Q.1 What is a computer network ?

Discuss its merits and

demerits ?

Ans : A computer network consists of two or more computers that are

linked in order to share resources such as printers and CD-ROMs,
exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on
a computer network may be linked through cables, telephone lines,
radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

Computers can be connected by networks to share data and resources. A network

can be as simple as two computers connected by a single cable or as complex as
hundreds of computers connected to devices that control the flow of information.
Converged data networks can include general-purpose computers, such as
personal computers and servers, as well as devices with more specific functions,
such as printers, phones, televisions, and game consoles.

A data network consists of a set of hosts connected by network devices. A host is

any device that sends and receives information on the network. Peripherals are
devices that are connected to hosts. Some devices can act as hosts and
peripherals. For example, a printer connected to a laptop that is on a network acts
as a peripheral. If the printer is connected directly to a network device, such as a
hub, a switch or a router, it acts as a host.
Computer networks are used globally in companies, homes, schools, and
government agencies. Many of the networks connect through the internet .

It is possible to connect various types of devices to a network:

 Desktop
 Computers.
 Laptops.
 Printers
 Scanners
 Personaldigitalassistants (PDA).

Advantages of Network:
These are the main advantages of Computer Networks:
 1. Central Storage of Data –
Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can be
shared and made available to each and every user in an
organization.

2. Anyone can connect to a computer network –

There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a
modern computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it
workable for even youthful kids to start exploiting the data.

3. Faster Problem-solving –
Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few littler
procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an
explicit issue can be settled in lesser time.

4. Reliability –
Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason
equipment crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or
inaccessible on one PC, another duplicate of similar information is
accessible on another workstation for future use, which prompts
smooth working and further handling without interruption.

5. It is highly flexible –
This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the
chance to investigate everything about fundamental things, for
example, programming without influencing their usefulness.

6. Security through Authorization –

Security and protection of information are additionally settled through
the system. As just the system clients are approved to get to specific
records or applications, no other individual can crack the protection or
security of information.

7. It boosts storage capacity –

Since you will share data, records, and assets with other
individuals, you need to guarantee all information and substance
are legitimately put away in the framework. With this systems
administration innovation, you can do the majority of this with no
issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.

Disadvantages of Network:
These are the main disadvantages of Computer Networks:

1. It lacks robustness –
If a PC system’s principal server separates, the whole framework
would end up futile. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central
 linking server that fails, the entire network would also come to a
standstill. To manage these issues, gigantic systems ought to have
a ground-breaking PC to fill in as a document server to influence
setting up and keeping up the system less demanding.

2. It lacks independence –
PC organizing includes a procedure that is worked utilizing PCs, so
individuals will depend on a greater amount of PC work, rather than
applying an exertion for their jobs that needs to be done. Besides
this, they will be subject to the primary document server, which
implies that, in the event that it separates, the framework would end
up futile, making clients inactive.

3. Virus and Malware –

On the off chance that even one PC on a system gets contaminated
with an infection, there is a possibility for alternate frameworks to
get tainted as well. Infections can spread on a system effectively, in
view of the availability of different gadgets.

4. Cost of the network –

The expense of executing the system including cabling and
equipment can be expensive.

Q:2 Define Network Topology . Discuss its types

with diagram in detail ?

Topology:
Network topologies describe the methods in which all the elements of a
network are mapped. The topology term refers to both the physical and logical
layout of a network.

Types of Networking Topologies

Two main types of network topologies in computer networks are 1) Physical topology 2)
Logical topology

Physical topology:
This type of network is an actual layout of the computer cables and other network devices
Logical topology:
Logical topology gives insight’s about network’s physical design.

Different types of Physical Topologies are:

 P2P Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point (P2P)

Point-to-point topology is the easiest of all the network topologies. In this
method, the network consists of a direct link between two computers

Advantages:
 This is faster and highly reliable than other types of connections since
there is a direct connection.
 No need for a network operating system
 Does not need an expensive server as individual workstations are used to
access the files
 No need for any dedicated network technicians because each user sets
their permissions

Disadvantages:
 The biggest drawback is that it only be used for small areas where
computers are in close proximity.
 You can’t back up files and folders centrally
 There is no security besides the permissions. Users often do not require to
log onto their workstations.

Bus Topology
Bus topology uses a single cable which connects all the included
nodes. The main cable acts as a spine for the entire network. One of
the computers in the network acts as the computer server. When it has
two endpoints, it is known as a linear bus topology.

Advantages:
Here are pros/benefits of using a bus topology:

 Cost of the cable is very less as compared to other topology, so

it is widely used to build small networks.
 Famous for LAN network because they are inexpensive and
easy to install.
 It is widely used when a network installation is small, simple, or
temporary.
 It is one of the passive topologies. So computers on the bus
only listen for data being sent, that are not responsible for
moving the data from one computer to others.

Disadvantages:
Here are the cons/drawbacks of bus topology:

 In case if the common cable fails, then the entire system will
crash down.
 When network traffic is heavy, it develops collisions in the
network.
 Whenever network traffic is heavy, or nodes are too many, the
performance time of the network significantly decreases.
 Cables are always of a limited length.

Ring Topology
Ring Topology Diagram

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbouring devices for communication
purpose. It is called a ring topology as its formation is like a ring. In this topology, every
computer is connected to another computer. Here, the last node is combined with a first one.

This topology uses token to pass the information from one computer to another. In this
topology, all the messages travel through a ring in the same direction.
Advantages:
Here are pros/benefits of ring topology:

 Easy to install and reconfigure.

 Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move
only two connections.
 The troubleshooting process is difficult in a ring topology.
 Failure of one computer can disturb the whole network.
 Offers equal access to all the computers of the networks
 Faster error checking and acknowledgment.

Disadvantages:
Here are drawbacks/cons of ring topology:

 Unidirectional traffic.
 Break in a single ring can risk the breaking of the entire network
 Modern days high-speed LANs made this topology less popular.
 In the ring, topology signals are circulating at all times, which
develops unwanted power consumption.
 It is very difficult to troubleshoot the ring network.
 Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network
activity.

Star Topology
In the star topology, all the computers connect with the help of a hub.
This cable is called a central node, and all other nodes are connected
using this central node. It is most popular on LAN networks as they
are inexpensive and easy to install.

Advantages:
Here are pros/benefits of start topology:

 Easy to troubleshoot, set up, and modify.

 Only those nodes are affected, that has failed. Other nodes still
work.
  Fast performance with few nodes and very low network traffic.
 In Star topology, addition, deletion, and moving of the devices
are easy.

Disadvantages:
Here are cons/drawbacks of using Star:

 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are disabled.

 Cost of installation of star topology is costly.
 Heavy network traffic can sometimes slow the bus
considerably.
 Performance depends on the hub’s capacity
 A damaged cable or lack of proper termination may bring the
network down.

Mesh Topology
The mesh topology has a unique network design in which each
computer on the network connects to every other. It is develops a P2P
(point-to-point) connection between all the devices of the network. It
offers a high level of redundancy, so even if one network cable fails,
still data has an alternative path to reach its destination.

Types of Mesh Topology:

 Partial Mesh Topology: In this type of topology, most of the

devices are connected almost similarly as full topology. The
only difference is that few devices are connected with just two
or three devices.

Advantages:
Here, are pros/benefits of Mesh topology

 The network can be expanded without disrupting current

users.
 Need extra capable compared with other LAN topologies.
 No traffic problem as nodes has dedicated links.
  Dedicated links help you to eliminate the traffic problem.
 A mesh topology is robust.
 It has multiple links, so if any single route is blocked, then
other routes should be used for data communication.
 P2P links make the fault identification isolation process easy.
 It helps you to avoid the chances of network failure by
connecting all the systems to a central node.
 Every system has its privacy and security.

Disadvantages:

 Installation is complex because every node is connected to

every node.
 It is expensive due to the use of more cables. No proper
utilization of systems.
 Complicated implementation.
 It requires more space for dedicated links.
 Because of the amount of cabling and the number of input-
outputs, it is expensive to implement.
 It requires a large space to run the cables.

Tree Topology
Tree Topology

Tree topologies have a root node, and all other nodes are
connected which form a hierarchy. So it is also known as
hierarchical topology. This topology integrates various star
topologies together in a single bus, so it is known as a Star Bus
topology. Tree topology is a very common network which is similar
to a bus and star topology.

Advantages:
Here are pros/benefits of tree topology:

 Failure of one node never affects the rest of the network.

  Node expansion is fast and easy.
 Detection of error is an easy process
 It is easy to manage and maintain

Disadvantages:
Here are cons/drawback of tree topology:

 It is heavily cabled topology

 If more nodes are added, then its maintenance is difficult
 If the hub or concentrator fails, attached nodes are also
disabled.

Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology combines two or more topologies. You can see in
the above architecture in such a manner that the resulting network
does not exhibit one of the standard topologies.

For example, as you can see in the above image that in an office in
one department, Star and P2P topology is used. A hybrid topology
is always produced when two different basic network topologies
are connected.

Advantages:
Here, are advantages/pros using Hybrid topology:

 Offers the easiest method for error detecting and

troubleshooting
 Highly effective and flexible networking topology
 It is scalable so you can increase your network size

Disadvantages:

 The design of hybrid topology is complex

 It is one of the costliest processes
Q:3 Write the short note on :
a) Analog and Digital signal with diagram.

Analog signals Digital signals

Analog signals are difficult to get analysed at first. Digital signals are easy to analyse.

Analog signals are more accurate than digital signals. Digital signals are less accurate.

Analog signals take time to be stored. It has infinite Digital signals can be easily stored.
memory.

To record an Analog signal, the technique used, preserves In recording digital signal, the samp
the original signals. and preserved.

There is a continuous representation of signals in Analog There is a discontinuous represent

signals. digital signals.

Analog signals produce too much noise. Digital signals do not produce noise

Examples of analog signals are Human voice, Examples of digital signals are
Thermometer, Analog phones etc. Phones, Digital pens, etc.

B) Transmission media (twisted pair cable, coaxial cable,

fibre optics)

o Transmission Media : Transmission media is a communication

channel that carries the information from the sender to the
receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the
information in the form of bits through LAN (Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
Twisted pair cable : Twisted pair cable is often used for telephone
communications and most modern Ethernet networks. It is a kind of wiring in
which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted together. A pair of wires
forms a circuit that can transmit data. And the pairs are twisted together to
provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs.

Fiber Optic Cable

This also called as optical fiber cable, is a type of Ethernet cable which consists of
one or more optic fibers that are used to transmit data. Fiber optic cable
transmits data as pulses of light go through tiny tubes of glass. The transmission
capacity of optical fiber cable is 26,000 times higher than that of twisted pair
cable.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax cable, is designed to transmit high-frequency signals. It’s
comprised of a round copper conductor and three layers of insulation and
shielding which prevents crosstalk from motors, lighting and other sources of
EMI. With the shield construction, the coaxial cable can support longer cable
lengths between two devices.

Q. What are the various types of data communication

network ? Discuss with diagrams?
Human beings are the only creatures on the earth who are able to
communicate with each other through the medium of language. But humans
take this gift to another extent. Distance, time, and physical existence of the
person don’t matter in communication these days because they build a
communication system through which they can communicate or share data
like images, videos, text, files, etc with their loved ones anytime anywhere.
Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer
transfers information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources.
Or in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send
or receive data. A network of computers is defined as an interconnected
collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous means no computer can
start, stop or control another computer.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can
send or receive data from one device to another. The data communication is
divided into three types:
Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

4. Wireless

5. Inter Network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as
an office, group of buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it
is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and
workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We can
use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring,
Bus, Tree etc.

LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to

share files and network among each other while it can also be as
complex as interconnecting an entire building.

LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers,
shared hard-drive etc.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is

also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is
designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a
single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private
company or a public company
Characteristics of MAN

 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers,

cables etc.

 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased

network. It is used for the network that covers large distance such
as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain.
Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
WAN operates on low data rates.

Characteristics of WAN

 It generally covers large distances(states, countries,

continents).

 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone

networks which are connected by routers.

Wireless Network

Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse

code was used to implement wireless networks. Modern digital
wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea is the
same.

Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:

1. System interconnection
 2. Wireless LANs

3. Wireless WANs

System Interconnection

System interconnection is all about interconnecting the

components of a computer using short-range radio. Some
companies got together to design a short-range wireless network
called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor,
keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without wires.
Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other
devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within
range.

In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-

slave concept. The system unit is normally the master, talking to the
mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

Wireless LANs

These are the systems in which every computer has a radio

modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other
systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small
offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much
trouble. There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11,
which most systems implement and which is becoming very
widespread.
Wireless WANs

The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a

low-bandwidth wireless WAN. This system has already gone
through three generations.

 The first generation was analog and for voice only.

 The second generation was digital and for voice only.

 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data

Q. Discuss the concept of OSI Model and TCP/IP model in

details ?
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven
layers that computer systems use to communicate over a
network. It was the first standard model for network
communications, adopted by all major computer and
telecommunication companies in the early 1980s

The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler

TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer model is still widely
used, as it helps visualize and communicate how networks
operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot networking problems

OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7 Layers

Application Layer

The application layer is used by end-user software such as web

browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that allow
software to send and receive information and present meaningful
data to users. A few examples of application layer protocols are
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
and Domain Name System (DNS).

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It
defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress
data so it is received correctly on the other end. The presentation
layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and
prepares it for transmission over the session layer.

5. Session Layer

The session layer creates communication channels, called

sessions, between devices. It is responsible for opening sessions,
ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being
transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The
session layer can also set checkpoints during a data transfer—if
the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from
the last checkpoint.

4. Transport Layer

The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer

and breaks it into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is
responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end,
turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer.
The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a
rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device,
and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if
not, requesting it again.

3. Network Layer

The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up

segments into network packets, and reassembling the packets on
the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the
best path across a physical network. The network layer uses
network addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses) to route
packets to a destination node.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection
between two physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks
up packets into frames and sends them from source to
destination. This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link
Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols, performs error
checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control
(MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define
permissions to transmit and receive data.

1. Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless

connection between network nodes. It defines the connector, the
electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices,
and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is
simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model helps users and operators of computer

networks:

 Determine the required hardware and software to build their

network.
 Understand and communicate the process followed by
components communicating across a network.
 Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer
is causing an issue and focusing efforts on that layer.

TCP / IP :

 TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol and is a suite of communication protocols used to
interconnect network devices on the internet. TCP/IP is
also used as a communications protocol in a private
computer network (an intranet or extranet).
 The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is
commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP and IP are the two
main protocols, though others are included in the
 suite. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an
abstraction layer between internet applications and the
routing and switching fabric.

The 4 layers of the TCP/IP model

TCP/IP functionality is divided into four layers, each of which includes specific
protocols:

1. The application layer provides applications with standardized data

exchange. Its protocols include HTTP, FTP, Post Office Protocol 3, Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol and Simple Network Management Protocol. At
the application layer, the payload is the actual application data.

2. The transport layer is responsible for maintaining end-to-end

communications across the network. TCP handles communications
between hosts and provides flow control, multiplexing and reliability.
The transport protocols include TCP and User Datagram Protocol, which
is sometimes used instead of TCP for special purposes.

3. The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across
network boundaries. The network layer protocols are IP and Internet
Control Message Protocol, which is used for error reporting.

4. The physical layer, also known as the network interface layer or data
link layer, consists of protocols that operate only on a link -- the
network component that interconnects nodes or hosts in the network.
The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet for local area
networks and Address Resolution Protocol.

Q. What are the different types of protocols used in

computer networking ?

Types of protocol:
 1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular

communication protocol which is used for communicating over a
network. It divides any message into series of packets that are sent
from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the
destination.

2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing

protocol. It is mostly used with TCP. The IP addresses in packets
help in routing them through different nodes in a network until it
reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular
protocol connecting the networks.

3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication

protocol to Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily
for creating loss-tolerating and low-latency linking between
different applications.

4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving

incoming E-mails.
 5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send
and distribute outgoing E-Mail.

6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from
one machine to another. Types of files may include program files,
multimedia files, text files, and documents, etc.

7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for

transferring a hypertext among two or more systems. HTML tags
are used for creating links. These links may be in any form like text
or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow
a client system for establishing a connection with the server
machine for making a request. The server acknowledges the
request initiated by the client and responds accordingly.

8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated

as Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to
secure the communication among two computers one using the
browser and other fetching data from web server.

Q.Write short note on :

a) Flow control and its techniques :

b) Firewalls and its function

Flow control and its techniques

Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or
devices or between nodes in a network so that the data can be
handled at an efficient pace. Too much data arriving before a device
can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either lost or
must be retransmitted.

Flow control tells the sender how much data should be sent to the
receiver so that it is not lost. This mechanism makes the sender wait for
an acknowledgment before sending the next data. There are two ways to
control the flow of data:

1. Stop and Wait Protocol

2. Sliding Window Protocol

Stop and Wait Protocol

It is the simplest flow control method. In this, the sender will send one
frame at a time to the receiver. Until then, the sender will stop and
wait for the acknowledgment from the receiver. When the sender gets the
acknowledgment then it will send the next data packet to the receiver and
wait for the acknowledgment again and this process will continue. This
can be understood by the diagram below.

Sliding Window Protocol

As we saw that the disadvantage of the stop and wait protocol is that the
sender waits for the acknowledgment and during that time the sender is idle. In
sliding window protocol we will utilize this time. We will change this waiting
time into transmission time.

Firewalls and its function:

A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and

outgoing network traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific
traffic based on a defined set of security rules.
Firewalls have been a first line of defense in network security for over 25
years. They establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal
networks that can be trusted and untrusted outside networks, such as
the Internet.

Types of firewalls

Proxy firewall

An early type of firewall device, a proxy firewall serves as the

gateway from one network to another for a specific application. Proxy
servers can provide additional functionality such as content caching
and security by preventing direct connections from outside the
network. However, this also may impact throughput capabilities and
the applications they can support

Stateful inspection firewall

Now thought of as a “traditional” firewall, a stateful inspection

firewall allows or blocks traffic based on state, port, and protocol. It
monitors all activity from the opening of a connection until it is
closed. Filtering decisions are made based on both administrator-
defined rules as well as context, which refers to using information
from previous connections and packets belonging to the same
connection

Unified threat management (UTM) firewall

A UTM device typically combines, in a loosely coupled way, the

functions of a stateful inspection firewall with intrusion prevention
and antivirus. It may also include additional services and often cloud
management. UTMs focus on simplicity and ease of use.

Next-generation firewall (NGFW)

Firewalls have evolved beyond simple packet filtering and stateful
inspection. Most companies are deploying next-generation
firewalls to block modern threats such as advanced malware and
application-layer attacks.
According to Gartner, Inc.’s definition, a next-generation firewall
must include:
 Standard firewall capabilities like stateful inspection
 Integrated intrusion prevention
 Application awareness and control to see and block risky apps
 Upgrade paths to include future information feeds
 Techniques to address evolving security threats

Threat-focused NGFW

These firewalls include all the capabilities of a traditional NGFW and

also provide advanced threat detection and remediation. With a threat-
focused NGFW you can:
 Know which assets are most at risk with complete context
awareness
 Quickly react to attacks with intelligent security automation that
sets policies and hardens your defenses dynamically

Q. What do u understand by the term crytography discuss its

functionlity and its types?

Cryptography is an important aspect when we deal with network

security. ‘Crypto’ means secret or hidden. Cryptography is the science
of secret writing with the intention of keeping the data secret.
Cryptanalysis, on the other hand, is the science or sometimes the art of
breaking cryptosystems. Both terms are a subset of what is
called Cryptology.
Classification: The flowchart depicts that cryptology is only one of the
factors involved in securing networks. Cryptology refers to the study of
codes, which involves both writing (cryptography) and solving
(cryptanalysis) them. Below is a classification of the crypto
terminologies and their various types.

Features Of Cryptography are as follows:

1. Confidentiality:
Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it is
intended and no other person except him can access it.
2. Integrity:
Information cannot be modified in storage or transition between
sender and intended receiver without any addition to information
being detected.
3. Non-repudiation:
The creator/sender of information cannot deny his intention to send
information at later stage.
4. Authentication:
The identities of sender and receiver are confirmed. As well as
destination/origin of information is confirmed.

Types Of Cryptography:

In general there are three types Of cryptography:

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography:

It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of
message use a single common key to encrypt and decrypt
messages. Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler but the
problem is that sender and receiver have to somehow exchange
key in a secure manner. The most popular symmetric key
cryptography system is Data Encryption System(DES).
2. Hash Functions:
There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with
fixed length is calculated as per the plain text which makes it
impossible for contents of plain text to be recovered. Many
operating systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.

3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography:

Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt
information. A public key is used for encryption and a private key is
used for decryption. Public key and Private Key are different. Even
 if the public key is known by everyone the intended receiver can
only decode it because he alone knows the private key.

Q.Define Internet , why is it so essential in today’s age ?Also

mention its various users in details ?
Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is
being used by almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of
computers, webpages, websites, and servers. Using the internet we can
send emails, photos, videos, messages to our loved ones. Or in other words,
the internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and
electronics devices(that support internet). It creates a communication
medium to share and get information online. If your device is connected to
the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications,
websites, social media apps, and many more services. Internet nowadays is
considered as the fastest medium for sending and receiving information.

Origin Of Internet: The internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of
the first working model called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects
Agency). It allowed multiple computers to work on a single network that was
their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET use packet switching to
communicate multiple computer systems under a single network. In October
1969, using ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to
another. After that technology continues to grow.

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical fiber data transmission
cables or copper wires and various other networking mediums like LAN,
WAN, MAN, etc. For accessing the Internet even the 2g, 3g, and 4g services
and the wifi require these physical cable setup to access the Internet. There
is an authority named ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers) located in the USA which manages the Internet and protocols
related to it like IP addresses.

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:
1. Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites
have made our life easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart,
Myntra are providing very spectacular services with just one click
and this is a great use of the Internet.
2. Cashless transactions: All the merchandising companies are
offering services to their customers to pay the bills of the products
online via various digital payment apps like Paytm, Google pay, etc.
 UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital
payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too
because of the INTERNET.
3. Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of
educational material to everyone through any server across the
web. Those who are unable to attend physical classes can choose
any course from the internet and can have the point-to-point
knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are
teaching online on digital platforms and providing quality education
to students with the help of the Internet.
4. Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and
apps is to connect people all over the world. With the help of social
networking sites, we can talk, share videos, images with our loved
ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can create groups
for discussion or for meetings.
5. Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There
are numerous entertainment options available on the internet like
watching movies, playing games, listening to music, etc. You can
also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from
the internet.

Q. Write short note on following :

World wide web: Documents and downloadable media are made

available to the network through web servers and can be accessed by
programs such as web browsers. Servers and resources on the World
Wide Web are identified and located through character strings
called uniform resource locators (URLs). The original and still very
common document type is a web page formatted in Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML). This markup language supports plain text, images,
embedded video and audio contents, and scripts (short programs) that
implement complex user interaction. The HTML language also
supports hyperlinks (embedded URLs) which provide immediate access
to other web resources. Web navigation, or web surfing, is the common
practice of following such hyperlinks across multiple websites. Web
applications are web pages that function as application software. The
information in the Web is transferred across the Internet using
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

Multiple web resources with a common theme and usually a

common domain name make up a website. A single web server may
provide multiple websites, while some websites, especially the most
popular ones, may be provided by multiple servers. Website content is
provided by a myriad of companies, organizations, government
agencies, and individual users; and comprises an enormous amount of
educational, entertainment, commercial, and government information.
The World Wide Web has become the world's dominant software
platform. It is the primary tool billions of people worldwide use to interact
with the Internet.

B) Web Server

1. On the hardware side, a web server is a computer that

stores web server software and a website's component
files (for example, HTML documents, images, CSS
stylesheets, and JavaScript files). A web server connects to
the Internet and supports physical data interchange with
other devices connected to the web.
2. On the software side, a web server includes several parts
that control how web users access hosted files. At a
minimum, this is an HTTP server. An HTTP server is
software that understands URLs (web addresses)
and HTTP (the protocol your browser uses to view
webpages). An HTTP server can be accessed through the
domain names of the websites it stores, and it delivers the
content of these hosted websites to the end user's device.

Hyperlink :
In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a digital reference
to data that the user can follow or be guided by clicking or tapping. A
hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within a
document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. The text that is linked from is
known as anchor text. A software system that is used for viewing and
creating hypertext is a hypertext system, and to create a hyperlink is to
hyperlink (or simply to link). A user following hyperlinks is said
to navigate or browse the hypertext.
The document containing a hyperlink is known as its source document.
For example, in an online reference work such as Wikipedia or Google,
many words and terms in the text are hyperlinked to definitions of those
terms. Hyperlinks are often used to implement
reference mechanisms such as tables of
contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters, and glossaries.

In some hypertext, hyperlinks can be bidirectional: they can be followed

in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets. More
complex arrangements exist, such as many-to-many links.
The effect of following a hyperlink may vary with the hypertext system
and may sometimes depend on the link itself; for instance, on the World
Wide Web most hyperlinks cause the target document to replace the
document being displayed, but some are marked to cause the target
document to open in a new window (or, perhaps, in a new tab). Another
possibility is transclusion, for which the link target is a document
fragment that replaces the link anchor within the source document. Not
only persons browsing the document may follow hyperlinks. These
hyperlinks may also be followed automatically by programs. A program
that traverses the hypertext, following each hyperlink and gathering all
the retrieved documents is known as a Web spider or crawler.

Web page :

A web page or webpage is a document, commonly written

in HTML, that is viewed in an Internet browser. A web page can
be accessed by entering a URL address into a
browser's address bar. A web page may contain text, graphics,
and hyperlinks to other web pages and files.

A web page is often used to provide information to viewers,

including pictures or videos to help illustrate important topics.
A web page may also be used as a method to sell products or
services to viewers. Multiple web pages make up a website, like
our Computer Hope website.
Website :
A website (also written as a web site) is a collection of web pages and
related content that is identified by a common domain name and
published on at least one web server. Examples of notable websites
are Google, Facebook, Amazon, and Wikipedia.

All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide

Web. There are also private websites that can only be accessed on
a private network, such as a company's internal website for its
employees.

Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, such as

news, education, commerce, entertainment, or social
networking. Hyperlinking between web pages guides the navigation of
the site, which often starts with a home page.
Users can access websites on a range of devices,
including desktops, laptops, tablets, and smartphones. The app used on
these devices is called a web browser.

Internet service provider:

 An internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides web
access to businesses and consumers.
 ISPs may also provide other services such as email services,
domain registration, web hosting, and browser services.
 An ISP is considered to be an information service provider, storage
service provider, internet network service provider (INSP), or a mix
of all of them.
 Internet use has evolved from only those with university or
government accounts having access to nearly everyone having
access, whether it’s paid or free.
 Access has gone from dial-up connections to high-speed broadband
technology.

Q. What is a search engine? Give example , discuss its

functions in details.
A search engine is a software that is accessed on the internet to
assist a user to search its query on the world wide web. The search
engine is helpful as it carries out a systematic search on the web
and displays the results that best match the user’s query.

The results are usually retrieved in the form of a list often referred to as
SERPs or Search Engine Result Pages. These results or information may be
links to web pages, or a mix of images and videos, research papers,
newspaper articles, etc.

 Crawling - search engines use programs, called spiders, bots or crawlers,

to scour the internet. They may do this every few days, so it is possible
for content to be out-of-date until they crawl your website again.
 Indexing - the search engine will try to understand and categorise the
content on a web page through 'keywords'. Following SEO best practice
will help the search engine understand your content so you can rank for
the right search queries.
 Ranking - search results are ranked based on a number of factors. These
may include keyword density, speed and links. The search engine's aim is
to provide the user with the most relevant result.
Although most search engines will provide tips on how to improve your page
ranking, the exact algorithms used are well guarded and change frequently to
avoid misuse.