Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th Edition) - Alexander & Sadiku (1) - 451

428 Chapter 10 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Practice Problem 10.8
Figure 10.24
Answer: l
Example 10.9
Figure 10.25
Solution:
1

l
Figure 10.26
10.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 429
1

Answer: l l
Figure 10.27
Example 10.10
Figure 10.28
Solution:

Figure 10.29

1

l

Figure 10.30
Answer: l
l
10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits 431
10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits
v v Example 10.11
v
v
Figure 10.31
Solution:
l
l

l

v
Practice Problem 10.11 v v
v
v
Figure 10.32
Answer: m
Example 10.12
m m
Solution:
22
v
v

Figure 10.33

l


m
v
Answer:
v
Figure 10.34
10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice 433
10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice
p
v Example 10.13
v
Figure 10.35
Solution:

p p
v

FREQ IM(V_PRINT3) IP(V_PRINT3)

1.592E+02 3.264E–03 –3.743E+01
FREQ VM(3) VP(3)
1.592E+02 1.550E+00 –9.518E+01
Figure 10.36
l l
v

Practice Problem 10.13 v
v
Figure 10.37
Answer:
Example 10.14
Solution:
10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice 435
Figure 10.38
p

Figure 10.39

FREQ VM(1) VP(1)

1.592E–01 2.708E+00 –5.673E+01
FREQ VM(3) VP(3)

1.592E-01 4.468E+00 –1.026E+02
l l

l l
l l l l
l l

10.9 Applications 437
Figure 10.40
Answer: l l
10.9 Applications
10.9.1 Capacitance Multiplier
Figure 10.41

a b
a b

a b
Example 10.15
Solution:

a b a b

10.9 Applications 439

Answer: m
10.9.2 Oscillators
An oscillator is a circuit that produces an ac waveform as output when

powered by a dc input.
This corresponds to 2pf

377 rad/s.

v

v
Figure 10.42


a b

1

p

p

Example 10.16
Solution:

p p

Review Questions 441

Answer:
10.10 Summary
Review Questions
l l l l
l l l
Figure 10.43 Figure 10.44


Figure 10.48
Figure 10.45
l l

l l

Figure 10.46
Figure 10.49
l l
l l
Figure 10.47
Problems 443
Problems
Section 10.2 Nodal Analysis
Figure 10.55
Figure 10.50
Figure 10.51
v
Figure 10.56

v
v
Figure 10.52
v
v Figure 10.57
Figure 10.53 v

␮
v


v

v v v
Figure 10.59
Figure 10.63
Figure 10.60
Figure 10.64

Problems 445
Figure 10.67
Figure 10.71
Figure 10.68
v
v f
f

v v
Figure 10.72
Figure 10.69
Section 10.3 Mesh Analysis

S

Figure 10.74
Figure 10.77
v
v
v
Figure 10.75
v
v
v v
Figure 10.78
v v
Figure 10.76
Figure 10.79
Problems 447
Figure 10.80
Figure 10.83
Figure 10.84
Section 10.4 Superposition Theorem
Figure 10.81
Figure 10.85
v
v
v v

v
v

v v
Figure 10.93
Figure 10.89
Section 10.5 Source Transformation

Problems 449
v v
Figure 10.98
Figure 10.95
Figure 10.96
Figure 10.99
Figure 10.97
Section 10.6 Thevenin and Norton Figure 10.100

Equivalent Circuits
Figure 10.101
Figure 10.107
Figure 10.103

v v
v

Problems 451
v v
Figure 10.113
v
Figure 10.110

v
v v Figure 10.114
v
Figure 10.111
v
Section 10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits
v v
Figure 10.115

v v
Figure 10.112
Figure 10.116
v
v S

Figure 10.117
Figure 10.119

v
v
v v Figure 10.120
Figure 10.118 v

v
Figure 10.121
Problems 453

v
v Figure 10.125
Figure 10.122
v
v
Figure 10.126

v
v
Figure 10.123
Section 10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice

Figure 10.127
Figure 10.124
v Figure 10.128

p
v
Figure 10.129
v Figure 10.132
v v
Figure 10.130
Section 10.9 Applications


Problems 455

p1

p1

W
Figure 10.135
Figure 10.137
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:23 PM Page 457
c h a p t e r
AC Power Analysis
Four things come not back: the spoken word; the sped arrow; time
11
past; the neglected opportunity.
—Al Halif Omar Ibn
Enhancing Your Career

Career in Power Systems
The discovery of the principle of an ac generator by Michael Faraday
in 1831 was a major breakthrough in engineering; it provided a con-
venient way of generating the electric power that is needed in every
electronic, electrical, or electromechanical device we use now.
Electric power is obtained by converting energy from sources such
as fossil fuels (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel (uranium), hydro energy
(water falling through a head), geothermal energy (hot water, steam),
wind energy, tidal energy, and biomass energy (wastes). These various
ways of generating electric power are studied in detail in the field of
power engineering, which has become an indispensable subdiscipline
of electrical engineering. An electrical engineer should be familiar with
the analysis, generation, transmission, distribution, and cost of electric
power.
A pole-type transformer with a low-
The electric power industry is a very large employer of electrical
voltage, three-wire distribution system.
engineers. The industry includes thousands of electric utility systems © Vol. 129 PhotoDisc/Getty
ranging from large, interconnected systems serving large regional areas
to small power companies serving individual communities or factories.
Due to the complexity of the power industry, there are numerous elec-
trical engineering jobs in different areas of the industry: power plant
(generation), transmission and distribution, maintenance, research, data
acquisition and flow control, and management. Since electric power is
used everywhere, electric utility companies are everywhere, offering
exciting training and steady employment for men and women in thou-
sands of communities throughout the world.
457
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:23 PM Page 458
458 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis
11.1 Introduction
Our effort in ac circuit analysis so far has been focused mainly on cal-
culating voltage and current. Our major concern in this chapter is
power analysis.
Power analysis is of paramount importance. Power is the most
important quantity in electric utilities, electronic, and communication
systems, because such systems involve transmission of power from one
point to another. Also, every industrial and household electrical
device—every fan, motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV, personal computer—
has a power rating that indicates how much power the equipment
requires; exceeding the power rating can do permanent damage to an
appliance. The most common form of electric power is 50- or 60-Hz
ac power. The choice of ac over dc allowed high-voltage power trans-
mission from the power generating plant to the consumer.
We will begin by defining and deriving instantaneous power and
average power. We will then introduce other power concepts. As prac-
tical applications of these concepts, we will discuss how power is
measured and reconsider how electric utility companies charge their
customers.
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power

As mentioned in Chapter 2, the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by
an element is the product of the instantaneous voltage v(t) across the
element and the instantaneous current i(t) through it. Assuming the pas-
sive sign convention,
p(t) v(t)i(t) (11.1)
We can also think of the instantaneous The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time.
power as the power absorbed by the
element at a specific instant of time. It is the rate at which an element absorbs energy.
Instantaneous quantities are denoted
Consider the general case of instantaneous power absorbed by an
by lowercase letters.
arbitrary combination of circuit elements under sinusoidal excitation,
as shown in Fig. 11.1. Let the voltage and current at the terminals of
the circuit be
v(t) Vm cos(t uv) (11.2a)
i(t) Im cos(t ui ) (11.2b)
where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and uv and ui are
the phase angles of the voltage and current, respectively. The instanta-
i(t)
neous power absorbed by the circuit is
+ Passive
Sinusoidal v (t) linear
p(t) v(t)i(t) Vm Im cos(t uv) cos(t ui) (11.3)
source − network
We apply the trigonometric identity
Figure 11.1 1
cos A cos B [cos(A B) cos(A B)] (11.4)
Sinusoidal source and passive linear circuit. 2
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:23 PM Page 459
11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 459
and express Eq. (11.3) as
1 1
p(t) Vm Im cos(uv ui) Vm Im cos(2t uv ui) (11.5)
2 2
This shows us that the instantaneous power has two parts. The first part
is constant or time independent. Its value depends on the phase differ-
ence between the voltage and the current. The second part is a sinu-
soidal function whose frequency is 2, which is twice the angular
frequency of the voltage or current.
A sketch of p(t) in Eq. (11.5) is shown in Fig. 11.2, where T
2p is the period of voltage or current. We observe that p(t) is peri-
odic, p(t) p(t T0), and has a period of T0 T2, since its fre-
quency is twice that of voltage or current. We also observe that p(t)
is positive for some part of each cycle and negative for the rest of
the cycle. When p(t) is positive, power is absorbed by the circuit.
When p(t) is negative, power is absorbed by the source; that is,
power is transferred from the circuit to the source. This is possible
because of the storage elements (capacitors and inductors) in the
circuit.
p(t)
1
V I
2 m m
1
V I
2 m m
cos(v − i )
0 T T t
2
Figure 11.2
The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit.
The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore diffi-

cult to measure. The average power is more convenient to measure. In
fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to
average power.
The average power, in watts, is the average of the instantaneous power

over one period.
Thus, the average power is given by

T

1
P p(t) dt (11.6)
T 0
Although Eq. (11.6) shows the averaging done over T, we would get
the same result if we performed the integration over the actual period
of p(t) which is T0 T2.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:23 PM Page 460
Substituting p(t) in Eq. (11.5) into Eq. (11.6) gives

T

1 1
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) dt
T 0
2
T

1 1
Vm Im cos(2t uv ui) dt
T 0
2
T

1 1
Vm Im cos(uv ui) dt
2 T 0
T

1 1
Vm Im cos(2t uv ui) dt (11.7)
2 T 0
The first integrand is constant, and the average of a constant is the same
constant. The second integrand is a sinusoid. We know that the aver-
age of a sinusoid over its period is zero because the area under the
sinusoid during a positive half-cycle is canceled by the area under it
during the following negative half-cycle. Thus, the second term in
Eq. (11.7) vanishes and the average power becomes
1
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) (11.8)
2
Since cos(uv ui) cos(ui uv), what is important is the difference
in the phases of the voltage and current.
Note that p(t) is time-varying while P does not depend on time. To
find the instantaneous power, we must necessarily have v(t) and i(t) in
the time domain. But we can find the average power when voltage and
current are expressed in the time domain, as in Eq. (11.8), or when they
are expressed in the frequency domain. The phasor forms of v(t) and i(t)
in Eq. (11.2) are V Vmluv and I Imlui, respectively. P is calculated
using Eq. (11.8) or using phasors V and I. To use phasors, we notice that
1 1
VI* Vm Imluv ui
2 2
(11.9)
1
Vm Im[cos(uv ui) j sin(uv ui)]
2
We recognize the real part of this expression as the average power P
according to Eq. (11.8). Thus,
1 1
P Re[VI*] Vm Im cos(uv ui) (11.10)
2 2
Consider two special cases of Eq. (11.10). When uv ui, the volt-
age and current are in phase. This implies a purely resistive circuit or
resistive load R, and
P Vm Im I 2m R 0I 0 2 R
1 1 1
(11.11)
2 2 2
where 0 I 0 2 I I*. Equation (11.11) shows that a purely resistive cir-
cuit absorbs power at all times. When uv ui 90, we have a purely
reactive circuit, and
1
P Vm Im cos 90 0 (11.12)
2
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 461
showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In

summary,
A resistive load (R ) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load

(L or C ) absorbs zero average power.
Given that Example 11.1

v(t) 120 cos(377t 45) V and i(t) 10 cos(377t 10) A
find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1.
Solution:
The instantaneous power is given by
p vi 1200 cos(377t 45) cos(377t 10)
Applying the trigonometric identity
1
cos A cos B [cos(A B) cos(A B)]
2
gives
p 600[cos(754t 35) cos 55]
or
p(t) 344.2 600 cos(754t 35) W
The average power is
1 1
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) 120(10) cos[45 (10)]
2 2
600 cos 55 344.2 W
which is the constant part of p(t) above.
Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by the Practice Problem 11.1
passive linear network of Fig. 11.1 if
v(t) 330 cos(10t 20) V and i(t) 33 sin(10t 60) A
Answer: 3.5 5.445 cos(20t 10) kW, 3.5 kW.
Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z 30 j70 Example 11.2

when a voltage V 120l0 is applied across it.
Solution:
The current through the impedance is
V 120l0 120l0
I 1.576l66.8 A
Z 30 j 70 76.16l66.8
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 462
The average power is

1 1
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) (120)(1.576) cos(0 66.8) 37.24 W
2 2
Practice Problem 11.2 A current I 33l30 A flows through an impedance Z 40l22 .

Find the average power delivered to the impedance.
Answer: 20.19 kW.
Example 11.3 For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.3, find the average power supplied by
the source and the average power absorbed by the resistor.
I 4Ω
Solution:
+ − j2 Ω
The current I is given by
5 30° V −
5l30 5l30
I 1.118l56.57 A
Figure 11.3 4 j2 4.472l26.57
For Example 11.3. The average power supplied by the voltage source is
1
P (5)(1.118) cos(30 56.57) 2.5 W
2
The current through the resistor is
IR I 1.118l56.57 A
and the voltage across it is
VR 4IR 4.472l56.57 V
The average power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P (4.472)(1.118) 2.5 W
2
which is the same as the average power supplied. Zero average power
is absorbed by the capacitor.
Practice Problem 11.3 In the circuit of Fig. 11.4, calculate the average power absorbed by the
resistor and inductor. Find the average power supplied by the voltage
3Ω
source.
320 45° V + j1 Ω Answer: 15.361 kW, 0 W, 15.361 kW.

−
Figure 11.4
For Practice Prob. 11.3.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 463
Determine the average power generated by each source and the average Example 11.4
power absorbed by each passive element in the circuit of Fig. 11.5(a).
20 Ω − j5 Ω 20 Ω − j5 Ω
2 + −
4 V2
+
4 0° Α 1 j10 Ω 3 5 + 60 30° V 4 0° Α V1 j10 Ω + 60 30° V
− −
− I1 I2
(a) (b)
Figure 11.5
For Example 11.4.
Solution:
We apply mesh analysis as shown in Fig. 11.5(b). For mesh 1,
I1 4 A
For mesh 2,
( j10 j5)I2 j10I1 60l30 0, I1 4 A
or
j5I2 60l30 j40 1 I2 12l60 8
10.58l79.1 A
For the voltage source, the current flowing from it is I2 10.58l79.1 A
and the voltage across it is 60l30 V, so that the average power is
1
P5 (60)(10.58) cos(30 79.1) 207.8 W
2
Following the passive sign convention (see Fig. 1.8), this average power
is absorbed by the source, in view of the direction of I2 and the polarity
of the voltage source. That is, the circuit is delivering average power to
the voltage source.
For the current source, the current through it is I1 4l0 and the
voltage across it is
V1 20I1 j10(I1 I2) 80 j10(4 2 j10.39)
183.9 j20 184.984l6.21 V
The average power supplied by the current source is
1
P1 (184.984)(4) cos(6.21 0) 367.8 W
2
It is negative according to the passive sign convention, meaning that
the current source is supplying power to the circuit.
For the resistor, the current through it is I1 4l0 and the voltage
across it is 20I1 80l0, so that the power absorbed by the resistor is
1
P2 (80)(4) 160 W
2
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 464
For the capacitor, the current through it is I2 10.58l79.1 and the volt-
age across it is j5I2 (5l90)(10.58l79.1) 52.9l79.1 90.
The average power absorbed by the capacitor is
1
P4 (52.9)(10.58) cos(90) 0
2
For the inductor, the current through it is I1 I2
2 j10.39 10.58l79.1. The voltage across it is j10(I1 I2)
10.58l79.190. Hence, the average power absorbed by the
inductor is
1
P3 (105.8)(10.58) cos 90 0
2
Notice that the inductor and the capacitor absorb zero average power
and that the total power supplied by the current source equals the power
absorbed by the resistor and the voltage source, or
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 367.8 160 0 0 207.8 0
indicating that power is conserved.
Practice Problem 11.4 Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five elements in
the circuit of Fig. 11.6.
8Ω j4 Ω
40 0° V +
− − j2 Ω +
− 20 90° V
Figure 11.6
Answer: 40-V Voltage source: 60 W; j20-V Voltage source: 40 W;

resistor: 100 W; others: 0 W.
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer

In Section 4.8 we solved the problem of maximizing the power deliv-
ered by a power-supplying resistive network to a load RL. Represent-
ing the circuit by its Thevenin equivalent, we proved that the
maximum power would be delivered to the load if the load resistance
is equal to the Thevenin resistance RL RTh. We now extend that
result to ac circuits.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7, where an ac circuit is connected
to a load ZL and is represented by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is
usually represented by an impedance, which may model an electric
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 465
11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer 465
motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the

Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
Linear
ZL
ZTh RTh jXTh (11.13a) circuit
ZL RL jXL (11.13b)
The current through the load is (a)
VTh VTh Z Th I
I (11.14)
ZTh ZL (RTh jXTh) (RL jXL )
From Eq. (11.11), the average power delivered to the load is VTh +
− ZL
0VTh 0 RL 2
2
0I 0 RL
1 2
P (11.15)
2 (RTh RL )2 (XTh XL )2 (b)
Figure 11.7
Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is Finding the maximum average power
maximum. To do this we set 0P0RL and 0P0XL equal to zero. From transfer: (a) circuit with a load, (b) the
Eq. (11.15), we obtain Thevenin equivalent.
0P 0VTh 0 2RL(XTh XL )
(11.16a)
0XL [(RTh RL )2 (XTh XL )2]2
0P 0VTh 0 2[(RTh RL )2 (XTh XL )2 2RL(RTh RL )]

0RL 2[(RTh RL )2 (XTh XL )2]2
(11.16b)
Setting 0P0XL to zero gives
XL XTh (11.17)
and setting 0P0RL to zero results in
RL 2R 2Th (XTh XL )2 (11.18)
Combining Eqs. (11.17) and (11.18) leads to the conclusion that for max-
imum average power transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL XTh
and RL RTh, i.e.,
ZL RL jXL RTh jXTh Z*Th (11.19)
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must When ZL Z*Th, we say that the load is
be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh. matched to the source.
This result is known as the maximum average power transfer theorem

for the sinusoidal steady state. Setting RL RTh and XL XTh in
Eq. (11.15) gives us the maximum average power as
0 VTh 0 2
Pmax (11.20)
8RTh
In a situation in which the load is purely real, the condition for

maximum power transfer is obtained from Eq. (11.18) by setting
XL 0; that is,
RL 2R 2Th X 2Th 0 ZTh 0 (11.21)
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 466
This means that for maximum average power transfer to a purely resis-
tive load, the load impedance (or resistance) is equal to the magnitude
of the Thevenin impedance.
Example 11.5 Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average power
drawn from the circuit of Fig. 11.8. What is the maximum average
4Ω j5 Ω
power?
8Ω Solution:
10 0° V + ZL
− First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load terminals. To get
− j6 Ω
ZTh, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 11.9(a). We find
Figure 11.8 4(8 j6)
For Example 11.5. ZTh j5 4 (8 j6) j5 2.933 j4.467
4 8 j6
4Ω j5 Ω 4Ω j5 Ω
+
8Ω Z Th 8Ω
10 V +
− VTh
− j6 Ω − j6 Ω
−
(a) (b)
Figure 11.9
Finding the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. 11.8.
To find VTh, consider the circuit in Fig. 11.8(b). By voltage division,

8 j6
VTh (10) 7.454l10.3 V
4 8 j6
The load impedance draws the maximum power from the circuit when
ZL Z*Th 2.933 j4.467
According to Eq. (11.20), the maximum average power is
0 VTh 0 2 (7.454)2
Pmax 2.368 W
8RTh 8(2.933)
Practice Problem 11.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.10, find the load impedance ZL that
− j4 Ω
absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum aver-
j10 Ω
age power.
Answer: 3.415 j0.7317 , 51.47 W.

8Ω 12 A 5Ω ZL
Figure 11.10
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 467
11.4 Effective or RMS Value 467
In the circuit in Fig. 11.11, find the value of RL that will absorb the Example 11.6
maximum average power. Calculate that power.
40 Ω − j30 Ω
Solution:
We first find the Thevenin equivalent at the terminals of RL.
150 30° V + j20 Ω RL
−
j20(40 j30)
ZTh (40 j30) j20 9.412 j22.35
j20 40 j30
Figure 11.11
By voltage division, For Example 11.6.
j20
VTh (150l30) 72.76l134 V
j20 40 j30
The value of RL that will absorb the maximum average power is
RL 0ZTh 0 29.4122 22.352 24.25
The current through the load is
VTh 72.76l134
I 1.8l100.42 A
ZTh RL 33.66 j22.35
The maximum average power absorbed by RL is
0 I 0 RL (1.8)2(24.25) 39.29 W
1 2 1
Pmax
2 2
In Fig. 11.12, the resistor RL is adjusted until it absorbs the maximum Practice Problem 11.6
average power. Calculate RL and the maximum average power
absorbed by it.
80 Ω j60 Ω
120 60° V + 90 Ω − j30 Ω RL

−
Figure 11.12
Answer: 30 , 6.863 W.
11.4 Effective or RMS Value

The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effective-
ness of a voltage or current source in delivering power to a resistive load.
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that deliv-

ers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic current.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 468
i(t) In Fig. 11.13, the circuit in (a) is ac while that of (b) is dc. Our objective
is to find Ieff that will transfer the same power to resistor R as the sinu-
soid i. The average power absorbed by the resistor in the ac circuit is
v(t) + R
− T T

1 R
P i2R dt i2 dt (11.22)
T 0
T 0
(a)
while the power absorbed by the resistor in the dc circuit is
I eff
P I 2eff R (11.23)
+ Equating the expressions in Eqs. (11.22) and (11.23) and solving for
V eff R Ieff , we obtain
−
1 T 2
Ieff
BT 0
i dt (11.24)
(b)
Figure 11.13 The effective value of the voltage is found in the same way as current;
Finding the effective current: (a) ac circuit, that is,
(b) dc circuit.
1 T 2
Veff
BT 0
v dt (11.25)
This indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean
(or average) of the square of the periodic signal. Thus, the effective
value is often known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value for
short; and we write
Ieff Irms, Veff Vrms (11.26)
For any periodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is given by

1
Xrms x2 dt (11.27)
BT 0
The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean square (rms) value.
Equation 11.27 states that to find the rms value of x(t), we first
find its square x2 and then find the mean of that, or
T

1
x2 dt
T 0
and then the square root ( 1 ) of that mean. The rms value of a
constant is the constant itself. For the sinusoid i(t) Im cos t, the
effective or rms value is
T

1
Irms I 2m cos2 t dt
BT 0
(11.28)
I 2m T

1 Im
(1 cos 2t) dt
BT 0
2 12
Similarly, for v(t) Vm cos t,
Vm
Vrms (11.29)
12
Keep in mind that Eqs. (11.28) and (11.29) are only valid for sinusoidal
signals.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 469
11.4 Effective or RMS Value 469
The average power in Eq. (11.8) can be written in terms of the rms
values.
1 Vm Im
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) cos(uv ui)
2 12 12
(11.30)
Vrms Irms cos(uv ui)
Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R in Eq. (11.11)
can be written as
V 2rms
P I 2rms R (11.31)
R
When a sinusoidal voltage or current is specified, it is often in terms
of its maximum (or peak) value or its rms value, since its average value
is zero. The power industries specify phasor magnitudes in terms of their
rms values rather than peak values. For instance, the 110 V available at
every household is the rms value of the voltage from the power com-
pany. It is convenient in power analysis to express voltage and current
in their rms values. Also, analog voltmeters and ammeters are designed
to read directly the rms value of voltage and current, respectively.
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in Fig. 11.14. If the Example 11.7
current is passed through a 2- resistor, find the average power absorbed
i(t)
by the resistor.
10
Solution:
The period of the waveform is T 4. Over a period, we can write the
current waveform as 0
2 4 6 8 10 t
5t, 0 6 t 6 2
i(t) b −10
10, 2 6 t 6 4
The rms value is
Figure 11.14
T 2 4 For Example 11.7.
c (10)2 dt d
1 1
Irms i2 dt (5t)2 dt
BT 0
B4 0 2
c 25 ` 100t ` d a
3 2 4
1 t 1 200
200b 8.165 A
B4 3 0 2 B4 3
The power absorbed by a 2- resistor is
P I 2rms R (8.165)2(2) 133.3 W
Find the rms value of the current waveform of Fig. 11.15. If the current Practice Problem 11.7
flows through a 9- resistor, calculate the average power absorbed by
the resistor. i(t)
Answer: 9.238 A, 768 W. 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
Figure 11.15
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 470
Example 11.8 The waveform shown in Fig. 11.16 is a half-wave rectified sine wave.
Find the rms value and the amount of average power dissipated in a
v (t) 10- resistor.
10
Solution:
The period of the voltage waveform is T 2 p, and
10 sin t, 0 6 t 6 p
0 2 3 t v(t) b
0, p 6 t 6 2p
Figure 11.16
For Example 11.8. The rms value is obtained as
T p 2p
c 02 dt d
1 1
V 2rms v2(t) dt (10 sin t)2 dt
T 0
2p 0 p
But sin 2 t 12 (1 cos 2t). Hence,

p
sin 2t p
at b`
1 100 50
V 2rms (1 cos 2t) dt
2p 0
2 2p 2 0
ap sin 2 p 0b 25,
50 1
Vrms 5 V
2p 2
The average power absorbed is
V 2rms 52
P 2.5 W
R 10
Practice Problem 11.8 Find the rms value of the full-wave rectified sine wave in Fig. 11.17.
Calculate the average power dissipated in a 6- resistor.
v (t)
100
Answer: 70.71 V, 833.3 W.
0 2 3 t
Figure 11.17
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
In Section 11.2 we saw that if the voltage and current at the terminals
of a circuit are
v(t) Vm cos(t uv) and i(t) Im cos(t ui) (11.32)
or, in phasor form, V Vmluv and I Imlui, the average power is
1
P Vm Im cos(uv ui) (11.33)
2
In Section 11.4, we saw that
P Vrms Irms cos(uv ui) S cos(uv ui) (11.34)
We have added a new term to the equation:
S Vrms Irms (11.35)

ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 471
11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor 471
The average power is a product of two terms. The product Vrms Irms is
known as the apparent power S. The factor cos(uv ui) is called the
power factor (pf).
The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of volt-
age and current.
The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power
should be the voltage-current product, by analogy with dc resistive cir-
cuits. It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the
average or real power, which is measured in watts. The power factor is
dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power,
P
pf cos(uv ui) (11.36)
S
The angle uv ui is called the power factor angle, since it is the

angle whose cosine is the power factor. The power factor angle is equal
to the angle of the load impedance if V is the voltage across the load
and I is the current through it. This is evident from the fact that
V Vmluv Vm
Z luv ui (11.37)
I Imlui Im
Alternatively, since
V
Vrms Vrmsluv (11.38a)
12
and
I
Irms Irmslui (11.38b)
12
the impedance is
V Vrms Vrms
Z luv ui (11.39)
I Irms Irms
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between volt-
age and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the load impedance.
From Eq. (11.36), the power factor may be seen as that factor by which From Eq. (11.36), the power factor
the apparent power must be multiplied to obtain the real or average may also be regarded as the ratio of
power. The value of pf ranges between zero and unity. For a purely the real power dissipated in the load
resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that uv ui 0 to the apparent power of the load.
and pf 1. This implies that the apparent power is equal to the aver-
age power. For a purely reactive load, uv ui 90 and pf 0. In
this case the average power is zero. In between these two extreme
cases, pf is said to be leading or lagging. Leading power factor means
that current leads voltage, which implies a capacitive load. Lagging
power factor means that current lags voltage, implying an inductive
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 472
load. Power factor affects the electric bills consumers pay the electric
utility companies, as we will see in Section 11.9.2.
Example 11.9 A series-connected load draws a current i(t) 4 cos(100pt 10) A

when the applied voltage is v(t) 120 cos(100pt 20) V. Find the
apparent power and the power factor of the load. Determine the ele-
ment values that form the series-connected load.
Solution:
The apparent power is
120 4
S Vrms Irms 240 VA
12 12
The power factor is
pf cos(uv ui) cos(20 10) 0.866 (leading)
The pf is leading because the current leads the voltage. The pf may
also be obtained from the load impedance.
V 120l20
Z 30l30 25.98 j15
I 4l10
pf cos(30) 0.866 (leading)
The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98- resistor in series
with a capacitor with
1
XC 15
C
or
1 1
C 212.2 mF
15 15 100p
Practice Problem 11.9 Obtain the power factor and the apparent power of a load whose
impedance is Z 60 j40 when the applied voltage is v(t)
320 cos(377t 10) V.
Answer: 0.8321 lagging, 710l33.69 VA.
Example 11.10 Determine the power factor of the entire circuit of Fig. 11.18 as seen
by the source. Calculate the average power delivered by the source.
Solution:
The total impedance is
j2 4
Z 6 4 (j2) 6 6.8 j1.6 7l13.24
4 j2
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 473
11.6 Complex Power 473
The power factor is 6Ω
pf cos(13.24) 0.9734 (leading)

30 0° V rms + −j2 Ω 4Ω
since the impedance is capacitive. The rms value of the current is −
Vrms 30l0
Irms 4.286l13.24 A Figure 11.18
Z 7l13.24
For Example 11.10.
The average power supplied by the source is
P Vrms Irms pf (30)(4.286)0.9734 125 W
or
P I 2rms R (4.286)2(6.8) 125 W
where R is the resistive part of Z.
Calculate the power factor of the entire circuit of Fig. 11.19 as seen by Practice Problem 11.10
the source. What is the average power supplied by the source?
10 Ω 8Ω
Answer: 0.936 lagging, 2.008 kW.

165 0° V rms + j4 Ω −j6 Ω
−
Figure 11.19
11.6 Complex Power
Considerable effort has been expended over the years to express
power relations as simply as possible. Power engineers have coined
the term complex power, which they use to find the total effect of
parallel loads. Complex power is important in power analysis because
it contains all the information pertaining to the power absorbed by a
given load.
Consider the ac load in Fig. 11.20. Given the phasor form V I
Vmluv and I Imlui of voltage v(t) and current i(t), the complex
+
power S absorbed by the ac load is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current, or Load
V
Z
1
S VI* (11.40) −
2
assuming the passive sign convention (see Fig. 11.20). In terms of the Figure 11.20
rms values, The voltage and current phasors associated
with a load.
S Vrms I*rms (11.41)
where
V
Vrms Vrmsluv (11.42)
12
and
I
Irms Irmslui (11.43)
12
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 474
When working with the rms values of Thus we may write Eq. (11.41) as
currents or voltages, we may drop the
subscript rms if no confusion will be S Vrms Irmsluv ui
(11.44)
caused by doing so. Vrms Irms cos(uv ui) jVrms Irms sin(uv ui)
This equation can also be obtained from Eq. (11.9). We notice from
Eq. (11.44) that the magnitude of the complex power is the apparent
power; hence, the complex power is measured in volt-amperes (VA). Also,
we notice that the angle of the complex power is the power factor angle.
The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load imped-
ance Z. From Eq. (11.37), the load impedance Z may be written as
V Vrms Vrms
Z luv ui (11.45)
I Irms Irms
Thus, Vrms ZIrms. Substituting this into Eq. (11.41) gives
2
V rms
S I 2rms Z Vrms I*rms (11.46)
Z*
Since Z R jX, Eq. (11.46) becomes

S I 2rms(R jX) P jQ (11.47)
where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power;
that is,
P Re(S) I 2rms R (11.48)
Q Im(S) I 2rms X (11.49)
P is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance
R. Q depends on the load’s reactance X and is called the reactive (or
quadrature) power.
Comparing Eq. (11.44) with Eq. (11.47), we notice that
P Vrms Irms cos(uv ui), Q Vrms Irms sin(uv ui) (11.50)
The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it
is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load.
The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the
source and the reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the real power, whose unit is the
watt. We know from Chapter 6 that energy storage elements neither dis-
sipate nor supply power, but exchange power back and forth with the
rest of the network. In the same way, the reactive power is being trans-
ferred back and forth between the load and the source. It represents a
lossless interchange between the load and the source. Notice that:
1. Q 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
2. Q 6 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
3. Q 7 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
Thus,
Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and
the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a complex quantity,
its real part is real power P and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 475
11.6 Complex Power 475
Introducing the complex power enables us to obtain the real and reac-
tive powers directly from voltage and current phasors.
Complex Power S P jQ Vrms(Irms)*

0 Vrms 0 0Irms 0luv ui
Apparent Power S 0S 0 0Vrms 0 0Irms 0 2P 2 Q 2
(11.51)
Real Power P Re(S) S cos(uv ui)
Reactive Power Q Im(S) S sin(uv ui)
P
Power Factor cos(uv ui)
S
This shows how the complex power contains all the relevant power
information in a given load.
It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form of a S contains all power information of
triangle, known as the power triangle, shown in Fig. 11.21(a). This is a load. The real part of S is the real
similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship between Z, power P; its imaginary part is the reac-
R, and X, illustrated in Fig. 11.21(b). The power triangle has four tive power Q; its magnitude is the ap-
items—the apparent/complex power, real power, reactive power, and parent power S; and the cosine of its
the power factor angle. Given two of these items, the other two can phase angle is the power factor pf.
easily be obtained from the triangle. As shown in Fig. 11.22, when S
lies in the first quadrant, we have an inductive load and a lagging pf.
When S lies in the fourth quadrant, the load is capacitive and the pf is
leading. It is also possible for the complex power to lie in the second
or third quadrant. This requires that the load impedance have a nega-
tive resistance, which is possible with active circuits.
Im
S Q |Z | X +Q (lagging pf )
S

v − i
P R
v − i P Re
(a) (b)
Figure 11.21
(a) Power triangle, (b) impedance triangle. S
−Q (leading pf )
Figure 11.22
Power triangle.
The voltage across a load is v(t) 60 cos(t 10) V and the current Example 11.11
through the element in the direction of the voltage drop is i(t)
1.5 cos(t 50) A. Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers,
(b) the real and reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the load
impedance.
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 476
Solution:
(a) For the rms values of the voltage and current, we write
60 1.5
Vrms l10, Irms l50
22 22
The complex power is
S Vrms I*rms a l10b a 1.5 l50b 45l60 VA

60
22 22
The apparent power is
S 0 S 0 45 VA
(b) We can express the complex power in rectangular form as
S 45l60 45[cos(60) j sin(60)] 22.5 j38.97
Since S P jQ, the real power is

P 22.5 W
while the reactive power is
Q 38.97 VAR
(c) The power factor is
pf cos(60) 0.5 (leading)
It is leading, because the reactive power is negative. The load impedance is
V 60l10
Z 40l60
I 1.5l50
which is a capacitive impedance.
Practice Problem 11.11 For a load, Vrms 110l85 V, Irms 0.4l15 A. Determine: (a) the
complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive powers, and
(c) the power factor and the load impedance.
Answer: (a) 44l70 VA, 44 VA, (b) 15.05 W, 41.35 VAR, (c) 0.342
lagging, 94.06 j258.4 .
Example 11.12 A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a
120-V rms sinusoidal source. Calculate: (a) the average and reactive pow-
ers delivered to the load, (b) the peak current, and (c) the load impedance.
Solution:
(a) Given that pf cos u 0.856, we obtain the power angle as
u cos1 0.856 31.13. If the apparent power is S 12,000 VA,
then the average or real power is
P S cos u 12,000 0.856 10.272 kW
ale80571_ch11_457-502.qxd 11/30/11 1:24 PM Page 477
11.7 Conservation of AC Power 477
while the reactive power is

Q S sin u 12,000 0.517 6.204 kVA
(b) Since the pf is lagging, the complex power is
S P jQ 10.272 j6.204 kVA
From S Vrms I*rms, we obtain
S 10,272 j6204
I*rms 85.6 j51.7 A 100l31.13 A
Vrms 120l0
Thus Irms 100l31.13 and the peak current is
Im 22Irms 22(100) 141.4 A
(c) The load impedance
Vrms 120l0
Z 1.2l31.13
Irms 100l31.13
which is an inductive impedance.
A sinusoidal source supplies 100 kVAR reactive power to load Z Practice Problem 11.12
250l75 . Determine: (a) the power factor, (b) the apparent power
delivered to the load, and (c) the rms voltage.
Answer: (a) 0.2588 leading, (b) 103.53 kVA, (c) 5.087 kV.
11.7 Conservation of AC Power

The principle of conservation of power applies to ac circuits as well as In fact, we already saw in Examples
to dc circuits (see Section 1.5). 11.3 and 11.4 that average power is
To see this, consider the circuit in Fig. 11.23(a), where two load conserved in ac circuits.
impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel across an ac source V.
KCL gives
I I1 I2 (11.52)
The complex power supplied by the source is (from now on, unless
otherwise specified, all values of voltages and currents will be assumed
to be rms values)
S VI* V(I1* I2*) VI*1 VI*2 S1 S2 (11.53)
I
I Z1 Z2
I1 I2
+V − +V −
V +
− Z1 Z2 1 2
V +
−
(a) (b)
Figure 11.23
An ac voltage source supplied loads connected in: (a) parallel, (b) series.

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th Edition) - Alexander & Sadiku (1) - 451

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th Edition) - Alexander & Sadiku (1) - 451

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (5th Edition) - Alexander & Sadiku (1) - 451

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

428 Chapter 10 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis

Practice Problem 10.8

Practice Problem 10.9

Practice Problem 10.10

10.7 Op Amp AC Circuits

Practice Problem 10.11 v v

Practice Problem 10.12

10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice

FREQ IM(V_PRINT3) IP(V_PRINT3)

Practice Problem 10.13 v

FREQ VM(1) VP(1)

FREQ VM(3) VP(3)

Practice Problem 10.14

10.9.1 Capacitance Multiplier

Practice Problem 10.15

An oscillator is a circuit that produces an ac waveform as output when

This corresponds to 2pf

Practice Problem 10.16

Figure 10.43 Figure 10.44

Figure 10.54 Figure 10.58

Figure 10.61 Figure 10.65

Figure 10.62 Figure 10.66

Section 10.3 Mesh Analysis

Figure 10.70 Figure 10.73

Section 10.4 Superposition Theorem

Figure 10.82 Figure 10.86

Figure 10.87 Figure 10.91

Figure 10.88 Figure 10.92

Section 10.5 Source Transformation

Figure 10.90 Figure 10.94

Section 10.6 Thevenin and Norton Figure 10.100

Figure 10.102 Figure 10.106

Figure 10.104 Figure 10.108

Figure 10.105 Figure 10.109

Section 10.8 AC Analysis Using PSpice

Section 10.9 Applications

Figure 10.131 Figure 10.133

Figure 10.134 Figure 10.136

Enhancing Your Career

458 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power

p(t) v(t)i(t) (11.1)

11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 459

and express Eq. (11.3) as

The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore diffi-

The average power, in watts, is the average of the instantaneous power

Thus, the average power is given by

460 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

Substituting p(t) in Eq. (11.5) into Eq. (11.6) gives

11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power 461

showing that a purely reactive circuit absorbs no average power. In

A resistive load (R ) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load

Given that Example 11.1

Answer: 3.5 5.445 cos(20t 10) kW, 3.5 kW.

Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z 30 j70  Example 11.2

462 Chapter 11 AC Power Analysis

The average power is

Practice Problem 11.2 A current I 33l30 A flows through an impedance Z 40l22 .

Answer: 20.19 kW.

Answer: 3.5 5.445 cos(20t 10) kW, 3.5 kW.

Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z 30 j70 Example 11.2

Practice Problem 11.2 A current I 33l30 A flows through an impedance Z 40l22 .

Answer: 3.415 j0.7317 , 51.47 W.

Example 11.9 A series-connected load draws a current i(t) 4 cos(100pt 10) A

Answer: 0.8321 lagging, 710l33.69 VA.

S Vrms I*rms a l10b a 1.5 l50b 45l60 VA

S 45l60 45[cos(60) j sin(60)] 22.5 j38.97