WHITEPAPER

AN OVERVIEW OF THE ANALYSIS OF

CONSTRUCTION DELAYS

BY STEPHEN LOWSLEY & CHRIS LINNETT

May 2007
AN OVERVIEW OF THE ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION DELAYS

ONE: INTRODUCTION

Delays happen on most construction projects, whether

small or large, simple or complex, and for a wide
variety of reasons.

Delay needs to be measured against some form of

benchmark, which could be the planned timing of an
activity, the timing based on standard industry
outputs/production rates or the timing that would have
been achieved had the delay event not occurred.
Depending on which of these benchmarks are used the
period of ‘delay’ may vary considerably.

TWO: THE IMPACT OF COMPUTERS

Given the history of construction delays it might be However, the multiple difficulties of construction delay
expected that the industry would, by now, have analysis were not to be so easily tamed. Many people
developed ways of accurately analysing the cause and did not understand the computer delay analysis
effect of delay events. Some people thought that techniques and were suspicious when analyses
computer-aided critical path analysis techniques produced results that flew in the face of common
would herald a breakthrough but, while computers sense and it was discovered that results were,
have revolutionised the way in which delay claims are apparently, capable of manipulation by the
prepared and reviewed, they have not reduced the programmer. This led to the analysis of construction
number of disputes or made delay analysis simpler. delays being seen as something of a ‘black art’.

The analysis of delays on construction projects is

complicated and difficult, not least because of the
large number of individual activities of work that have
to be dealt with, even on a relatively simple structure.
Powerful computers and sophisticated software
appeared, at least, to offer a solution, because they
are ideal for handling and sorting large amounts of
data and producing precise answers at the click of a
button.

In particular the introduction of computers effectively

allowed the use of critical path analysis, which was
too complex for practical use without the aid of
computers. Critical path analysis not only sounded
right (in that it suggested that the critical delays to a
construction programme could be identified) but it
also brought about a perception that delays could be
analysed scientifically so as to produce precise and
reliable results.

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THREE: DELAY ANALYSIS – BASE DATA

There are five main recognised techniques used for contractor usually uses short-term programmes that
construction delay analysis, which are described more support the main as-planned programme with tactical
fully later. However the importance of having good planning over short periods and between key
records when undertaking the analysis of delay milestones.
cannot be overly emphasised; inaccurate or irregular
records are of little use. At various points throughout the project the
contractor is likely to submit revised programmes.
The main delay analysis methodologies are dependent Generally, progress will then be monitored against the
on a least one of the following: revised, as opposed to the original, planned,
programme.
• As-planned programme (or planned
programme updated with achieved progress);
3.2 AS-BUILT PROGRAMME
• As-built programme;
An ‘as-built’ programme provides a means of both
• The utilisation of critical path analysis.
monitoring progress and, if necessary, providing
evidence to substantiate an assessment of liability for
3.1 AS-PLANNED PROGRAMME any delays. As implied by the name, an as-built
In general, following the award of a contract, one of programme provides a record of when the various
the contractor’s key tasks will be to produce a project works were actually undertaken.
planned programme for the execution of the works
which is sometimes referred to as the ‘construction It is helpful if the as-built programme is compiled as
programme’, the ‘master programme’ or the ‘contract the works progress, with the data being agreed
programme’. between the contracting parties.

Planned programmes are key documents in the A problem with ‘as-built’ records is defining when an
management of projects but often they are activity is ‘complete’. Based on available data an as-
insufficiently detailed and do not comply with the built programme may be drawn to show that a
requirements set out in the contract. Equally, the particular activity took 15 weeks to carry out, but
client and his team are not always forthcoming in progress records could reveal that the activity was
responding to the programme until the project is 95% complete after ten weeks.
running into difficulty.

The main planned programme is often described as 3.3 CRITICAL PATH ANALYSIS
representing the contractor’s ‘best guess’, but this is Critical path analysis was developed in Europe and
probably a little unfair, as the programme will be the US in the 1950s and the early utilisation of the
based on all available information and the technique is credited with substantial reductions in
contractor’s experience. It is however well recognised required project periods. The introduction of the
and accepted that the planned programme can only personal computer in the 1980s has meant that
represent the contractor’s reasonable view and that, commercially available planning software using critical
in reality, it is most unlikely that the works will be path analysis is now commonplace.
undertaken strictly in accordance with this
programme. In broad terms a critical path analysis is developed by
firstly identifying the programme activities and then
Anyone familiar with a construction project will logically linking the activities together. In order to
understand that it is not practical to plan too far establish the critical path running through a
ahead, at least with any degree of detail, and in most programme, the relationship between project activities
cases it is not really necessary to do so. For this must be identified by the programmer.
reason the contractor’s planned programme should
demonstrate the basic concept for the execution of Activities where the earliest and latest timings are the
the works within the contractually required timings, same are considered as being critical. In this case the
reflecting the overall strategy. For greater detail a period available in which to undertake the activity is

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the same as the activity duration and therefore these On other types of project the logic will be less
activities must start and finish at their designated time prescriptive and more preferential as it reflects what
in order to prevent delay to the project and so they are the contractor prefers to do rather than what he must
critical to overall progress and completion of the works. do. In these cases critical path analysis does not work
A string of critical activities represents the critical path well due to the fact that the applied logic will imply
and the shortest period in which the overall project can that there is only one possible sequence, which must
be completed. be precisely adhered to. This is a particularly acute
problem in delay analysis with critical path analysis
Critical path analysis is highly deterministic and demonstrating delay, whereas the real effect is a
provides precise results and as such requires detailed change to the desired sequence without impacting
and accurate data, however on any construction upon overall completion.
project there will always be a certain element of
uncertainty. Critical path works well where the activities
are sequential and where one activity must be
complete prior to the next commencing.

FOUR: THE MAIN DELAY METHODOLOGIES

There are many different ways in which delays can be activities, it is likely that such a narrative could be
reviewed but most construction delays will be analysed produced relatively easily and may prove sufficient in
using one of the following methods: demonstrating the cause and affect of delay.

• As-planned v as-built Problems may be encountered if the original planned

programme has been amended and re-issued or if the
• As-planned impacted
actual sequence of works actually adopted is
• Collapsed as-built somewhat different to that planned.
• Windows analysis
This method has the advantage of being simple to
• Time impact analysis produce and, as a result, it is relatively quick and easy
to prepare. It also has the benefit of portraying the
facts in an easy-to-understand format and is easy to
4.1 AS-PLANNED –V– AS-BUILT
interrogate and verify, even if you are not an
This is the most simple and probably the most experienced delay analyst. As a first step a simple
commonly used form of delay analysis. It involves a review of planned and actual progress can be
straightforward comparison between the original invaluable in helping to focus on the areas of probable
planned intent, represented by the planned delay, as well as identifying areas that can be
programme, and what actually occurred, the ‘as-built’ discounted.
programme.

Prepared in a bar chart format, this methodology

4.2 AS-PLANNED IMPACTED
provides little more than a graphical comparison and
provides no more than an indication of where delays This is probably the most commonly used of the
occurred against the original plan for the project. retrospective ‘critical path’ based methodologies. In
basic terms it consists of adding or ‘impacting’ the
In conjunction with a graphical comparison, someone considered delays onto the planned programme.
with knowledge of the project may well be able to
produce a narrative to explain why the planned intent With this approach, the changes/delays are
was not achieved and why the planned activity timings progressively added and the planned programme is
changed. On simple projects, or on projects where rescheduled. The idea is that the programme responds
there were few differences between the planned dynamically to simulate the effect of these delays and
programme and the actual sequence and duration of to show the effect on the completion date. To work in

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this way, the planned programme has to be in the removed, it must be produced in the form of either a
form of either a critical path analysis or a linked bar linked bar chart or in a critical path format. In order for
chart. In practice, programmes are frequently not the exercise to remain truly an analysis of the as-built
linked or it is found that the logic applied to the situation, logic links will have to be applied so as to
programme is insufficient to enable it to properly maintain the as-built activity timings. Such links
react dynamically, once the delays have been added. should be made with care. Although it may appear to
For this reason the logic used in the planned be logical and sensible to link certain activities,
programme will need to be added to or enhanced without some form of independent verification, from
retrospectively. The logical relationship between contemporaneous documentation or witness of fact
certain of the planned activities may be self apparent evidence, any link will merely reflect a delay analyst’s
but a major criticism of this retrospective application assumption and will be subjective.
of logic is that it requires significant assumptions to
be made in respect of the contractor’s original Unlike the as-planned impacted technique this
planned intent. methodology has the advantage of considering what
actually occurred and at least attempts to reflect the
The as-planned impacted technique is probably the completion that would have been achieved had the
most commonly used of the critical path based employer delays not happened. Therefore, it can
methodologies. It can be relatively easy to produce provide a compelling argument.
and the results are usually easy to understand; it is a
particularly useful technique where as-built records One disadvantage of the technique is its inability to
have not been kept (thereby ruling out other consider and identify concurrent delay. Practical
methodologies). However it also probably attracts the difficulties may be encountered when trying to
most criticism. The major problems are that the simulate activities that were undertaken in a
results are theoretical and the technique does not piecemeal and intermittent fashion or when simulating
consider what actually occurred. Notwithstanding periods of weekend working and differing shift
these inherent flaws it is often favoured by patterns.
contractors because of the very fact that actual
The programme will only collapse when delays are
events (such as the contractors own culpable delays)
removed from the longest path and this may not
are conveniently ignored.
reflect the critical path at the time the delay occurred.
The technique will generally work better where the
programme logic is largely prescriptive and where little
4.4 WINDOWS ANALYSIS
culpable delay has occurred because then the results
are likely to be more in line with what actually Windows analysis is not so much a technique in its
occurred. On the other hand a simple comparison own right, it is more of a way of breaking the project
between the as-built and as-planned activity timings down into manageable slices or windows of time and
might show a large and unexplained discrepancy, in reviewing the progress and delay in these shorter
which case the entire analysis may begin to resemble periods. Because this method involves slicing the
a meaningless academic and theoretical exercise. project duration into regular intervals, it is also known
as the ‘time slice’ method.

On a typical construction project a window period of

4.3 COLLAPSED AS-BUILT
around 4 weeks or 1 calendar month is often used so
The ‘collapsed as-built’ technique is, in some as to coincide with the frequency and timing of the
respects, the direct opposite of the ‘as-planned monthly progress meetings and the programme
impacted’. With the ‘collapsed as-built’ methodology progress updates.
delays are removed from the as-built programme
causing it to collapse. As employer delay events are A comparison is made between the as-planned
removed, the overall completion date becomes earlier programme, updated with the progress achieved, at the
demonstrating the date on which completion would start of the window and the end of the window. Any
have been achieved ‘but-for’ these delays. difference between the overall completion dates
represents the delay or gain occurring within the
This technique requires a detailed as-built programme selected window period. The windows are looked at
and, to enable it to collapse when the delays are sequentially with the status at the end of one window

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forming the status for the start of the following the start and end of each of the windows. This will be
window. directly dependent on the progress updates as well as
the sequence of the works yet to be completed, as
One of the main strengths of the windows analysis is dictated by the ‘as-planned’ programme through to
that it looks at the delays on an actual or ‘real time’ project completion. Therefore the accuracy of the
basis. The start and finish of the window reflects the quantification of the delays within each window will be
actual status of the project works at those times. directly dependent on the accuracy of these progress
When applying critical path based delay analysis updates, as well as the reasonableness of the ‘as-
methodologies to the project as a whole the process planned’ programme.
can become highly complex and the practitioner will
have great difficulty assessing the validity of the
results, identifying any anomalies and giving 4.5 TIME IMPACT ANALYSIS
consideration to such issues as mitigation and ‘Time impact analysis’ effectively involves taking a
concurrency. The benefit of looking at the delays and ‘snapshot’ of the programme status immediately prior
progress of the works within short windows of time, to the occurrence of the delaying event, and then
rather than looking at the project as a whole, is that impacting the event onto the updated planned
there will be fewer activities and events and less programme. The technique is often referred to as
information to consider. The short timescale and ‘snapshot’ analysis. It is not dissimilar to ‘windows
limited number of events and activities means that analysis’. Whilst a ‘window analysis’ concentrates
the analysis can be undertaken with a little more primarily on incremental periods of time and then
objectivity and probably more pragmatically. looks at the delays within the windows, ‘time impact
analysis’ starts with the identification of the timing of
Although the technique defines delay within the
the delaying events.
selected windows it does not identify the causation
and the use of short windows of time means that This technique can be used during the course of the
differing methodologies can be used within the works to define likely delay as well as retrospectively
individual windows, dependent on which is considered to define likely delay at the time the delaying event
the most appropriate and relevant to the events in occurred. When used retrospectively a more forensic
question. approach can also be adopted reviewing events
during the course of the delay.
The windows analysis will be easier to implement
when a detailed ‘as-planned’ master programme has Even when used in this detailed forensic way the
been regularly updated with progress throughout the overall impact on completion will be determined by
project. That is not to say that it will not be possible the reasonableness of the planned programme, that
to recreate this information retrospectively but this will is the likely sequence of works from the time that the
be dependent on the availability of some form of delay ceased to have an impact through to
progress records to demonstrate the project status at completion. The validity of this sequence and the
the timing of the desired windows. Compilation of this projected affect on completion will be dependent on
data is likely to be a time consuming and costly task. the nature of the project and the activity logic.
Difficulties may also be faced if the planned master As with windows analysis the time impact analysis is
programme has been heavily amended. For example, reliant on the availability of detailed information and
in the latter stages of the project the master can be time consuming and costly to produce. It may
programme may be replaced with a detailed also be impractical to utilise if the planned
‘completion’ programme. At the time of this change programme has not been regularly updated with
problems are likely to be found in reconciling the progress throughout the course of the works.
activities at the start of the window, which relate to
the ‘as-planned’ master programme, with activities at
the end of the window that relate to the new
‘completion’ programme.

The analysis and quantification of the delay within

each window will be based on the critical path and
the extent of the delay to project completion at both

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FIVE: AND SO THE ANSWER IS…

Unfortunately there is no straight answer to which There is also a risk that the delay analysis is not
delay method should be used, as no one particularly transparent, particularly when critical path
methodology is appropriate in all cases and each analysis is used, meaning there is a risk that the
method contains weaknesses. analysis has been (or is alleged to have been)
manipulated to provided the answers required.
The choice of methodology will be dependent on
many factors such as the contract requirements, the However, it would be wrong to make a wholesale
information available, the nature of the claim and the dismissal of all the techniques, as the main
costs at stake. methodologies represent the ‘only shows in town’.
They also impose a very useful discipline in the
The primary elements or ‘building blocks’ required to collation of the key facts surrounding the delays. This
undertake the main recognised methodologies collation of facts is crucial because an accurate
contain elements of uncertainty and some criticism is analysis of delay will depend on an accurate analysis
likely where this raw data is amended or enhanced to of the facts.
make it suitable for use.
It must be accepted that, when quantifying delay,
The conclusion might be that because of these there may be no precise and definitive delay period;
weaknesses none of the methods should be used. there may be a range of possible periods.
Certainly all of them involve a degree of subjectivity
and the way that different delay analysts use them The determination of the period of delay in such
will vary. circumstances will finally have to be made based on
judgment. This judgment should be made using
One of the main disadvantages of relying entirely on contract specific facts, the general application of
one all encompassing critical path based methodology experience and, most importantly, commonsense.
is the vulnerability to attack. For instance, if it can be If a delay analysis fails the ‘commonsense test’ it is
shown that the as-planned programme is flawed or unlikely to be correct, even if it is supported by a
the as-built data is inaccurate (even if these flaws time consuming and costly critical path analysis
and inaccuracies are fairly minor) then the whole prepared by an expert in the analysis of delays.
analysis may be considered to be flawed and, it may
be argued, should be disregarded.

STEPHEN LOWSLEY CHRIS LINNETT ‘ABOUT TIME’

Stephen is a Director of Project Chris is an Adjudicator and Stephen and Chris have
Planning and has 34 years experience Arbitrator and has acted as an recently co-authored a book on
in the construction industry. For the expert witness and advisor on delay analysis in the
last 12 years he has been involved in construction disputes for the construction industry with
construction dispute resolution, last 13 years. entitled ‘About Time: Delay
providing expert opinion in respect Tel: 020 7812 6491 Analysis in Construction’
of delay related issues. Email: [email protected] published by RICS Books.
Tel: 0788 7536589
Email:
[email protected]

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