By UWIMPUHWE

Charlotte
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
 Pre-requisite Modules: CWE 2161
(Fluid Mechanics)
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
 Meaning
 Expectation
CONTENT
 Schedule
 Week 1 and 2 :
 introduction, chap1
 Week 3 and 4
 Chap2
 Chap3,4
 Week 5 and 6
• tutorial chap2,3,4
• Cat 1
 Week 7 and 8
• Chap5
• chap6
 Week 9 and 10
 Chap 7,8,9
 cat2
 Week 11 and 12
• chap10
• Revision
 1.1 DEFINITION
Hydor + logos (Both are Greek words) “Hydor” means water
and “logos” means study.
Hydrology as given by UNESCO (1964)
 "Hydrology is the science which deals with terrestrial
water, their occurrence, circulation and distribution on
our planet, their physical and chemical properties and
their interaction with the physical and biological
environment, including the effect on them of the activity
of man".

 It treats various forms of moisture that occurs and

transformation between the liquid, solid, and gas states in the
atmosphere and in the surface layer.
1.2 NEED AND SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY
 Water is one of our most important natural resources. The
supply of water available for our use is limited by: nature,
water quality concern, increase in consumption, uncertain
supplies, and growing demands for protection from flooding
and pollution.
Source of water:
 Precipitation (Rainfall, snow, …)
 Groundwater (Springs, wells, …)
 Surface water (Lakes, Rivers, Oceans)
 Those sources form parts of hydrological elements.

 Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the need to

understand the complex water systems of the earth and help
solve water problems.
 Hydrologists play a vital role in finding solutions to water
problems.
1.2 NEED AND SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY
It helps to know:
 a) The maximum probable flood that may occur at a
given site and its frequency, this is required for the safe
design of waterways and their structures.
 b) The water yield from a basin – its occurrence,
quantity and frequency. This is required for rainwater
harvesting
 c) The groundwater development.
 d) The maximum intensity of storm and its frequency
for design of a drainage project in the area.
1.3 Practical applications
Hydrological analyses are widely used in:
 Civil engineering: design of hydraulic structures(dams,
dam spillways, flood embankments, detention basins,
drainage culverts and wastewater drainage systems)
 Predict flooding
 Analyze the likelihood of drought;
 Estimation of irrigation requirements;
 Design reservoirs for flood control and/or water supply
 Solve water-related problems in society: problems of
quantity, quality and availability;
 Control of soil erosion;
 Environmental protection: preventing or cleaning up
pollution or locating sites for safe disposal of hazardous
wastes.
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
 Water is found in the earth‟s atmosphere, on the earth‟s
surface (surface water), and within its subsurface
(groundwater). The hydrologic cycle is the continuous process
of water moving among these three general locations.
 Water is in all spheres
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
 Hydrological cycle is defined as the succession of
water movement from the atmosphere to the earth
and return to the atmosphere through various stages
such as precipitation, interception, runoff,
infiltration, percolation, storage, evaporation, and
transpiration.
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
Hydrological Processes:
 Precipitation (rainfall, hail, snow)
 Evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration)
 Interception
 Depression storage
 Infiltration
 Overland flow
 River flow (surface runoff)
 Groundwater flow
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
 Water, which exists in the atmosphere as water vapor,
reaches the earth‟s surface by precipitation (rain, snow,
hail, fog).
 As precipitation falls on the ground, some of the water
remains on the surfaces of plants, a process known as
interception.
 Some of the water is stored in the irregularities and small
depressions on the land surface, as depression storage.
 Water beneath the ground surface may also flow to these
various water resources through the processes of
interflow and groundwater flow.
 The portion of flow in streams and other water bodies that
originates from interflow and groundwater discharge, is
generally known as baseflow.
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
 The hydrologic cycle can be thought of as a series of reservoirs, or
storage areas, and a set of processes that cause water to move
between those reservoirs.
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
1.4 HYDROLOGY CYCLE
 A fundamental assumption behind is that hydrological
cycle is closed system, which means there are no gains or
losses of water from the cycle.
 Unfortunately there are many occasions upon which the
hydrologists has to deals with an open system in which
can only be described by a mass balance or water budget
equation in which the difference between input I and
output Q, is related to the change in storage ds, within the
time interval dt.
 Inputs - Outputs = Change in Storage
 Water balance equation will be discussed more in chap 5
1.5 SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY
 Most communities rely on surface water in one way or
another:
Water supply, transportation, industrial and
recreational use surface water resources
commonplace, and many cities are located on or near
to streams, rivers and lakes.
 Because of this close relationship with surface water
and the potential impacts that variation in water
quantity and quality can have on health and the
environment, surface water resources are constantly
monitored.
Definition: stream, river, lake, sea, ocean
1.5 SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY
 A stream is a natural flow of water that moves across the land
and is narrower than a river.
 A river is a natural and continuous flow of water which
discharges into the lake or sea and is fed by springs, rainfall
and stream.
 A lake is a large mass of water which occupies a basin or
depression on the surface of the earth. Lakes may be permanent
or seasonal depending on the volume of water that accumulates
in them and the amount lost through evaporation, percolation
and river outlets. Lakes also vary in size and depth. For
instance, some are small and shallow, while others are large
and deep.
 The sea is the large area of salty water that covers much of the
earth's surface. It is different from the ocean by the less
extension of deep sea plains (less than 3000 m of depth) and
the continental shelves more extended (more than 200 m of
depth).
Surface water
1.6 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
 Several natural processes lead to the storage of water
below the ground surface.
 The process of water entering into the ground is called
infiltration. Downward transport of water in the
unsaturated zone is called percolation.
 Groundwater is the subsurface water that occurs
beneath the water table in soils and geologic formations
that are fully saturated.
 Soil moisture is a general term for the liquid water and
water vapour contained in the pores and cracks in the
unsaturated zone (also called vadose zone or soil zone).
 Separating the unsaturated and saturated zones is the
water table, which is defined as a continuous surface at
which the water pressure equals the atmospheric pressure.
1.6 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
1.6 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
1.6 GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
 There are 3 main natural processes that result in origin of
groundwater:
 juvenile groundwater is water that is released during the
crystallization (cooling) of magma within the earth
 connate groundwater is water that is trapped in the pores of
sediment during deposition (as occurs in estuaries and deltas)
and becomes buried by subsequent sedimentation
 meteoric groundwater is water that originates from
precipitation and enters the subsurface by infiltration through
the overlying soil and rock.
1.7 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN IN HC
 Human activities have had significant impacts on the
hydrological cycle, both on the quantity and quality of water.
 A common problem is the overuse of watercourses resulting in
drastically reduced flow through rivers into natural stores. A
good example of this is over extraction of water for irrigation
which has resulted in the degradation of some wetlands (i.e.
Rugezi Wetland, case of Rwanda).
 Diversion of water for irrigation purposes modifies natural
hydrological processes and irrigated land often has high rates
of evaporation and evapontranspiration.
 Another common problem is the over regulation of river basins
as dams, levees and barrages aim to accumulate water for
human consumption or protect urban areas.
 However, they increase evaporation, and raise the water table
through increased percolation; which can affect flow
velocities and river development.
1.7 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN IN H CYCLE
 There are also large problems attached to alterations in the
water table. A rise in the level of groundwater can
saturate topsoils or lead to salinization.
 In addition, over extraction of water from aquifers can
lead to dangerously decreased water levels.
 Changing the land use of river basins: flow
characteristics are altered. This is especially clear in
urbanized areas where infiltration is all but halted and
evapotranspiration is greatly reduced. Urbanization also
leads to increased flood risks and large surface flows.
 Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation may be
to blame for increased drought risks and increased
flooding as good vegetation cover helps regulate, store
and absorb water flows.
1.7 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN IN H.C
1.7 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN IN H.C
1.7 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN IN H.C
 Explain how the following land-use changes effect
hydrological cycle
 Afforestation
 deforestation
 Agricultural Intensification
 Draining wetlands
 Explain how the following human activities have effect
on hydrological cycle
 Use of ground water
 Diversion of water for irrigation
 Diversion of water for hydropower plant
 Diversion of water for water treatment plant
Review presentation1

• Definition
•Need and scope
•Hydrological data
•Hydrological cycle
•Surface hydrology
•Groundwater hydrology
•Influence of man on HC
PRESENTATION 2
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Forms/types of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.1 INTRODUCTION
 The term precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach
the earth from the atmosphere either liquid or solid.
 The usual forms are rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. only
the first two contribute significant amounts of water.
 Rainfall being the predominant form of precipitation; the term
rainfall is used synonymously with precipitation.
 The magnitude of precipitation varies with time and space.
 Differences in the magnitude of rainfall in various parts of a
country at a given time and variations of rainfall at a place in
various seasons of the year are obvious
 It is this variation that is responsible for many hydrological
problems such as floods and droughts.
 The study of precipitation forms a major portion of the subject
of hydrometeorology.
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.2 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
For the precipitation to be formed:
 The atmosphere must have moisture
 There must be sufficient nuclei present to aid condensation
 Weather conditions must be good for condensation of water
vapour to take place and
 The product of condensation must reach the earth
 Under proper weather condition, the water vapour condense over
nuclei to form tiny water droplets less than 0.1 mm in diameter. The
nuclei are usually salt particles or products of combustion and are
available in plenty.
 Wind speed facilitates the movement of clouds, while its turbulence
retains the water droplets in suspension
 Precipitation results when water droplets come together and coalesce
to form larger drops that can drop down.
2.2 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION cont’
 Weather system
 Water is present in the atmosphere as a gas (water vapour), a
liquid (cloud droplets) and a solid (ice crystals).
 The complex process of producing precipitation may be
considered to begin with the water vapour, which results
from evaporation at earth's surface and various chemical
production processes.
 The maximum amount of water that can be retained in air is an
increasing function of temperature, so that when air is cooled
sufficiently and reaches the temperature at which the amount of
water vapour present is a maximum (also known as the
dewpoint), excess water condenses as droplet or ice crystals.
 The most common mechanism for atmosphere cooling is
adiabatic expansion of the air, ie expansion without heat
transfer. Rising air expands due to the reduction in pressure and
cool by about one degree C for every 100m of ascent.
2.2 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
2.2 FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
Among the most common causes of uplift are:
 The widespread ascent of air associated with weather fronts
 Localised ascent in an unstable atmosphere where more dense
air overlies less dense air, as is the case in summer when the
surface is relatively warms
 The presence of topography, such as mountain ranges.

 Types of precipitation according to the lifting mechanism:

• Convective storm
• Frontal precipitation
• Orographic
• Convergence
• cyclone
Convective Storms
 Air rises (vertical instability), cools, condensation,
precipitation
 Storm: a period of very bad weather when there is a lot of
rain or snow, strong winds, and often lightning:
 Form - rain, hail
 High Intensity, may exceed 40 mm/hr
 Duration - short (minutes to hours)
 Scale - ~1-10s km
 Common in the tropics, or during summer in temperate zone
 Does not always produce precipitation
 Can produce flash floods
 Lightning
Convective storm

Condensation of rising
air produces clouds…

Air rises and cools

reaching saturation

Air near ground

warms and rises
Convective Storms
Frontal Precipitation
 warm, wet air (lighter, above) front rides over cold dry air
(heavier, beneath)
Very common in humid temperate zone, in particular during fall,
winter and spring
 Form - rain or snow
 Intensity – generally low to moderate ~10 mm/h or less
 Duration - long (hours to days)
 Scale - >100 km
 Frontal Precipitation

Frontal lifting of air masses

 Orographic Precipitation
 Warm, moist air rises over mountains and releases water
(Cool, dry air falling from mountains has little moisture)
 Common in mountainous regions, sometimes connected to
frontal systems
 Form - rain or snow
 Intensity - low to moderate ~10 mm/h; high intensities when
sharp rise of the mountains
 Duration - long (hours to days); shorter if additional
convection
 Scale - >10-100 km
 Orographic Precipitation

AIR MASS
Rain shadow
Rain /
Snow

Rain
Ocean
Orographic Precipitation
Convergence Precipitation
 Precipitation through convergence at ITCZ
 (inter Tropical Convergence Zone. belt of low pressure)
 Convergence (occurs in tropics) , ITCZ forces to uplift warm
and moist air
 Monsoon (occurs in South east Asia), whose characteristics are
strongly dependent upon the seasonal movements of the
boundary between air masses originating in the northern and
southern hemispheres known as ITCZ
 defines rainy / dry seasons
 one or two rain seasons depending on ITCZ movement
Convergence
Precipitation
Cyclones, tropical depressions or hurricanes
(Cyclone: a very strong wind that moves very fast in a circle)
 Active depressions moving over warm ocean water; taking up
moisture and energy
 Can cause high intensity rainfall
 for relatively long times
 Often follow different probability distribution in statistical
analysis (extreme value statistics; mixed distributions)
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.3 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
 Rain: water that falls in small drops. Precipitation in the form
of liquid water drops greater than 0.5 mm.
 Drizzle: light rain
 Glaze/Clear ice/Black ice or Freezing rain: A generally
homogeneous and transparent ice layer deposited by drizzle or
rain that is supercooled on surfaces having temperature below,
or only slightly above, 0oC ;
 Snow: Precipitation composed of white or translucent ice
crystals, chiefly in complex branched hexagonal form and often
agglomerated into snowflakes
 Snowflakes: a small soft flat piece of frozen water that falls as
snow
 Sleet: Precipitation in the form of frozen or partly frozen snow
 Hail: frozen rain drops which fall as hard balls of ice
 Dew: the small drops of water that form on outdoor surfaces
during the night.
2.3 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

RAIN SNOW

Source: Koutsoyiannis and Langousis, 2009

2.3 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

ICE DEW
2.3 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
 Frost: A light deposit of ice caused by the condensation of
water vapour directly in the crystalline form, on terrestrial
objects whose temperatures are below freezing,
 Fog: cloudy air near the ground which is difficult to see
through
 Mist: a light cloud low over the ground that makes it difficult
for you to see very far.
 Precipitation in liquid form includes drizzle and raindrops.
Raindrops are on the order of a millimeter in radius, while
drizzle drops are approximately a tenth of this size.
 Important solid forms of precipitation include snowflakes,
sleet and hailstones, Solid precipitation may reach the earth's
surface as rain if it melts as it falls.
 Fog is a cloud in contact with the ground. Fog differs from
other clouds only in that fog touches the surface of the Earth.
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION IN RWANDA
 The climate of Rwanda is characterized by an alternation of four
seasons: two rainy and two dry seasons.
 Rains are generally distributed on the whole year regardless of some
irregularities.
 The rain distribution throughout the year follows this pattern:
 Long dry season, which starts in June and ends in September on the
whole country. Drought is not excessive, because during these
months rainfall depth varies from 25 to 50 mm, especially in
uplands.
 Short rainy season, which starts from October to December-January.
November is the rainiest month with 20 wet days. This season
receives around 30 to 40 % of annual precipitations.
 Short dry season extends from mid December to end of January. In
the West part of the country, this short dry season is not pronounced.
 Long rainy season extends from February to May-June and receive
between 40 and 60% of annual precipitations. April is the wettest
month of the year.
2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PRECIPITATION IN RWANDA
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
Liquid precipitation is measured using:
1. Non-recording cylindrical container type.
 For uniformity, the rainfall is measured everyday on the same
time either once or twice a day.
 The gauge should be fixed horizontally at 1m above the
ground, and no obstacle (house, trees, etc.) should be nearby.
2. Recording gauges
 like: weighing type, float type and tipping-bucket type.
 Recording gauges produces a continuously plot of rainfall
against time and provide valuable data of intensity and duration
of rainfall.
3. Another method of measuring precipitation is through the use
of radar.
 All of the above gauges measure precipitation at a point (point
precipitation ).
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
a) Weighing type
 Rain or snow is collected through the standard receiver
into the container, which rests on sprung balance.
 The weight of precipitation depresses the balance and this
movement is transmitted to the recording pen through a
suitable arrangement of livers and links.
 The clock mechanism rotates the drum which has a graph
paper mounted on it.
 This rotation of the drum sets the time scale, while the
vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative
precipitation.
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT

b) Tipping Bucket Type

 In this gauge two small buckets are balanced on a swivel
and are so arranged that one of these buckets is held
directly under collector funnel to receive the rain.
 When the bucket has received 0.25 mm of rain it tips and
empties into a catch basin and is replaced by the other
bucket.
 This is operated electronically and each tipping produces
mark on a continuously running strip of recording paper,
which identifies the time.
 This type cannot record precipitation in the form of snow.
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
2.5 RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
A C-band Doppler Rainfall radar from NASA used for research purposes
at the Fazenda Nossa Senhora in Rondˆonia, Brazil
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.6 LOCATION AND NETWORK OF RAINGAUGES
Location:
 It must be so located as to avoid exposure to wind
effect or the interception by trees or building nearby.
 Wind effect is serious at higher locations where
precipitation recorded would be less than actual.
 Best location is an open plain ground, like for
example an airport.
2.6 LOCATION AND NETWORK OF RAINGAUGES
Effect of wind on precipitation measurement
2.6 LOCATION AND NETWORK OF RAINGAUGES
2.6 LOCATION AND NETWORK OF RAINGAUGES
Recommended network:
 For flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical
zones, 600 to 900 km2 / station.
 For mountainous regions of temperate Mediterranean, and
tropical zones, 100 to 250 km2 / station.
 For small mountainous islands with irregular precipitation, 25
km2/ station.
 For arid and polar zones, 1500 to 10,000 km2 / station.
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.8 USES AND SOURCES OF PRECIPITATION DATA

USES
 Flood analysis for design of hydraulic structures
 Real-time flood forecasting
 Low flow studies
 Groundwater recharge analysis
 Water balance studies of catchments
 Water quality analysis
2.8 USES AND SOURCES OF PRECIPITATION DATA
 SOURCES
 National and regional archives or libraries (hydrological records but
also aerial photographs etc.);
 Private organizations such as power authorities or companies having
an interest in hydrological measurements, e.g. agricultural product
marketing companies and oil drilling companies;
 Research papers and project reports;
 Survey reports of research and development agencies;
 Archives of established newspapers;
 Field observations;
 Interviews of people living in the area;
 Maps on related topics
 Etc…
2.8 USES AND SOURCES OF PRECIPITATION DATA
PRECIPITATION PARAMETERS
 Amount of precipitation – units of depth (e.g. mm)
 The duration of event or period – units of time (e.g.
min, hour, day, month, year etc.)
 Intensity = amount/duration (e.g. mm h-1).
 Long durations have usually greater amounts and
 shorter durations have greater intensities
 Graph of precipitation vs. time is a hyetograph
 Seasonal distributions, depending on atmospheric
circulation patterns
 Frequency is the expectation that a given depth of rain will fall at a
given time
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.8 ANALYSIS FOR ANOMALOUS RAINFALL RECORDS
 Rainfall recorded at various rain gauges within a catchment
should be monitored regularly for any anomalies.
 For example of a number of recording rain gauges located
nearby, one may have stopped functioning at a certain point of
time, thus breaking the record of the gauge from that time
onwards.
 Sometimes, a perfectly working recording rain gauge might
have been shifted to a neighbourhood location, causing a
different trend in the recorded rainfall compared to the past
data.
 These two major types of anomalies in rainfall are categorized
as:
 Missing rainfall record
 Inconsistency in rainfall record
2.8 ANALYSIS FOR ANOMALOUS RAINFALL RECORDS

 ESTIMATING MISSING RECIPITATION DATA

 Many precipitation stations have short breaks in their records
because of absence of the observer or because of instrumental
failures. It is often necessary to estimate this missing record.
 In the procedure used, precipitation amounts are estimated
from observations at three stations as close to and as evenly
spaced around the station with the missing record as possible.
 If the normal annual precipitation at each of the index stations
is within 10 percent of that for the station with the missing
record, a simple arithmetic average of the precipitation at the
index stations provides the estimated amount.
 P = 1/m[ P1 +P2 + …..+Pm]
 Where P = is missing precipitation and M is number of
stations
2.8 ANALYSIS FOR ANOMALOUS RAINFALL RECORDS

 ESTIMATING MISSING RECIPITATION DATA

• If the normal annual precipitation at any of the index
stations differs from that at the station in question by more
than 10 percent the normal-ratio method is used. In this
method, the amounts at the index stations are weighted by
the ratios of the normal-annual-precipitation values.
• That is, precipitation Px at station X is

 In which N is the normal annual precipitation.

2.8 ANALYSIS FOR ANOMALOUS RAINFALL RECORDS

INCONSISTENCY IN RAINFALL RECORD

• Double-mass analysis tests the consistency of the record
at a station (i.e station X)by comparing its accumulated
annual or seasonal precipitation with the concurrent
accumulated values of mean precipitation for a group of
surrounding stations (i.e Station A and B).
 Considerable caution should be exercised in applying the
double-mass technique. The platted point always deviate
about a mean line, and changes in slope should be
accepted only when marked or substantiated by other
evidence. The double-mass analysis can be made on a
computer.
2.8 ANALYSIS FOR ANOMALOUS RAINFALL RECORDS
 INCONSISTENCY IN RAINFALL RECORD

From the calculated slopes S0 and Sc from the plotted graph, we may write
Pc = Po (Sc/So)
Where:
Pc and P0 are the corrected and original rainfalls at suspected station at any
time. Sc and S0 are the corrected and original slopes of the double mass-curve.
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.9 PRESENTATION OF RAINFALL DATA
Hyetograph
 Plot of rainfall intensity against time, where rainfall
intensity is depth of rainfall per unit time
2.9 PRESENTATION OF RAINFALL DATA
 Mass curve of rainfall
 The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of the accumulated
precipitation against time, plotted in chronological order. Mass
curves of rainfall are very useful in extracting the information
on the duration and magnitude of a storm
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.10 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AREA
The methods used are:
Arithmetic average
 The simplest method of obtaining the average depth is to
average arithmetically the gagged amounts in the area.
This method yields good estimates in flat country if the
gages are uniformly distributed and the individual gage
catches do not vary widely from the mean. These
limitations can be partially overcome if topographic
influences and areal representatively are considered in the
selection of gage sites.
2.10 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AREA
 Thiessen Method/Thiessen Polygons: Weighted average
 It allow for nonuniform distribution of gages by providing a
weighting factor for each gage.
 The stations are plotted on the map, and connecting lines are
drawn
 Perpendicular bisectors of these connecting lines form
polygons around each station. The area of each polygon is
determined by planimetry and is expressed as a percentage of
the total area.
 Weighted average rainfall for the total area is computed by
multiplying the precipitation at each station by its assigned
percentage of area and totaling.
2.10 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AREA
Thiessen Method/Thiessen Polygons:
2.10 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AREA
 Isohyetal or “contour” area weighted average
 The most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an
area is the isohyetal method. Station locations and amounts are
plotted on a suitable map, and contours of equal precipitation
(isohyets) are then drawn
 The average precipitation for an area is computed by weighting
the average precipitation between successive isohyets (usually
taken as the average of the two isohyetal values by the area
between isohyets, totaling these products, and dividing by the
total area.
 The isohyetal method permits the use and interpretation of all
available data and is well adapted to display and discussion.
 In constructing an isohyetal map the analyst can make full use
of his knowledge of orographic effects and storm morphology,
and in this case the final map should represent a more realistic
precipitation pattern than could be obtained from the gagged
2.10 AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OVER AREA
Isohyetal or “contour” area weighted average
Chap2: precipitation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formation of precipitation
2.3 Form of precipitation
2.4 Characteristics of rainfall in Rwanda
2.5 Rainfall measurement
2.6 Location and network of raingauge
2.7 Uses and sources of precipitation data
2.8 Analysis for anomalous rainfall records
2.9 Presentation of rainfall data
2.10 Average precipitation
2.11 Rainfall analysis
2.11 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
 DEPTH-AREA-DURATION CURVES
 In designing structures for water resources, one has to know the areal
spread of rainfall within watershed. However, it is often required to
know the amount of high rainfall that may be expected over the
catchment.
 It may be observed that usually a storm event would start with a
heavy downpour and may gradually reduce as time passes. Hence,
the rainfall depth is not proportional to the time duration of rainfall
observation.
 Similarly, rainfall over a small area may be more or less uniform.
But if the area is large, then due to the variation of rain falling in
different parts, the average rainfall would be less than that recorded
over a small portion below the high rain fall occurring within the
area.
 Due to these facts, a Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) analysis is carried
out based on records of several storms on an area and, the maximum
areal precipitation for different durations corresponding to different
areal extents.
 The result of a DAD analysis is the DAD curves
2.11 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
DEPTH-AREA-DURATION CURVES
 2.11 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
 INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CURVES
 The analysis of continuous rainfall events, usually lasting for
periods of less than a day, requires the evaluation of rainfall
intensities. The assessment of such values may be made from
records of several part storms over the area and presented in a
graphical
 Two new concepts are introduced here, which are:
 Rainfall intensity
 This is the amount of rainfall for a given rainfall event recorded
at a station divided by the time of record, counted from the
beginning of the event.
 Return period
 This is the time interval after which a storm of given magnitude
is likely to recur. This is determined by analyzing past rainfalls
from several events recorded at a station.
2.11 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CURVES
2.11 RAINFALL ANALYSIS
 Mean and Median
 (refer to pages 43-44 from REF BOOK GIVEN)
Tutorial 1-precipitation
 Objectives:
1. To find average precipitation by arithmetic method
2. Estimate missing precipitation value
3. Construction of Thiessen polygons
4. Construction of Isohyetal contour
5. Calculate the surface area in the catchment for which
each station is representative (hint:count the squares on
the paper, each square represents 1 ha for example _ use
scale)
6. Calculate the areal precipitation by Thiessen and
Isohyetal method
7. Presentation of rainfall data
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 1
Find average precipitation
by arithmetic method

Average rainfall as the arithmetic mean of all the records of the

four rain gauges, as shown below: (15+12+8+5)/4 = 10mm
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Construction of polygon
 These areas are found out using a method consisting of the
following three steps:
1. Joining the rain gauge station locations by straight lines to
form triangles
2. Bisecting the edges of the triangles to form the so-called
“Thiessen polygons”
3. Calculate the area enclosed around each rain gauge station
bounded by the polygon edges (and the catchment
boundary, wherever appropriate) to find the area of
influence corresponding to the rain gauge.
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Construction of polygon

For the given example, the “weighted” average rainfall over the catchment is
determined as:
55
Tutorial 1-precipitation
 Calculation by areal precipitation by Thiessen method –
using table for many stations
Polygon Net Area % of Area Observated P Weighted P
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3= Col2/Tot A Col 4 Col5= col3*col4

1
2
3
.
.
.
Total
Answer
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Construction of Isohyetal
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Construction of Isohyetal
Tutorial 1-precipitation
 Calculation of areal precipitation by Isohyetal method-
using table for many stations
Isohyetal Area enclosed Average P Rainfall Volume
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 (bn 2Isohy) Col4= col2*col3

>?
?-?
?-?
..
..
<?
Total ???
???
Answer = sum col4 / total area
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 2
The rainfall recorded in Kigali catchment in May 2017 in 3
stations is as follows: P1 = 110 mm; P2 = 105 mm and P3 =
113 mm
a) Calculate the average rainfall volume over the area by using
the arithmetic mean method
P (average) =

b) If P1 is missing what is the expected value for it:

i) by the average method;
P (station1) =

ii) by considering the normal annual precipitation as N1 = 112

mm; N2 = 100 mm and N3 = 98 mm
P (station1) =
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 3: Construction of Thiessen polygon
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 3:Construction of Isohyetal contour
Use Isohyetal or “contour” area weighted average of 20,25,30,35,40 of the
following figure
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 3:Construction of Isohyetal contour
Use Isohyetal or “contour” area weighted average of 20,25,30,35,40 of the
following figure
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 3:Construction of Isohyetal contour
Use Isohyetal or “contour” area weighted average of 20,25,30,35,40
Tutorial 1-precipitation
 Calculation of areal precipitation by Isohyetal method-
using table
Isohyetal Area enclosed Average P Rainfall Volume
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 (bn 2Isohy) Col4= col2*col3

>40
40-35
35-30
30-25
25-20
<20
Total ???
???
Answer = sum col4 / total area
 Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 4: Construction of Thiessen polygon
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Thiessen Method/Thiessen Polygons:
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question 5: Draw Isohyetal of 1, 2, 3, and 4
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
 The following are the rain gauge observations during a
storm. Construct:
 (i) The mass curve of precipitation,
 (ii) The rainfall hyetograph,
 (iii) The maximum intensity-duration curve and develop a
formula of this curve,
 (iv) The maximum depth-duration curve.
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data – ref to ex 2.7
pg 44-46 in REF BOOK and Question 5 in exercises
of chap2 precipitation
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
(a) Mass curve of precipitation. The plot of „accumulated
rainfall (cm) vs. time (min)‟ gives the „mass curve of rainfall‟
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
(b) Hyetograph. The intensity of rainfall at successive 5 min
interval is calculated
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
(b) Hyetograph. The intensity of rainfall at successive 5 min
interval is calculated and a bar-graph of „i (cm/hr) vs. t (min)‟
is constructed; this depicts the variation of the intensity of
rainfall with respect to time and is called the „hyetograph;
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
c)Maximum depth–duration curve.
• By inspection of time (t) and accumulated rainfall (cm) the
maximum rainfall depths during 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40,
45 and 50 min durations are 0.7, 1.3, 1.6, 1.8, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 2.9,
3.0 and 3.1 cm respectively.
• The plot of the maximum rainfall depths against different
durations:
 on a log-log paper gives the maximum depth-duration curve,
which is a straight line. (use your computer to plot)
 On normal scale. Curve is not straight (use your computer to
plot or mill-metric paper)
Tutorial 1-precipitation
Question6: Presentation of rainfall data
• (d) Maximum intensity-duration curve.
• Corresponding to the maximum depths obtained in (c) above,
the corresponding maximum intensities can be obtained (∆P
/∆t) × 60, i.e., 8.4, 7.8, 6.4, 5.4, 5.52, 5.0, 4.63, 4.35, 4.0 and
3.72 cm/hr, respectively.
• The plot of the maximum intensities against the different
duration:
 on a log-log paper gives the maximum intensity-duration curve
which is a straight line (use your computer to plot)
 On normal scale. Curve is not straight (use your computer to
plot or mill-metric paper)