of prime number p contained in n ! is given by k ( n!) = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 2 ⎥ + ⎢ 3 ⎥ + .....
⎣ p⎦ ⎣ p ⎦ ⎣ p ⎦
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Example : Prove that ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣ 2 x ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣ 4 x ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣8 x ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣16 x ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣32 x ⎥⎦ = 12345 has no solution.

Solution : 12345 ≤ x + 2x + 4x + 8x + 6x + 32 = 63x
12345 20
x≥ = 195
63 21
When x = 196, the L.H.S of the given equation becomes 12348 ⇒ x < 196
20
195 ≤ x < 196
21

⎛ 31 ⎞
Consider x in the interval ⎜⎝ 195 ,196⎟⎠ . The LHS expression of the given equation
32
= 198 + 0 + 390 + 1 + 780 + 3 + 1560 + 7 + 3120 + 15 + 6240 + 31 = 12342 < 12345
31
When x < 195 , the LHS is less than 12342.
32
∴ for no value of x, the given equality will be satisfied
Example : How many zeroes are there at the end of 2000! ?
Solution; If k be the highest power of 5 and l be the highest power of 2 contained in 2000!, then the
highest power of 10 contained in 2000! is the minimum of k and l, as the highest power of 2 contained
in any factorial is greater than the highest power of 5 contained in it.
For example, consider 10!
10! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 × 9 × 10.
So, the highest power of 2 contained in 10! is 2 × 22 × 2 × 23 × 2 of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 of the factors, i/
e., 28 = 256 and the highest power of 5 in 10! is 51 × 51 of 5 and 10 = 52 = 25
If ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ denote the greatest integer less than or equal to x, then the highest power of 5 contained in
2000! is
⎢ 2000 ⎥ ⎢ 2000 ⎥ ⎢ 2000 ⎥ ⎢ 2000 ⎥
⎢ 5 ⎥ + ⎢ 52 ⎥ + ⎢ 53 ⎥ + .... + ⎢ 5n ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎢ 2000 ⎥
where 5n ≤ 2000 for otherwise, ⎢ n ⎥ = 0 and hence, the sum in (1) is not an inifnite sum.
⎣ 5 ⎦
Therefore, k = 400 + 80 + 16 + 3 + 0 + ..... = 499.
So, the number of zero at the end of 2000! is 499.
Example : Find all n such that n! ends with exactly 497 zeroes.
n
Solution : If e = 497, then n ≥ 1988. . ( As e < from previous example)
4
Consider = 1990
For n = 1990, 3 = 495
For n = 1995, e = 496. But when n = 2000, e jumps to 499 as 2000 is a multiple of 125.
∴ For no n ∈ N , n! ends with exactly 497 zeroes.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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EXERCISE
1. Find the number of zeroes at the end of (5n)!.
2. Find the number of zeroes at the end of 200C100.

3. If n is a positive integer, prove that ⎡⎣ n + n + 1 ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣ 4 n + 2 ⎤⎦

Solve equation ⎣⎢ x ⎥⎦ = { x} . x
2
4.

Given that n is a natural number, how many roots of the equation x 2 − ⎢⎣ x 2 ⎥⎦ = ( x − ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ ) are in the
2
5.
interval 1 ≤ 1 ≤ x ≤ n ?

⎢ 10 n ⎥
6. Find the minimum natural n, such that the equation ⎢ n ⎥ = 1989 has integer solution x.
⎣ ⎦

7. How many different non - negative integers are therer in the sequence
⎢ 12 ⎥ ⎢ 22 ⎥ ⎢ 32 ⎥ ⎢ 1980 2 ⎥
⎢ ,
⎥ ⎢ ,
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ,....., ⎢ ⎥?
⎣ 1980 ⎦ ⎣ 1980 ⎦ ⎣ 1980 ⎦ ⎣ 1980 ⎦

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ must true ?
8. For x > 1 be the inequality ⎢ ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ ⎥ = ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎣ ⎦

9. Solve the equation ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ { x} + x = 2 { x} + 10 .

92 92
10. Solve the equation x + x = ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ + ⎢ x ⎥ .
⎣ ⎦

DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
An equaiton of the form f(x1, x2, x3,.... xn) = 0 where f is an n - variable function with n ≥ 2 is called
dio[hantine equation. if f is polynomial with integral coefficients, then it is called algebraic diophantine
equation.
An n - tuple (a1, a2,.... , an) ∈ Zn satisfying the equation called a solution to the equation.
In diophantine equation we basically concern woth solvability of the equition number of solution
finite or infinite and determining all solutions.
Please observe following example.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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Example 1: Determine the integer n for which n2 + 19n + 92 is a square.

Solution : Let n2 + 19n + 92 = x2, where x is a positive integer.
Now 4(n2 + 19n + 92) = 4x2
( 2n + 19)2 + 7 = 4x2
(2x)2 – ( 2n + 19)2 = 7
( 2x + 2n + 19) ( 2x – 2n – 19) = 7
As x is positive both cannot be negative.
hence, both must be positive. There are two possibilities
2x + 2n + 19 = 1
and 2x – 2n – 19 = 7
n = – 11
or 2x + 2n + 19 = 7
and 2x – 2n – 19 = 1
n=–8
Hence, n = –8, –11.
Example 2: Find all unordered pairs of natural numbers, the difference of whose square is 45.
Solution : Let x and y be the natural numbers such that x2 – y2 = 45, where x > y
(x – y) ( x + y) = 45
So, both *x – y) and ( x + y) are the divisors of 45 and x + y > x – y where x and y are positive
integers.
So, x – y = 1 and x + y = 45 ........(1)
or x – y = 3 and x + y = 15 ........(2)
or x – y = 5 and x + y = 9 ........(3)
Solving (1), (2) and (3) we get
x = 23, y = 22 and
x = 9, y = 6 and
x = 7, y = 2
So the pairs of numbers satisfying the condition are (23, 22) ( 9, 6), ( 7, 2).
Example : Find all the ordered pairs of integers (x, z) such that x3 = z3 + 721
Solution : Since x3 – z3 = 721
⇒ x3 – z3 = ( x – z) (x2 + xz + z2) = 721
For integers x, z, x2 + xz + z2 >0
⇒ x–z>0
So ( x – z) ( x2 + xz + z2) = 721 = 1 × 721
= 7 × 103 = 103× 7 = 721 × 1
Case - I : x – z = 1⇒ x = 1 + z
and x2 + xz + z2 = ( 1 + z)2 + 1 ( 1 + z) z + z2 = 721
⇒ 3z2 + 3z – 720 = 0
⇒ z2 + z – 240 = 0
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46 Varsity Education Management Pvt. Ltd.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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⇒ ( z + 16) ( z – 15) = 0
⇒ z = – 16 or z = 15
Solving we get
x = – 15 or 16
So ( – 15, – 16) and (16,15) are two of the ordered pairs.
Case - II : x – z = 7 or x = 7 + z
and x2 + xz + z2 = 103
⇒ ( 7 + z)2 + ( 7 + z) z + z2 = 103
⇒ 3z2 + 21z – 54 = 0
⇒ z2 + 7z – 18 = 0
⇒ ( z + 9) ( z – 2) = 0
⇒ z = – 9 or z = 2
So, the corresponding values of x are – 2 and 9.
So, the other ordered pairs are ( –2, –9) and (9, 2)
Corresponing to x – z = 103 and x – z = 721, then values are imaginary and hence there are exactly
four ordered pairs of integers (–15,–16) ( 16,15), (–2,–9) and (9,2) satisfying the equation x3 = z3 +
721.

EXERCISE - I
1. Let n be the natural number. If 2n + 1 and 3n + 1 are perfect square. then prove that n is divided by 40.
2. Prove that there are infinitely many squares in teh sequence 1,3,6,10,15,21,28.
3. If N = 123 × 34 × 52, find the total number of even factor of N.
4. Determine all integers n such n4 – n2 + 64 is the square of an integer.

5. If 11 + 11 11a 2 + 1 is an odd integerwhere a is a rational number. Prove that a is perfect square.

6. Determine all pairs of positive integers (m,n) for which 2m + 3n is a perfect sqaure.
7. Determine the set of integers n for which n2 + 19n + 92 is a square.
8. Find n, if 2200 – 2192. 31 + 2n is a perfect square.
9. Find the number of values of n for which 211 + 28 + 2n is a perfect square..
10. Find all positive integer n for which n2 + 96 is a perfect square.
11. Given with justification, a natural number n which 39 + 312 + 315 + 3n is a perfects cube.

EXERCISE - II
1. An integer solution of the equation 1990x – 1989y = 1991 is
a) x = 12785, y = 12768 b) x = 12785, y = 12770
c) x = 11936, y = 11941 d) x = 13827, y = 12623
2. A four digit number has remainder 13 when divided by 16, and has remainder 122 when divided by
125. Find the minimum value of such four digit numbers.
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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3. Given that x1 – cent coins, y2 – cent coins and z5 – cent coins have a total value of 10 dollars. Find
the possible values of x, y, z.
4. m, n are integers satisfying 3m + 2 = 5n + 3 and 30 < 3m + 2 < 40, find the value of mn.
5. Suppose x, y and z are positive integers such that x > y > z > 663 and x, y and z satisfy the following
x + y + z = 1998, 2x + 3y + 4z = 5992. Find the values of x, y and z.
6. Prove that there are infinitely many positive integer solutions (x, y, z) to the equation x – y + z = 1,
such that x, y, z are distinct and any two them have a product which is divisible by the remaining
number.
7. Prove that for relatively prime two positive integers a and b the equation ax + by = c must have
non - negative integer solution if c > ab – a – b.

1260
8. Given that is a positive integer, where a is a positive integer. Find the value of a.
a +a−6
2

ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS WITH SOLUTIONS

1. Find the number of positive integer n, such that the remainder is 7 when 2007 is divided by n.
Sol. The division with remainder 2007 = nq + 7 implies nq = 2000, where q is the quotient. Since nq =
2000 = 24 . 53 has (4 + 1) . (3 + 1) = 20 positie divisors and among them only 1, 2, 4 5 are less than 7,
so there are 20 – 4 = 16 divisors can be taken as n. 16 positive integers can be taken as n.
2. Prove that 7 (22225555 + 55552222).
Sol. Since 2222 ≡ 3 (mod 7) and 36 ≡ 1 (mod 7), it follows that
22225555 ≡ 36×925 . 35 ≡ 243 ≡ 5 (mod 7).
Since 5555 ≡ 4 (mod 7) and 43 ≡ 1 (mod 7), it follows that
55552222 ≡ 42222 ≡ 43×740 . 42 ≡ 16 ≡ 2 (mod 7).
Thus, 22225555 + 55552222 ≡ 5 + 2 ≡ 0 (mod 7), i.e.
7 | (22225555 + 55552222).
3. n = 3 × 7 × 11 × 15 × 19 × ... × 2003. Find the last three digits of n.
Sol. It is clear that n is odd since it is the product of odd numbers. Let x be the last three digits in that order,
then n ≡ x (mod 1000). Since 15, 35, 55 are three numbers in the product, so n is divisible
by 125, hence x is divisible by 125. Thus, the possible values of x are 125, 375, 625, 875 only.

On the other hand, 1000 ( n − x ) ⇔ 8 ( n − x ) , so n ≡ x (mod 8). For getting the remainder of
n modulo 8, we find that
n = (3) (4.1 + 3) (4.2 + 3) (4 .3 + 3) ..... (4.499 + 3) (4.500 + 3)
≡ (3.7 ). (3.7 )..... (3.7 ).3 ≡ 5.5.....5.3
1424 3 (mod 8)
14442444 3 250 of 5
250 pairsof brackets

≡ 1.1....1.3 ≡ 3
123 (mode 8)
125
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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Among 125, 375, 625, 875, only 875 has remainder 3 modulo 8, so x = 875, i.e. the last three digits
of n is 875.
4. a) Find all positive integers n for which 2n – 1 is divisible by 7.
b) Prove that there is no positive integer n for which 2n + 1 is divisible by ?
Sol. a) When n = 3k where k is a positive integer, then
2n – 1 ≡ (23)k – 1 ≡ 1k – 1 ≡ 0 (mod 7),
so each multiple of 3 is a solution.
When n = 3k + r, where r = 1 or 2, then

⎧1 if r = 1
2n – 1 = (23)k . 2r – 1 ≡ 2r – 1 ≡ ⎨
⎩3 If r = 2
so n = 3k for some positive integer k is the necessary and sufficient condition for 7| (2n – 1).
b) From (a) it is obtained that 2n ≡ 0, 1 or 3 (mod 7), so 2n + 1 ≡ 0 (mod 7) for any
positive integer n.
5. What is the units digit of 31999 × 72000 × 172001 ?
A) 1 B) 3 C) 5 D) 7 E) 9
Sol. Since 34 ≡ 1 (mod 10) and 74 = 2401 ≡ 1 (mod 10),
31999 = (34)499 . 33 ≡ 7 (mod 10),
72000 = (74)500 ≡ 1 (mod 10)
172001 ≡ 72001 ≡ 72000 . 7 ≡ 7 (mod 10);
so 31999 × 72000 × 172001 ≡ 7 . 1 . 7 ≡ 9 (mod 10), i.e. the solution is (E).
6. Find the last two digitis of 141414 .
Sol. First of all we find the remainder of 141414 modulo 25.
142 = 196 ≡ – 4 (mod 25) ⇒ (14)5 ≡ (–4)2 .14 ≡ 224 ≡ –1 (mod 25),
so (14)10 ≡ 1 (mod 25). On the other hand,
142 = 196 ≡ 6 (mod 10) ⇒ 1414 ≡ 67 ≡ 6 (mod 10),
so 1414 = 10t + 6 for some positive integer t, hence
1414 = 14
14 10t+6
= (1410)t .145.14 ≡ (1)(–1)(14) ≡ 11 (mod 25),
Since 141414 = (2 . 7)2(5t+3) = 45t+3.710t+6 which is divisible by 4, so

1414 ≡ 0 (mod 4). Write 1414 = 25K + 11 where K is a positive

14 14

integer, then
25K + 11 ≡ 0 (mod 4),
K – 1 ≡ 0 (mod 4),
K ≡ 1 (mod 4), i.e. K = 4l + 1 for some l ∈¥ ,
∴ 1414 = 25(4l + 1) + 11 = 100l + 36.
14

Thus the last two digits of 141414 are 36.

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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7. Find all the positive integers n, such that n. 2n + 1 is divisible by 3.

Sol. Note that n.2n + 1 ≡ 0 ≡ 3 (mod 3) ⇔ n . 2n ≡ 2 (mod 3).
i) For n = 6k + 1, where k is any non-negative integer,
n . 2n = (6k + 1) . 26k+1 ≡ 2 .43k ≡ 2 (mod 3).
ii) For n = 6k + 2, where k is any non-negative integer,
n . 2n = (6k + 2) . 26k+2 ≡ 8.43k ≡ 2 (mod 3).
iii) For n = 6k + 3, where k is any non-negative integer,
n . 2n = (6k + 3) . 26k+1 ≡ 0 (mod 3).
iv) For n = 6k + 4, where k is any non-negative integer,
n .2n = (6k + 4) . 26k+4 ≡ .43k+2 ≡ 1 (mod 3).
v) For n = 6k + 5, where k is any non-negative integer,
n .2n = (6k + 5) . 26k+5 ≡ 4.43k+2 ≡ 1 (mod 3).
vi) For n = 6k + 6, where k is any non-negative integer,
n .2n = (6k + 6) . 26k+6 ≡ 0 (mod 3):
Thus, the solution set is all n with the forms 6k+1 or 6k+2; k = 0, 1, 2, ......
8. Let x be a 3 - digit number such that the sum of the digits equal 21. If the digits of x are
reversed, the number thus formed exceeds x by 495. What is x ?
Sol. Use a, b, c to denote the hundreds, tens and units digits of x respectively, then
a + b + c = 21 and
100a + 10b + c + 495 = 100c + 10b + a,
therefore
99 (c – a) = 495,
c – a = 5,
∴ c = a + 5,
hence the possible values of a are 1, 2, 3, 4. Then the condition a + b + c = 21 implies 2a + b = 16, so
b = 2(8 – a) ≤ 9, a = 4. Thus, c = 9, b = 8,
i.e. x = 489.
9. Given that a four digit number n and the sum of all digits of n have a sum 2001. Find n.
Sol. Let n = 1000a + 100b + 10c + d, where a, b, c, d be the digits of n. From the assumption,
1000a + 100b + 10c + d + a + b + c + d = 2001,
1001a + 101b + 11c + 2d = 2001,
so a = 1 and 101b + 11c + 2d = 1000, which implies b + c + 2d = 10(100 – 10b – c), therefore
10 | (b + c + 2d).
i) If b + c + 2d = 10, then 100 – 10b – c = 1, i.e. b = c = 9 and d = –4, it is impossible.
ii) If b + c + 2d = 20, then 100 – 10b – c = 2, i.e. b = 9, c = 8 and 2d = 3, it is impossible.
iii) If b + c + 2d = 30, then 100 – 10b – c = 3, i.e. b = 9, c = 7 and d = 7. By checking, it is certainly
a solution.
Thus, n = 1977.
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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10. Given that a four digit number satisfies the following conditions :
i) when its units digit and hundreds digit are interchanged, and so does the tens digit and
thousands digit, then the value of the number increases 5940.
ii) the remainder is 8 when it is divided by 9. Find the minimum odd number satisfying
these conditions.
Sol. Let the original four digit number be n. Then the new number n’ is n+5940,
so the units digit of n is equal to the hundreds digit. Let n = abcd = 1000a + 100b + 10c + b, then
assumptions give
(1000c + 100b + 10a + b) – (1000a + 100b + 10c + b) = 5940,
990(c – a) = 5940,
∴ c – a = 6.
When n is minimum, then a = 1, c = 7, so a + c = 8. Since a + b + c + b has a remainder 8 when it is
divided by 9, so 2b is divisible by 9, i.e. b = 9 or 0. Since n is odd, so b = 9. Thus, the four digit
number is 1979.
11. Find the maximum value of the ratio of three digit number to the sum of its digits.
Sol. For the numbers 100, 200, ....., 900, the ratios are all 100. Below we show that 100 is the maximum
value.
For any three digit number abc which is different from 100, ..... , 900, at least one of b; c is not 0. So
a+b+c ≥ a+1
Then abc = 100a + 10b + c < 100a + 100 = 100 (a + 1) implies that

abc 100 (a + 1)
< = 100
a + b+ c a +1
The conclusion is proven.

12. Find all the three digit numbers n = abc such that n = (a + b + c)3.
Sol. 43 < 100 ≤ abc ≤ 999 < 103 implies 5 ≤ a + b + c ≤ 9.
When a + b + c = 5, 53 = 125 ≠ (1 + 2 + 5)3, no solution.
When a + b + c = 6, 63 = 216 ≠ (2 + 1 + 6)3, no solution.
When a + b + c = 7, 73 = 343 ≠ (3 + 4 + 3)3, no solution.
When a + b + c = 8, 83 = 512 = n = (5 + 1 + 2)3, so n = 512 is a
solution.
When a + b + c = 9, 93 = 729 ≠ (7 + 2 + 9)3, no solution.
Thus, n = 512 is the unique solution.

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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13. When a two digit number is divided by the number formed by exchanging the two digits, the
quotient is equal to its remainder. Find the two digit number.
Sol. Let n = 10a + b, then n0 = 10b + a. the given condition implies
10a + b = (10b + a)q + q, q < 10b + a,
i.e. (10 – q)a – (10q – 1)b = q, (30.3)
i) When q ≥ 5, then (30.3) implies 45 ≥ 5a ≥ (10q –1) b + q ≥ 49b+q, so b = 0. By (30.3),
q
q = (10 – q)a, so , therefore q = 5, a = 1 or q = 8, a = 4, however, they do not satisfy
10 − q
the original equation. Thus, no solution for q ≥ 5.
ii) When q = 1, (30.3) becomes 9(a – b) = 1, no solution.
iii) When q = 2, (30.3) becomes 8a –19b = 2, i.e. 8(a–5) = 19(b–2), so 19 | a – 5 implies a = 5,
so b = 2.
iv) When q = 3, (30.3) becomes 7a – 29b = 3, so b ≡ 4 (mod 7), i.e. b = 4. However, 7a = 119
implies a > 10, a contradiction. So no solution if q = 3.
v) When q = 4, then (30.3) yields 6a – 39b = 4, so 0 ≡ 1 (mod 3), a contradiction.
Thus, a = 5, b = 2 is the unique solution, n = 52.
14. Find the maximum perfect square, such that after deleting its last two digits (which is assumed
to be not all zeros), the remaining part is till perfect square.
Sol. Let x2 > 0 be the desired number, and y its last two digits with 0 < y < 100.
The given condition implies that there is a positive integer z such that x2 = 100z2 + y,
so (x –10z)(x + 10z) = y.
u+v v+u
Let x – 10z = u, x + 10z = v. Then x = , z= . Since the value of z increases 1 will let x2
2 20
increase at least 200 without considering the change of y, it is needed to let z be as large as possible for
getting the maximal x2. Therefore v – u should be as large as possible.
uv = y < 100 implies that 1 ≤ u ≤ v < 100, i.e.
v − u 100
z= < =5
20 20
so zmax = 4, i.e. v – u = 80 or v = u + 80. Since u(u + 80) = y < 100 implies u < 2, so u = 1; v = 81.
Hence
81 + 1
x= = 41; x2 = 412 = 1681
2
15. Find the maximal ineteger x such that 427 + 410000 + 4x is a perfect square.
Sol. Since 427 + 410000 + 4x = 254 + 220000 + 22x = 254 (1 + 2 . 21945 + 22x –54), it is obvious that the right hand side
is a perfect square if 22x–54 = (21945)2,
i.e., x – 27 = 1945, x = 1972.
When x > 1972, then
(2x–27)2 = 22x–54 < 1 + 2 . 21945 + 22x–54 < (2x–27 + 1)2,
so 1 + 2.21945 + 22x–54 is not a perfect square. Thus, the maximal required value of x is 1972.
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16. Prove that for any positive integer n, n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + 2n + 1 is not perfect square.
Sol. Note that the following inequality holds:
(n2 + n)2 < n4 + 2n3 + 2n2 + 2n+1 < n4 + 2n3 + 3n2 + 2n+1 = (n2+n+1)2, the conclusion is proven at once.

17. Prove that there is no three digit number abc , such that abc + bca + cab is a perfect square.
Sol. Let n = abc + bca + cab, then
n = (100a + 10b + c) + (100b + 10c + a) + (100c + 10a + b)
= 111(a + b + c) = 3 . 37(a + b + c),
If n = m2, then 37 | m2 implies 372 | 3.37(a + b + c), so
37 | (a + b + c):
However, 0 < a + b + c ≤ 9 + 9 + 9 = 27, a contradiction.
18. Given that p is a prime number and the sum of all positive divisors of p4 is a perfect square.
Find the number of such primes p.
Sol. The positive divisors of p4 are 1, p, p2, p3, p4, therefore 1 + p + p2 + p3 + p4 = n2 for some positive
integer n, so
(p2 + p) (p2 + 1) = n2 – 1 = (n – 1)(n + 1).
For p = 2, we have 1 + p + p2 + p3+ p4 = 31 which is not a perfect square, so p ≥ 3.
Suppose that n – 1 < p2 + 1, then n + 1 < p2 + 3 ≤ p2 + p, so that
n2 – 1 < (p2 + 1) (p2 + p). Thus, n – 1 ¸ p2 + 1, i.e. n ≥ p2 + 2. Let n = p2 + d, then d ≥ 2 and
n + 1 = p2 + d + 1, hence
p + p2 + p3 + p4 = (p2 + d)2 – 1 = p4 + 2d . p2 + d2 – 1,
p3 – (2d – 1)p2 + p = (d – 1) (d + 1),
p[p2 – (2d – 1)p + 1] = (d – 1) (d + 1).
If p | (d – 1), i.e. d = 1 + kp for some positive integer k, then
0 < p2 – (1 + 2kp)p + 1 = (1 – 2k)p2 – (p – 1) < 0,
a contradiction. Therefore p| d + 1, i.e. d = kp – 1 for some positive integer k, and,
1 ≤ p2 – (2kp – 3)p + 1 ⇒ p – (2kp ¡ 3) ≥ 0 ⇒ (2k ¡ 1)p ≤ 3
⇒ k = 1, p = 3.
Thus, p = 3 is the unique solution.
19. Let d be any positive integer not equal to 2, 5 or 13. Show that one can find distinct a, b in the
set {2, 5, 13, d} such that ab – 1 is not a perfect square.
Sol. Let d be any positive integer not equal to 2; 5, or 13. Show that one can find distinct a, b in the set {2,
5, 13, d} such that ab – 1 is not a perfect square.
Since 2 .5–1; 2 .13–1 and 5.13–1 are all perfect squares, it is necessary to show that at least one of
2d–1, 5d–1 and 13d–1 is not a perfect square.
i) When d is even, i.e. d = 2mfor some positive integerm, then 2d–1 = 4m – 1 is not a perfect
square (since its remainder modulo 4 is 3).
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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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ii) When d = 4m + 3 for some non-negative integer m, then

5d – 1 = 20m + 14 = 4(5m + 3) + 2 ≡ 2 (mod 4),
so 5d – 1 is not a perfect square.
iii) When d = 4m + 1 for some non-negative integer m, then
5d – 1 = 20m + 4 = 4(5m + 1); 13d – 1 = 52m + 12 = 4(13m + 3),
In case that m ≡ 1 or 2 (mod 4), then 5m+1 ≡ 2 or 3 (mod 4) implies that 5m + 1 is not a perfect
square, so 5d – 1 is not a perfect square.
In case that m ≡ 0 or 3 (mod 4), then 13m + 3 ≡ 3 or 2 (mod 4) implies that 13m + 3 is not a perfect
square, so 13d – 1 is not a perfect square.
Thus, in any case at least one of three numbers 2d – 1, 5d – 1, 13d – 1 is not a perfect square.

20. Solve equation ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ + ⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦ + ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ = {x} − 1

Sol. Since the left hand side of the equation is an integer, therefore {x} – 1 is an integer. Then 0 ≤ {x} < 1
implies {x} = 0, i.e. x = [x]. Thus,
x3 + x2 + x = –1,
(x3 + x2) + (x + 1) = 0,
(x + 1)(x2 + 1) = 0,
therefore x = –1.

Solve equation ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ = {x}. x .

2
21.

Sol. Solve equation ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ = {x}. x .

2

Let [x] = n; t = {x}, then n2 = t(n + t) ≥ 0. 0 ≤ t < 1 implies n ≥ 0.

Since n2 = t(n + t) < n + 1, so n = 0 or 1. If n = 0 then t = 0, i.e.
x = 0. If n = 1, then
1 = t(1 + t),
t2 + t – 1 = 0,

−1 + 5 1+ 5 1+ 5
t= , ∴x = n + t = . Thus, x = 0 or x =
2 2 2

( )
2
22. Given that n is a natural number, how many roots of the equation x 2 − ⎢⎣ x 2 ⎥⎦ = x − ⎢⎣ x 2 ⎥⎦ are
in the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ n ?
Sol. It is obvious that x = n is a required root. Let 1 ≤ x < n be another root of the given equation. Write
m = [x]; t = {x}, then x = m + t and the equation becomes
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Mathematics - IQ Number System & Number Theory
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(m + t)2 – [(m + t)2] = t2,

2mt – [2mt + t2] = 0,

1 2 2m − 1
therefore 2mt is an non-negative integer, i.e. t = 0, , ,... for m = 1, 2, ...., n – 1.
2m 2m 2m
Thus, the number of required roots is
2[1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + (n – 1)] + 1 = (n – 1)n + 1 = n2 – n + 1.

⎢ 10 n ⎥
23. Find the minimum natural number n, such that the equation ⎢ x ⎥ = 1989 has integer solution x.
⎣ ⎦

10 n ⎢10 n ⎥ 10 n 10 n 10 n 10 n 10 n
Sol. x − 1 < ⎢ ⎥ ≤ implies − 1 < 1989 ≤ , i.e. < x ≤ , so
⎣ x ⎦ x x x 1990 1989
10n. 0.00050251256.... < x ≤ 10n . 0.00050276520 ......
So only for n ≥ 7 the difference of the two decimals is greater than 1, and it follows when n = 7 that
5025 < x ≤ 5027,
and x = 5026 or 5027.
24. How many different non- negative integers are there in the sequence

⎢ 12 ⎥ ⎢ 22 ⎥ ⎢ 32 ⎥ ⎢ 1980 2 ⎥
, ,
⎢ 1980 ⎥ ⎢ 1980 ⎥ ⎢ 1980 ⎥ ,..., ⎢ 1980 ⎥ ?
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ ( k + 1)2 ⎤ ⎡ k 2 ⎤
Sol. (k + 1)2 – k2 = 2k + 1 indicates that ⎢ 1980 ⎥ > ⎢1980 ⎥ when 2k + 1 > 1980, i.e. k ≥ 990 . Terefore
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡ k2 ⎤
⎢ 1980 ⎥ , k = 990, 991, ...., 1980 are 991 different values.
⎣ ⎦
For the sequence

⎡ 12 ⎤ ⎡ 22 ⎤ ⎡ 32 ⎤ ⎡ 9902 ⎤
⎢ ,
⎥ ⎢ ,
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ,...., ⎢ ⎥,
⎣1980 ⎦ ⎣1980 ⎦ ⎣1980 ⎦ ⎣1980 ⎦

⎡ 990 2 ⎤
since any two consecutive terms have difference 0 or 1 only, and ⎢ 1980 ⎥ = 495,
⎣ ⎦
The sequence must take 495 + 1 = 496 different values.
Thus, altogether the whole sequence takes 496 + (991 – 1) = 1486 different vallues.

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Number System & Number Theory Mathematics - IQ
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⎢ 10 93 ⎥
25. Find the last the two digits of the number ⎢ 1031 + 3 ⎥ (Write down the tens digit first, then write
⎣ ⎦
down the units digit).
Sol. Let 1031 = t, then
⎢ 1093 ⎥ ⎢ t3 ⎥ ⎢ t 3 + 33 33 ⎥
⎢ 31 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ − ⎥
⎣10 + 3 ⎦ ⎣ t + 3 ⎦ ⎣ t + 3 t + 3 ⎦
⎢ 32 ⎥
= t – 3t + 3 + ⎢ − t 3 ⎥ = t2 – 3t + 32 – 1
2 2
⎣ + ⎦
= t(t – 3) + 8 = 1031 (1031 – 3) + 8
⎢ 10 93 ⎥
thus, the last two digits of ⎢ 1031 3 ⎥ is 08.
⎣ + ⎦

92 92
26. Solve the equation x + x = ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ + ⎢ x ⎥ .
⎣ ⎦
Sol. The given equation implies that x ≠ 0 and ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ ≠ 0 and
⎛ ⎞
( x − ⎣⎢ x ⎦⎥ ) + ⎜⎜ 92x − ⎢92 ⎟=0
x⎥ ⎟
⎝ ⎣ ⎦⎠
⎛ ⎞
( x − ⎣⎢x ⎦⎥ ) + ⎜⎜ 1 − x ⎢1x ⎥ ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ ⎣ ⎦⎠
When x = ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ , then x can be any non - zero integer.
92
When ⎢ x ⎥ = 1, write {x} = α > 0 and ⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦ = n then
⎣ ⎦
n ( n + α ) = 92
If n > 0, n2 ≤ 92 < n(n – 1) has no integer solution for n, if n < 0, then n(n + 1) < 92 ≤ n2 has integer
solution n = –10. Then α = 0.8 and x = – 10 + 0.8 = – 9.2.
Thus, the solutions are – 9.2 or any non - zero integer.

A B 17
27. Two positive integers A and B satisfy + = . Find the value of A2 + B2 .
11 3 333
3A + 11B 17
Sol. The given equality yields = , so
33 33
3A + 11B = 7.
It is easy to find the special solution (2, 1) for (A, B). Since the general solution is
A = 2 + 11t, B = 1 – 3t, t ∈ ¢ ,
A ≥ 1 and B ≥ 1 implies that t = 0 is the unique permitted value of t, so (2, 1)is the unique desired
solution for (A, B). Thus, A2 + B2 = 5.
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28. A four digit number has remainder 13 when divided by 16, and has remainder 122 when
divided by 125. Find the minimum value of such four digit numbers.
Sol. The given conditions gives the relation 16m + 13 = 125n + 122 for some positive integers m and n
125n + 109 13(n + 1)
such that sides are four digit numbers. Then m = = 7n + 6 + is a positive
16 16
integer. The minimum value of n satisfying the requirement is n = 15, so m = 124 and the four digit
number is 16 × 124 + 12 = 1997.
29. Given that x 1 - cent coins, y 2 - cent coins, and z 5 - coins have a total value of 10 dollars. Find
the possible values of x, y, z.
Sol. The question is the same as finding the number of non-negative integer solutions for (x, y, z) of the
equation x + 2y + 5z = 100.
It is clear that 0 ≤ z ≤ 20 . For any possible value of z, x + 2y = 100 – 5z.
Let u = 100 − 5z ≥ 0 Then for solving the equation x + 2y = u, (– u, u) is a special solution. So the
general solution for (x, y) is x = − u + 2t, y = u − t, t ∈ ¢

u u
If u = 2k, then k = ≤ t < u = 2k , i.e. there are k + 1 = + 1 solutions for (x, y).
2 2
Thus, we have the following table:
u = 100 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 . . . 15, 10 5 0
k + 1 = 51 48 46 43 41 38 36 33 31 ... 8 6 3 1
The total number of solutions is given by
4(10 + 20 + 30 + 40) + 5(8 + 6 + 3 + 1) + 51 = 541
Thus, there are 541 ways to get the 10 dollars.
30. In an ancient chicken market, each rooster is sold for 5 coins, each hen for 3 coins and each
chick for 1/ 3 coin. Someone has 100 coins to buy 100 chickens, how many roosters, hens and
chicks can a man purchase out of a total cost of 100 coins ?
Sol. Let the numbers of roosters, hens and chicks that the buyer bought be x, y, z respectively, then

1
5x + 3y + z = 10
3
x + y + z = 100
or

15x + 9y + z = 300 (30, 4)

x + y + z = 100 (30.5)
(30.4) – (30.5) yeilds 14x + 8y = 200 or, equivalnetly,
7x + 4y = 100 (30.6)
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It has a special solution x0 = – 100, y0 = 200, so the general solution for (x, y) is x = – 100 + 4t,
y = 200 – 7t, where t is any integer. The equation (30.6) indicates that 4 | x, so may be 0, 4, 8, 12, 16,
200
20 only. Correspondingly, t = 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 only. Since y ≥ 0 implies t ≤ < 29 , so
7
t = 25, 26, 27, 28 only, i.e. y =25, 18, 11, 4. Thus, x + y is 25, 22, 19, 16 respectively, sp z = 75, 78,
81 correspondingly. Thus, the solutions for (x, y, z) are
(0, 25, 75), (4, 18, 78), (8, 11, 81), (12, 4, 84).
31. Given that a pile of 100 small weight have a total weight of 500 g, and the weight of a small
weight is 1g, 10g or 50g. Find the number of each kind of weights in the pile.
Sol. Let the numbers of weights of 1g, 10 g 50g be x, y respectively. Then the condition give

⎧ x + y + z = 100,
⎨
⎩x + 10y + 50z = 500
By eliminating x, it follows that 9y + 49z = 400, so
9(y + 5z) = 4(100 – z).
It implies 4 | y + 5z and 9 | 100 – z, i.e.

y + 5z 100 − z
= = t ∈¢ ,
4 9
∴ z = 100 – 9t, y = 4t – 5z = 49t – 500.

501
The inequalities y ≥ 1, z ≥ 1 implies that 10 < ≤ t ≤ 11 , so t = 11 and
49
z = 1, y = 39, x = 60.
Thus, in the 100 weights there are 60 of g, 39 of 2 g, and 1 of 50g, respectively.
32. a, b are two relatively prime positive integers. Prove that the equation ax + by = ab – a – b has
no non - negative integer solution.
Sol. We prove the conclusion by contradiction. Suppose that (x0, y0) is a nonnegative integer solution of
the given equation. From
a(x0 + 1) + b(y0 + 1) = ab,
it follows that b | a(x0 + 1) and a | b(y0 + 1).
Since (a, b) = 1, so b | (x0 + 1) and a | (y0 + 1). x0 + 1 > 0 and y) + 1 > 0
implies that a ≤ y0 + 1 and b ≤ x0 + 1, hence
ab = a(x0 + 1) + b(y0 + 1) ≥ ab + ba = 2ab,
a contradiction. The conclusion is proven.

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