2.

1
2 MATERIALS AND DEFECTS
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS (METALLIC & NON-METALLIC)
Mechanical properties are defined as the properties of a material that reveal its elastic
and inelastic (plastic) behaviour when force is applied, thereby indicating its suitability
for mechanical applications, for example, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength,
elongation, hardness, and fatigue limit.
Other mechanical properties, not mentioned specifically above, are yield strength, yield
point, impact strength, and reduction of area, to mention a few of the more common
terms. In general, any property relating to the strength characteristics of metals is
considered to be a mechanical property.
Physical properties relate to the physics of a metal such as density, electrical properties,
thermal properties, magnetic properties. These and other properties will be described
here in slightly more detail.
2.1.1 ELASTICITY AND PLASTICITY
When stress or force is applied to a metal, it changes shape. For example a metal under
a compressive stress will shorten and metal in tension will lengthen. This change in
shape is called strain.
The ability of metal to strain under load and then return to its original size and shape
when unloaded is called elasticity. The elastic limit (proportional limit) is the greatest
load a material can withstand and still spring back into its original shape when the load
is removed.
Within the elastic range stress is proportional to strain and this is known as Hooke’s
law. The relationship between applied stress or load and the consequent strain or change
in length is shown in Fig. 2.1. The end of the straight line portion is known as the elastic
limit.
A point on the curve slightly higher than the elastic limit is known as the yield point or
yield strength. The allowable or safe load for a metal in service should be well below
the elastic limit. If higher loads are applied, however, the range of elasticity or elastic
deformation is exceeded and the metal is now permanently deformed.
Now it will not return to its original dimensions even when the load is removed. For
this reason, the area of the stress strain curve beyond the elastic limit is called the
plastic range. It is this property that makes metals so useful.
When enough force is applied by rolling, pressing or hammer blows, metals can be
formed, when hot or cold, into useful shapes. If the application of load is increased in
the plastic region a stage comes when the material fractures.
A very important feature of the stress-strain curve must be pointed out. The straight-line
or elastic part of the stress-strain curve of a given metal has a constant slope. That is, it
cannot be changed by changing the microstructure or heat treatment. This slope, called

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 the modulus of elasticity, measures the stiffness of the metal in the elastic range.
Changing the hardness or strength does not change the stiffness of the metal. There is
only one condition that changes the stiffness of any given metal that is temperature. The
stiffness of any metal varies inversely with its temperature; that is, as temperature
increases, stiffness decreases, and vice versa.

Fig. 2.1: Stress-strain curve showing elastic and plastic portions of a typical curve

2.1.2 STRENGTH
The strength of a metal is its ability to resist change in shape or size when external
forces are applied. There are three basic types of stresses namely tensile, compressive,
and shear. When we consider strength, the type of stress to which the material will be
subjected must be known. Steel has equal compressive and tensile strength, but cast
iron has low tensile strength and high compressive strength. Shear strength is less than
tensile strength in virtually all metals.
The tensile strength of a material can be determined by dividing the maximum load by
the original cross-sectional area before testing. Thus
Maximum load
Tensile strength = ---------------- (2.1)
Original cross - sectional area
Metals are “pulled” on a machine called a tensile tester. A specimen of known
dimensions is placed in the tensile testing machine and loaded slowly until it breaks.
Instruments are sometimes used to make a continuous record of the load and the
amount of strain (proportional change in length). This information is put on a graph
called a stress-strain diagram. A stress-strain diagram can be made for any metal.
2.1.3 HARDNESS
The hardness of a metal is its ability to resist being permanently deformed. There are
three ways that hardness is measured; resistance to penetration, elastic hardness, and
resistance to abrasion. Hardness varies considerably from material to material. This
variation can be illustrated by making an indentation in a soft metal such as aluminium
and then in a hard metal such as alloy tool steel. The indentation could be made with an
ordinary centre punch and a hammer, giving a light blow of equal force on each of the
two specimens. In this case just by visual observation one can tell which specimen is
harder. Of course, this is not a reliable method of hardness testing, but it does show one
of the principles of hardness testers; measuring penetration of the specimen by an
indenter or penetrator, such as a steel ball or diamond point.

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 Rockwell, Vicker and Brinell hardness testers are the most commonly used types of
hardness testers for industrial and metallurgical purposes. Heat treaters, inspectors, and
many others in industry often use these machines.
Generally the harder the material is, the greater its tensile strength will be, that is, its
ability to resist deformation and rupture, when a load is applied.
2.1.4 DUCTILITY
The property that allows a metal to deform permanently when loaded in tension is
called ductility. Any metal that can be drawn into a wire is ductile. Steel, aluminium,
gold, silver, and nickel are examples of ductile metals.
The tensile test is used to measure ductility. Tensile specimens are measured for area
and length between gauge marks before and after they are pulled. The percent of
elongation (increase in length) and the percent of reduction in area (decrease of area at
the narrowest point) are measures of ductility. A high percent elongation (about 40%)
and reduction in area (about 70 percent) indicates a high ductility. A metal showing less
than 20 percent elongation would have low ductility.
2.1.5 MALLEABILITY
The ability of a metal to deform permanently when loaded in compression is called
malleability. Metals that can be hammered or rolled into sheets are malleable. Most
ductile metals are also malleable, but some very malleable metals such as lead are not
very ductile and cannot be drawn into wire easily. Metals with low ductility, such as
lead, can be extruded or pushed out of a die to form wire and other shapes. Some very
malleable metals are lead, tin, gold, silver, iron and copper.
2.1.6 BRITTLENESS
A material that will not deform plastically under load is said to be brittle. Excessive
cold-working causes brittleness and loss of ductility. Cast iron does not deform
plastically under a breaking load and is therefore brittle. A very sharp “notch” that
concentrates the load in a small area can also reduce plasticity. Notches are common
causes of premature failure in parts. Weld undercut, sharp shoulders on machined
shafts, and sharp angles on forgings and castings are examples of unwanted notches
(stress raisers).
2.1.7 NOTCH TOUGHNESS
Notch toughness (impact strength) is the ability of a metal to resist rupture from impact
loading when there is a notch or stress raiser present. A metal may show high ductility
or strength when tensile tested or be hard or soft when hardness tested, but often the
behaviour of metals under shock loads is not seemingly related to those properties. Of
course, as a rule, a brittle metal such as grey cast iron will fail under low shock loads;
that is, its shock resistance is low, and soft wrought iron or mild steel has a high shock
resistance. But soft, coarse-grained metals will have lower shock resistance than fine-
grained metals. A notch or groove in a part will lower the shock resistance of a metal,
so a specific notch shape and dimension is machined on the test specimen in order to
give uniform results.
In general, the tensile strength of a metal changes in proportion to hardness. However,
this relationship does not always hold true at high hardness levels or with brittle
materials because these materials are more sensitive to stress concentrations, or notches,
and may fracture prematurely when stressed in tension.

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2.1.8 CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct electric current. It is the
reciprocal of resistivity. Conductivity is commonly expressed as mhos per metre since
the unit of resistivity is the µΏ-cm. The conductivity of metallic elements varies
inversely with absolute temperature over the normal range of temperatures but at
temperatures approaching absolute zero the imperfections and impurities in the lattice
structure of a material make the relationship more complicated. Metals and materials
exhibit a wide range of conductivity. Between the most conductive substances (silver
and copper) and the most resistive (polystyrene for example) the difference amounts to
23 orders of magnitude.
2.2 DISCONTINUITIES AND DEFECTS IN METALLIC MATERIALS
Whenever there is a change in the homogeneity and uniformity of properties within a
material, it can invariably be attributed to the presence of discontinuities or
imperfections (lack of material) within the material. Starting from the dislocations and
atomic structure irregularities, the discontinuities can take various shapes and forms
such as gas inclusions (microporosity, porosity, blowholes, pipes, voids), cracks,
metallic inclusions, lack of penetration, lack of fusion, shrinkage, laps and seams, etc.
Discontinuities can be divided into three general categories inherent, processing, and
service.
(i) Inherent discontinuities are usually formed when the metal is molten. There are
two further sub classifications. Inherent wrought discontinuities relate to the
melting and solidification of the original ingot before it is formed into slabs,
blooms, and billets. Inherent cast discontinuities relate to the melting, casting
and solidification of a cast article.
(ii) Processing discontinuities are usually related to the various manufacturing
processes such as machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating,
and plating. During the manufacturing process, many discontinuities that were
subsurface will be made open to the surface by machining, grinding, etc.
(iii) Service discontinuities are related to the various service conditions, such as
stress, corrosion, fatigue and erosion. The discontinuities may alter the local
stress distribution and, in addition, may affect the mechanical or chemical
(corrosion resistance) properties.
Discontinuities should be characterized not only by their nature, but also by their shape.
Planar type discontinuities, such as cracks, laminations, incomplete fusion, and
inadequate joint penetration, create serious notch effects. Three-dimensional
discontinuities create almost no notch effect, but amplify stresses by reducing the
weldment area.
Therefore, the characteristics of discontinuities which should always be considered,
include the size, acuity or sharpness, orientation with respect to the principal working
stress and residual stress, location with respect to the exterior surfaces and the critical
sections of the structure.
All the above discontinuities are described under the individual processes in Sections
2.3 and 2.4.
2.3 PROCESSING AND DEFECTS
2.3.1 PRIMARY PROCESSES AND RELATED DEFECTS

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2.3.1.1 Ingot Casting and Related Defects
A casting suitable for working or remelting is called ingot. The moulds into which
molten metal is poured to form ingots are made of grey cast iron, meehanite with large
graphite flakes, and anodized aluminium alloys. The inside surface of the mould is
frequently coated with suitable materials to help form a smooth ingot surface. The slab
or billet is normally the starting point for actual forming of articles or materials. Typical
discontinuities found in ingot (Fig. 2-2) are non-metallic inclusions, porosity and pipe.
Most of these discontinuities in the ingot are in the upper portion and can be easily
eliminated by cropping off the top of the ingot. The ingot after the hot top is cropped off
is called a bloom. The blooms then can be further processed to form slabs and billets
(Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.2: Typical defects in an ingot

Fig. 2.3: Typical primary material processes

2.3.1.2 Casting Processes
A commonly used method of forming metal objects of complex shapes is by pouring
molten metal into a mould in which it sets to the required shape. The mould is then
broken away to expose the casting or the design of the mould is such that it can be
separated without damage and re-used. The moulds are usually formed from patterns
which can be used many times over, if necessary, and their design is critical in that
`feed' and `vent' holes must be carefully positioned in the mould to permit the metal to
flow freely into all parts (Fig. 2.4). Problems that can occur are interaction on cooling.
It is also unlikely that the crystal structure of a casting will be optimum in all parts so
that its strength may be less than with other methods of fabrication. Various casting

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 processes include sand casting, permanent mould casting, die casting, centrifugal
casting and shell mould casting etc. Since the casting process is complex and a large
number of variables need to be controlled to get a good quality product and since it is
not possible to give all the details here, only the principles and salient features of the
above mentioned processes of casting are briefly presented.

Fig. 2.4: Casting steps

2.3.1.2.1 Sand casting

In this case a sand mould is used for casting the desired shape of the required alloy. A
sand mould may be defined as a preformed sand container into which molten metal is
poured and allowed to solidify. In general sand moulds are destroyed as the casting is
removed from them. Sand moulds make it possible to cast complex shapes that might
not be possible otherwise.
Different types of sand moulds can be made for making different castings. Green sand
moulds are made from moist sand and are used for practically all ferrous and non-
ferrous castings.
They have the disadvantage of not being very strong as well as requiring moisture
during manufacture which may cause certain defects in the casting. Green sand
moulds may be provided with a dry sand on the surface to give `skin-dry moulds'.
Purely `dry-sand moulds' can also be made by adding to the sand a binder instead of
moisture. Methods of preparing sand moulds include `bench moulding', `machine
moulding', `floor moulding' and `pit moulding'. `Bench moulding' is used for small

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 castings. This is usually a slow and laborious process since hand ramming with loose
pattern is usually used.
Small and medium moulds may be made even with the aid of a variety of `machines'
which are usually faster and more uniform than bench moulding. Medium to large
moulds are made directly on the foundry floor. Very large moulds made in a pit
constructed for the purpose are called `pit moulds'.
The sands most commonly used in `sand die casting' contain silica sand which is
usually from 50 to 95% of the total material in any moulding sand, zirconate and
olivine, etc. The most important properties and characteristics of such sands are
`permeability', `cohesiveness' and `refractoriness'. Permeability is a condition of
porosity and is related to the passage of gaseous material through the sand as well as to
the density of sand grains.
Cohesiveness can be defined as the holding together of sand grains or strength of
moulding sand and depends upon the size and shape of the sand grains. The property of
cohesiveness may be improved by adding to the sand some binders such as clay, resins
and gums and drying oil. The third important characteristic of the moulding sand is
`refractoriness' which is its ability to withstand a high temperature without fusing. Pure
silica sand can withstand a temperature as high as 3148F. The property of
`refractoriness' can be affected by impurities like metallic oxides.
Mould cavities may be produced by packing the moulding material around what are
called `patterns'. The `patterns' may be made from wood, metal or other suitable
materials. There are a variety of these patterns used in the manufacture of castings.
Another important part of the casting process is the `core box' which is a structure made
of wood, metal or other suitable material, containing a cavity with the shape of a desired
core. Making a sand mould involves the proper packing of moulding sand around a
pattern. After the pattern is removed from the sand and the gating arrangement
completed, the mould cavity is filled with molten metal to form the casting.
2.3.1.2.2 Permanent mould casting
A casting made by pouring molten metal into a mould made of some metallic alloy or
other material of permanence is known as a permanent mould casting.
Grey cast iron and meehanite with large graphite flakes are the most commonly used
materials in the construction of permanent moulds. This common use is partly due to
the ease with which they may be machined. Certain steels, particularly special alloy
steels that are heat-treated, often have especially good resistance to erosion.
They have excellent refractory properties. Some aluminium alloys, on which the
surface has been anodized, are also used as moulding materials. Anodizing produces
Al2O3 which is very refractory and resistant to abrasion. These alloys are very easy
to machine and possess a good chilling capacity. The mould is not destroyed on
removing the casting and therefore can be re-used many times.
2.3.1.2.3 Die casting
Die casting may be defined as the use of a permanent mould (die) into which molten
metal is introduced by means of pressure. The term pressure die casting is another name
for this method of casting. This pressure is obtained by application of compressed air or
by pneumatically or hydraulically operated pistons. This process of casting can be
subdivided in two types.

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(a) Hot chamber die casting
(b) Cold chamber die casting
(a) Hot chamber die casting
The melting unit is an integral part of the hot chamber machine, and molten metal is
introduced directly from this melting unit, by means of plunger mechanism into the die
cavity. The process is further characterised by a normal amount of superheat in the
metal and the need for a commensurately lower casting pressure. Pressure on the
molten metal in hot chamber die casting machines may vary from approximately 500 to
6000 psi
(3.5 to 41 MPa). An average of approximately 2000 to 2500 psi (14 to 17 MPa) is
common. Air injection pressures are normally limited to about 600 psi (4 MPa) (Figure
2.5).

Fig. 2.5: Hot Chamber die casting

(b) Cold chamber die casting
The melting unit is usually separate in this case, and molten metal must be transferred
to the injection mechanism by ladle (Fig. 2.6). Further distinctive characteristics of
the process are, very high metal pressures and the fact that the casting alloy may be at
a temperature somewhat less than normal superheat; the melt may even be in a
semimolten condition.
Pressure on the casting metal in cold chamber die casting machines may vary from
3000 psi (20.5 MPa) to as high as 25000 psi (172 MPa) and in some cases may reach
100,000 psi (690 MPa). Metallic alloys cast in a semimolten condition require greater
pressure to compensate for the reduced fluidity resulting from low pouring
temperatures.
Lower working temperature and high pressures produce castings of dense structure,
free of blow holes and porosity related to dissolved gases.

Fig. 2.6: Cold chamber die casting

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2.3.1.2.4 Centrifugal Casting
Any process, in which molten metal is poured and allowed to solidify while the mould
is revolving, is a centrifugal casting process. Castings produced under this centrifugal
force are called centrifugal castings. There are three recognized centrifugal processes
namely `true centrifugal casting', `semicentrifugal or profiled-centrifugal casting' and
`centrifuged or pressure casting' and are shown in Fig. 2-7. `True centrifugal casting' is
that in which castings are made in a hollow, cylindrical mould rotated about an axis
common to both casting and mould. Cast-iron pipe is commonly made by this method.
In this process the axis of spin may be horizontal, inclined, or vertical. In the true
centrifugal casting process the inside circumference is always circular. When the mould
is rotated on a horizontal axis, a true cylindrical inside surface is produced. True
centrifugal casting is used only on symmetrically shaped objects. Semicentrifugal or
profiled-centrifugal casting is similar to the true centrifugal method, except that a
central core is used to form the inner surface or surfaces. The casting is not dependent
upon centrifugal force for its shape. A good example of semicentrifugal work is a cast
wheel-like casting. The axis of spin in the semicentrifugal process is always vertical.
Although the yield is better than with static casting, it is not as high as in true
centrifugal casting. With this process also only symmetrically shaped objects can be
cast.

Fig. 2.7: Centrifugal casting

Centrifuged or pressure casting is applied for non-symmetrical castings. The mould

cavity is not rotated about its own axis but about the axis of a central down sprue
common to the axis of spin, which feeds metal into the mould cavity under centrifugal
force. This process of centrifuging can be done only about a vertical axis. Centrifugal
force provides a high pressure to force the metal alloy into the mould cavity.
Centrifugal casting processes can be used to produce parts made of both the ferrous and
non-ferrous alloy groups. Cast-iron pipe, gun barrels, automotive cylinder walls, jet
engine rings, piston rings and brake drums are common parts centrifugally cast.
Advantages include the elimination of foreign inclusions and the production of sounder
castings. The chief disadvantages are the shape and size limitations.
2.3.1.2.5 Investment Casting
This process involves making a one-piece mould from which the pattern is removed by
a procedure which melts the pattern. The moulds used in this process are single purpose
moulds. The elimination of all parting planes provides improved dimensional
tolerances. Since the pattern is removed by melting or burning out, casting precision is
increased through eliminating draft, rapping, and shifts. Various other names are given
to this process. It is also called `precision investment casting', `precision casting' or the
lost-wax process' and is shown in Fig. 2.8.

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 Fig. 2.8: Steps for investment casting
Various types and grades of wax are the common materials for pattern making for
investment casting. Certain plastics that burn without residue are also used as pattern
materials. Some low melting point metallic alloys can also be used as pattern materials.
In this process of casting the patterns are formed afresh each time by casting or forging
the pattern material in dies made of metal, plastic, rubber or wood.
Patterns are first made of wax or other pattern materials by melting and then injecting it
into a metallic or non-metallic die. Then the patterns are welded or joined to gates and
runners, which are also of the same material as the pattern. By this welding or joining of
the pattern to gates and runners a tree like pattern is prepared.
This tree is now dipped into a refractory sand, placed in a metal flask and sealed to the
pallet. Then the investment or moulding material, in viscous slurry form, is poured
around the pre-coated tree. When the investment has set, the mould is heated by putting
it in an oven at 200ºF.
By this heating the mould is dried and baked and the pattern is melted and the molten
pattern material is taken out of the mould. Now as a final touch to the mould before
casting, the mould is placed in a furnace and is heated to a temperature of 1300-1900ºF.
This removes all the wax residue, if any, sticking to the investment mould. The mould
is then heated to the casting temperature.
2.3.1.2.6 Shell Mould Casting
This process involves making a mould that has two or more thin, shell-like parts
consisting of thermosetting resin-bonded sand. These shells are single purpose in
application and are hard and easily handled and stored. Shells are made so that

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 matching parts fit together easily, held with clamps or adhesives and poured in either a
vertical or horizontal position. These moulds may be supported in racks or in a mass of
bulky permeable material like sand, steel shots, or gravel.
Metallic patterns are used for the production of shells, as they are subjected to heating
temperatures approaching 1,000ºF. The pattern must have some provision, in the form
of ejector pins, for the removal of shells from the surface of the pattern. Clean dry silica
sand is the bulk material used in the making of shell moulds. Grain size and distribution
can vary with use. Thermosetting synthetic resins are used as binders for sand. The
resins include the phenolformaldehydes, urea formaldehydes, and others.
The sand and resin mix or coated sand is caused to fall against, or is blown against, a
heated metal pattern or core box. The temperature of the pattern ranges from 350 to
600ºF. Contact of the thermosetting resin with the hot pattern causes an initial set and
thus an adhering layer of bonded sand is formed within 5 to 20 seconds. The pattern
with this adhering layer of bonded sand is placed into the furnace and is cured by
heating to the proper temperature for one to three minutes. The time of curing depends
on the shell thickness and the resin type.
The assembly is then removed from the furnace and the shell is stripped from the
pattern by ejector devices. This stripping is sometimes a problem and can be overcome
by using a silicon parting agent.
The main advantages of this process are that the `shell' cast parts have generally a
smooth surface and thereby reduce machining costs. These techniques are readily
adaptable to mass production by using automatic equipment. The disadvantages can be
the initial cost of metal patterns, the higher cost of the resin binders and a general size
limitation.
2.3.1.2.7 Continuous Casting
Although only a small tonnage of castings are produced by continuous casting, it is
possible to produce two dimensional shapes in an elongated bar by drawing solidified
metal from a water-cooled mould. As shown schematically in Fig. 2-9 molten metal
enters one end of the mould, and solid metal is drawn from the other. Control of the
mould temperature and the speed of drawing is essential for satisfactory results.
Exclusion of contact with oxygen, while molten and during solidification, produces
high quality metal. Gears and other shapes in small sizes can be cast in bar form and
later sliced into multiple parts.

Fig. 2.9: Schematic diagram of continuous casting process

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 TABLE 2a: COMPARISON OF CASTING METHODS (APPROXIMATE)

Sand Permanent Die-casting Centrifugal Invest- Shell

casting mould casting ment mould
casting casting casting
Relative cost in Medium Low Lowest High Highest Medium
large quantity
Relative cost for Lowest High Highest Medium Low Low
small number
Permissible Unlimited 100 300 Several 5 Limited
weight of Ib Ib tons Ib
casting
Thinnest section 3.25 3.25 01 12.50 0.25 3.25
castable(mm)
Typical 1.60 0.75 0.25 1.60 0.25 0.25
dimensional
tolerance (mm)
Relative surface Poor Good Best Fair Very Good
finish good
Relative Fair Good Very good Best Fair Good
mechanical
properties
Relative ease of Fair Fair Good Poor Best Fair
casting complex
designs
Relative ease of Best Poor Poorest Good Good Good
changing design
in production
Range of alloys Unlimited Copper Aluminium Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited
that can be cast base and base and
lower lower
melting melting
preferable preferable
2.3.1.2.8 Casting Defects
There are in general three broad categories of casting defects. First are the major or
most severe defects which result in scraping or rejection of the casting. The second
category is of intermediate defects which permit salvaging of the casting through
necessary repair.
The third category defects are minor ones which can be easily repaired. The elimination
and control of casting defects is a problem that the foundry engineer may approach in
several ways.
The common procedure is to rely upon salvaging techniques that appear to provide
immediate savings. Remedial procedure in the moulding, coremaking, melting or
pouring areas of the foundry are frequently neglected but are highly desirable to be

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 controlled to avoid defects. Some of the defects which usually occur in castings are
given hereunder:
2.3.1.2.8.1 Porosity
Gas holes are spherical holes of varying size, with bright walls, usually fairly evenly
distributed and formed by gas in the metal. The larger holes tend to be found in the
heavier section (i.e. last to solidify). If the metal is correct prior to casting, the pinhole
type of porosity is probably due to absorption of hydrogen from steam in the mould.
The gas in the molten metal is removed by a gas scavenging technique and by keeping
casting ladles and moulds dry.
2.3.1.2.8.2 Blowholes
Blowholes are mainly found in three forms:
i) Elongated cavities with smooth walls, found on or just below the surface of the
topmost part of a casting. These are caused by entrapped air and repetition can be
avoided by venting the mould and increasing its permeability.
ii) Rounded shape cavities with smooth bright walls are caused by mould or core
gases, coupled with insufficient permeability, or venting.
They can be avoided by using less oil binder in the mould and ensuring that cores are
dry and properly baked and that the sand is properly mixed.
iii) Small cavities immediately below the `skin’ of the casting surface are formed by
the reaction of the molten metal with moisture in the moulding sand.
This can be avoided by reducing the volatile content in mould cores and mould
dressing, by ensuring that metal is deoxidized, by using more permeable sands, by
ensuring that moulds and cores are properly vented and by reducing pouring
temperature.
2.3.1.2.8.3 Piping
When this term is used in the foundry it refers to the gas inclusion defects encountered
in risers or within the casting proper.
2.3.1.2.8.4 Inclusions
These are material discontinuities formed by the inclusion of oxides, dross, and slag in a
casting.
They are due to careless skimming and pouring, or the use of a dirty ladle, and to
turbulence due to improper gating methods when casting alloys, such as aluminium and
bronze, that are subject to surface oxide-skin formation.
Faulty closing of moulds can cause `crush’ and loose pieces of sand becoming
incorporated in the casting. The occurrence of inclusions can be avoided by proper use
of equipment and foundry practice.
2.3.1.2.8.5 Sponginess
A defect that occurs during the early stages of solidification of a casting and has the
appearance, as the name would imply, of a sponge; it may be local or general in extent.
The major cause is failure to obtain directional solidification of the casting towards the
desired heat centres, such as risers and in gates; insufficiently high pouring temperature
and placing of in gates adjacent to heavy sections.

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2.3.1.2.8.6 Shrinkage
A casting defect that occurs during the middle and later stages of solidification of the
cast metal. It has a branching formation, is readily distinguishable from that of
sponginess, and is a form of void (Fig. 2-10).
The defect can be avoided by paying particular attention to the direction of
solidification and ensuring adequate risers, or other feeding aids, on the heavier sections
of a casting. Modification of casting design, i.e. to make cast sections more uniform for
the flow and solidification of the metal is helpful in avoiding shrinkage.
Moulds and cores are sometimes made too strong and greatly resist the contraction of
the cast metal and, in this way, will cause a breakdown in the homogeneity of the metal.

Fig. 2.10: Formation of shrinkage defects

2.3.1.2.8.7 Hot tears
These are discontinuities that result from stresses developed close to the solidification
temperature while the metal is still weak. These, again, are attributed to resistance of the
mould and core, which hinder contraction of the casting, causing thermal stress. Hot
tears resemble ragged cracks.
They can be avoided by making cores and moulds more collapsible, avoiding abrupt
changes in section and preventing the formation of intense hot spots by designing with
more uniform sections (Fig. 2.11).

Fig.2.11: Hot tears

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2.3.1.2.8.8 Crack
Well defined and normally straight, they are formed after the metal has become
completely solid. Quite large stresses are required to cause fracture, and the walls of
such cracks are discoloured according to the temperature of the casting when the cracks
formed. Bad casting design coupled with restriction of contraction by the mould, core,
or box bars contribute to cracking, and avoidance of these, together with the easing of
mould or cores as soon as possible after solidification, will help to prevent build-up of
stresses.
2.3.1.2.8.9 Cold shuts
These are discontinuities (a form of lack of fusion) caused by the failure of a stream of
molten metal to unite with another stream of metal, or with a solid metal section such as
a chaplet (Fig. 2.12). They are linear in appearance, with perhaps a curling effect at the
ends. A cold shut is caused by the fluidity of the metal being too low (i.e. surfaces too
cold) or perhaps unsatisfactory methods of feeding the molten metal.
Cold shuts can often be avoided by raising the pouring temperature or pouring rate or
both and reviewing the position, size, and number of in gates and the arrangements for
venting the mould.

Fig. 2.12: Types of cold shuts

2.3.1.2.8.10 Unfused chaplet

A chaplet is often used to support a section of a mould or a core within a mould and
when the molten metal is poured in, the chaplets should fuse into the casting. When
unfused the chaplet will cause a discontinuity in the casting. Design of chaplet and
type of chaplet should be reviewed in overcoming this defect.
2.3.1.2.8.11 Misplaced core
An irregularity of wall thickness, e.g. one wall thicker than the other, can be detected by
a double wall technique radiograph. It is caused by core out-of-alignment, careless
coring-up and closing of mould, or rough handling after the mould is closed.
2.3.1.2.8.12 Segregation
Segregation is a condition resulting from the local concentration of any of the
constituents of an alloy. The segregation can be `general’ extending over a
considerable part of a casting, `local’ when only the shrinkage voids or hot tears are
wholly or partially filled with a constituent of low melting point or `banded’ which is
mainly associated with centrifugal castings but can also occasionally occur in static
castings.

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2.3.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND RELATED DEFECTS
2.3.2.1 Welding processes
Welding can be defined as the metallurgical method of joining, applied to the general
problem of construction and fabrication. It consists of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical atom-to-atom bond, as distinguished from a joint held
together by friction or mechanical interlocking.
This metallurgical atom-to-atom bond is achieved by the application of heat and
sometimes pressure.
Many welding processes require the application of heat or pressure, or both, to produce
a suitable bond between the parts being joined.
The physics of welding deals with the complex physical phenomena associated with
welding, including heat, electricity, magnetism, light, and sound.
In making a joint two parts of the same chemical composition may be welded together
using no added metal to accomplish the joint.
This might be termed as `autogenous’ welding. A metal which is of the same
composition as the parts being joined may be added, in which event, the process would
come under the general heading `homogenous’ welding.
Finally, an alloy quite different from that of which the parts are All welds that are
encountered in actual construction, except groove welds in pipe, are classified as being
flat, horizontal, vertical, or overhead.
Groove welds in pipe are classified as horizontal rolled, horizontal fixed, vertical, or
inclined fixed. These positions are illustrated in Fig. 2-14 and 2-15 and explained
below:

Fig. 2.13: Types of Welding joints; (a) square butt joint, (b) single-v butt joint,
(c) double-v butt joint, (d) single-u butt joint, (e) double-u butt joint,
(f) square-t joint, (g) single-bevel t-joint, (h) double-bevel t-joint, (i) single-
u t-joint, (j) double-u t-joint, (k) single-bead lap joint, (l) double-bead lap joint

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(i) Flat position (1G)– The test plates are placed in an approximately horizontal
plane and the weld metal deposited from the upper side (Fig. 2-14 (A)).
(ii) Horizontal position (2G)– The test plates are placed in an approximately vertical
plane with the welding groove approximately horizontal (Fig. 2-14 (B)).
(iii) Vertical position (3G)– The test plates are placed in an approximately vertical
plane with the welding groove approximately vertical (Fig. 2-14 (C)).
(iv) Overhead position (4G)– The test plates are placed in an approximately
horizontal plane and the weld metal deposited from the underside (Fig. 2-14
(D)).
(v) Horizontal rolled (1G)– the pipe is placed with its axis in an approximately
horizontal plane with the welding groove in an approximately vertical plane and
the pipe is rolled during welding (Fig. 2.14 (A)).
(vi) Vertical (2G)– The pipe is placed with its axis in an approximately vertical
position with the welding groove in an approximately horizontal plane (Fig.
2.14 (B)).
(vii) Horizontal fixed (5G)– The pipe is placed with its axis in an approximately
horizontal plane with the welding groove in an approximately vertical plane and
the pipe is not to be rolled or turned during welding (Fig. 2.14 (E)).
(viii) Inclined fixed (6G)– The pipe is inclined fixed (45o  5o) and not rotating during
welding (Fig. 2.14(F)).

(C) TEST POSITION 3G (D) TEST POSITIONING 4G (E) TEST POSITION 5G

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 (F) TEST POSITION 6G
Fig. 2.14: Positions of plates and pipes for groove weld

For fillet welds in plates, different positions are defined as below:

(i) Flat position (1F)– The test plates are so placed that each fillet weld is deposited
with its axis approximately horizontal and its throat approximately vertical
(Fig. 2.15 (A)).
(ii) Horizontal position (2F) – The test plates are so placed that each fillet weld is
deposited on the upper side of the horizontal surface and against the vertical
surface (Fig. 2.15 (B)).
(iii) Vertical position (3F) – Each fillet weld is made vertically (Fig. 2.15 (C)).
(iv) Overhead position (4F) – The test plates are so placed that each fillet weld is
deposited on the underside of the horizontal surface and against the vertical
surface (Fig. 2.15 (D)).

(A) Flat position (B) Horizontal position

(C) Vertical position (D) Overhead position

Fig. 2.15: Positions of plates for fillet welds

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2.3.2.1.1 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding is an early arc welding process. It is one of the simple and
versatile processes for welding ferrous and several non-ferrous base metals. Basically, it
is a manual welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an arc
established between a flux covered consumable electrode and the work.
The electrode tip, welded puddle, arc and adjacent areas of the work piece are protected
from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield obtained from the combustion and
decomposition of the flux covering. The process is illustrated in Fig. 2.16.
Covered electrodes are produced in a variety of diameters normally ranging from 1/16
to 5/16 in. (2 to 8 mm). The smaller diameters are used with low currents for joining
thin sections and for welding in all positions.
The large diameters are designed for conducting high currents to achieve greater
deposition rates in the flat and horizontal positions. Special alloy filler metal
compositions can be formulated with relative ease by the use of metal powders in the
electrode coating.

Fig.2.16: Shielded metal arc welding process

Fig. 2.16: Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

The SMAW process has several advantages. Using the process, job shops can handle
many welding applications with a relatively small variety of electrodes. Other
advantages are the simplicity and lightness of the equipment, and its relatively low cost.
Also, welds can be made in confined locations or remote from heavy power supplies.
The limitations of this process are: i) low melting and very reactive metals are not
possible to weld, ii) welding of copper is difficult, iii) welding of thickness less than
1mm is also difficult, iv) time consumed for welding process and included angle for
higher thickness is comparatively higher than other welding process.
2.3.2.1.2 Submerged arc welding (SAW)
In submerged arc welding the arc and molten metal are shielded by an envelope of
molten flux and a layer of unfused granular flux particles as shown in Fig. 2-17. When
the arc is struck, the tip of the continuously fed electrode is submerged in the flux and
the arc is therefore not visible. The weld is made without the intense radiation that
characterizes an open arc process and with little fumes.

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 The SAW process is used in both mechanized and semiautomatic operations, although
the former is by far more common. High welding currents can be employed to produce
high metal deposition rates at substantial cost savings. Welds can only be made in the
flat and horizontal positions.

Fig. 2.17: Submerged arc welding process

The process is most widely employed for welding all grades of carbon, low alloy, and
alloy steels. Stainless steel and some nickel alloys are also effectively welded or used as
surfacing filler metals with the process. Various filler metal-flux combinations may be
selected to provide specific weld metal properties for the intended service. The flux
may contain ingredients that when melted react to contribute alloying additions to the
weld metal.
The limitations of this process are: i) generally this process is recommended for the
welding of thicknesses greater than 10 mm, ii) difficult to weld complex assemblies
(this limits the design of the assembly), iii) large amount of flux is consumed, iv)
difficult to make root pass due to high current and straight movement, v) capital cost
of the equipment is comparatively higher than SMAW, and a separate hopper and
feeding mechanism for the flux is required.
2.3.2.1.3 Gas metal arc and flux cored arc welding (GMAW & FCAW)
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW/ or MIG/MAG) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
are two distinct processes, but they have many similarities in application and
equipment.
Both processes use a continuous solid wire or tubular electrode to provide filler metal,
and both use gas to shield the arc and weld metal. In GMAW, the electrode is solid, and
all of the shielding gas is (argon, helium, CO 2 or mixtures of these gases) supplied by
an external source, as shown in Fig. 2.18.
The original gas metal arc process consisted of a continuous operation requiring high
current densities to achieve a smooth transfer of molten metal.
The limitations of GMAW process are:
i) it is semi-automatic welding process so requires more trained manpower,
ii) Additional gas shielding is used so the process is comparatively expensive than
SMAW,
iii) Generally thickness less than 1mm is difficult to be welded by this process.

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 Fig. 2.18: Gas metal arc welding process
The process permits welding with minimal spatter, uniform penetration, and good out-
of-position capability. With FCAW, the electrode is tubular and contains core
ingredients that may supply some or all of the shielding gas needed.
This process may also use auxiliary gas shielding, depending on the type of electrode
employed, the material being welded, and the nature of the welding involved. FCAW is
illustrated in Fig. 2.19.

Fig. 2.19: Flux cored arc welding

Flux cored arc welding uses cored electrodes instead of solid electrodes for joining
ferrous metals. The flux core may contain minerals, ferroalloys, and materials that
provide shielding gases, deoxidizers, and slag forming materials.
The additions to the core promote arc stability, enhance weld metal mechanical
properties, and improve weld contour. Many cored electrodes are designed to be used
with additional external shielding. Carbon dioxide-rich gases are the most common.
Weld metal can be deposited at higher rates, and the welds can be larger and better
contoured than those made with solid electrodes, regardless of the shielding gas.
The limitations of this process are: i) quality of weld is not good, ii) manufacturing cost
of flux cored electrode is higher than GMAW, iii) root concavity is commonly
produced by FCAW, iv) the skill level required for FCAW is similar to GMAW.

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2.3.2.1.4 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode which must be
shielded with an inert gas. The arc is initiated between the tip of the electrode and work
to melt the metal being welded, as well as the filler metal, when used. A gas shield
protects the electrode and the molten weld pool, and provides the required arc
characteristics. This process is illustrated in Fig. 2-20 and is also sometimes called TIG
welding.
Several types of tungsten electrodes are used with this process. Thoriated and
zirconiated electrodes have better electron emission characteristics than pure tungsten,
making them more suitable for dc operations.
The limitations of this process are: i) separate filler metals are used, ii) Zn metal not
possible to weld, iii) generally thickness range is only 1 mm up to about 6 mm.

Fig. 2.20: Gas tungsten arc welding

2.3.2.1.5 Electro-slag welding (ESW)

Electro-slag welding is s specialized adaptation of submerged arc welding and it is used
for joining thick materials in the vertical position. This process is illustrated in Fig.
2.21. Strictly speaking it is not an arc welding process at all, because it actually depends
on the electrical receptivity of a molten flux bath to produce the heat necessary to melt
the filler and base metal.
The process is, however, initiated by an arc, which heats a layer of granular welding
flux contained within water cooled moulding shoes or dams and the edges of the joint,
thus turning it to a bath of molten slag. The arc is then extinguished, and the conductive
slag maintained in a molten condition by its resistance to the electric current passing
through from a consumable electrode to the work.

Fig. 2.21: Electro-slag welding process

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 The principal application of electro-slag welding is welding of thick steel plate heavy
forgings and large steel castings in the fabrication of machine bases and in the struc-
tural steel industry. Its main features are: (i) Extremely high metal deposition rates,
(ii) Ability to weld very thick materials in one pass, (iii) Minimal joint preparation
and fit-up requirements, (iv) Little or no distortion, (v) Low flux consumption, vi)
there is a reduced risk of cold cracking in the work-pieces because of the relatively
slow rate of heating and cooling, vii) there is little danger of gas porosity because
gases have time to escape. Entrapped slag is also unlikely for the same reason, the
limitations of this process are: i) possibly the main disadvantage of the process arises
from the high temperature reached coupled with the slow rate of cooling. Both factors
lead to the formation of coarse crystals which are of the columnar type as a result of the
direction in which heat is extracted by the water-cooled shoes. ii) Welding of thickness
less than 50 mm is not economical and this process was developed only for joining
large structures.
2.3.2.1.6 Stud arc welding (SAW)
In stud welding, basically an arc welding process, the welding arc is generated between
a metal stud or similar part and the part to which it is ultimately fused by the welding
heat so generated (Fig. 2.22).
In a way it is also a variation of the shielded metal arc process, the stud representing the
electrode. But only the end of the electrode is melted and it becomes a permanent part
of the final assembly.

Fig. 2.22: Stud welding sequence

In operation the stud is retained in a hand held or bench mounted gun and is positioned
over the spot where it is to be attached. Upon initiation, current flows through the stud,
which, at the same time, is lifted slightly, creating an arc.
After a very short arcing period, the stud is plunged into the molten pool created on the
base plate, and the gun is withdrawn.
Typical applications of stud welding include securing special lining in tanks, studding
boiler tubes, assembling electrical panels, securing water, hydraulic, and electrical lines
to buildings, vehicles and large appliances, and securing feet and handles to large
appliances.
The limitations of this process are: i) this process is semi-automatic therefore more
trained manpower is required, ii) only up to about 25 mm dia stud may be welded.
2.3.2.1.7 Plasma arc welding (PAW)
The plasma arc welding process provides a very stable heat source for welding most
metals from 0.001 to 0.25 in. (0.02 to 6 mm). This process has advantages over other
open arc welding processes, such as SMAW, GMAW, and GTAW, because it has

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 greater energy concentration, improved arc stability, higher heat content, and higher
welding speeds. As a result, PAW has greater penetration capabilities than SMAW,
GMAW, and GTAW.
The basic elements of the plasma arc torch, illustrated in Fig. 2.24, are the tungsten
electrode and the orifice. A small flow of argon is supplied through the orifice to form
the arc plasma. Shielding of the arc and weld zone is provided by gas flowing through
an encircling outer nozzle assembly. The shielding gas can be argon, helium, or
mixtures of argon with either hydrogen or helium. The plasma is initiated by an internal
low current pilot arc between the electrode and the orifice.
The pilot arc ionizes the orifice gas to ignite the primary arc between the electrode and
the base metal. The arc plasma is constricted in size by the orifice around the electrode,
and is called a transferred arc. If filler metal is used, it is fed into the arc as in the
GTAW process.

Fig. 2.24: Plasma arc welding

2.3.2.1.8 Resistance welding (RW)

Resistance welding incorporates a group of processes in which the heat for welding is
generated by the resistance to the flow of electrical current through the parts being
joined. It is most commonly used to weld two overlapping sheets or plates which may
have different thicknesses.
A pair of electrodes conducts electrical current to the joint. Resistance to the flow of
current heats the faying surfaces, forming a weld. These electrodes clamp the sheets
under pressure to provide good electrical contact and to contain the molten metal in the
joint. The joint surfaces must be clean to obtain consistent electrical contact resistance
to obtain uniform weld size and soundness.
The main process variables are welding current, welding time, electrode force, and
electrode material and design. High welding currents are required to resistance heat and
melt the base metal in a very short time. The time to make a single resistance heat and
melt the base metal is very short usually less than one second.
There are four major resistance welding processes, namely, spot welding (RSW),
projection welding (RPW), flash welding (RFW), and seam welding (RSEW). These
processes are illustrated in Fig. 2.25. In RSW, the welding current is concentrated at the

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point of joining using cylindrical electrodes. Spot welds are usually made one at a time.
In RPW, a projection or dimple is formed in one part prior to welding. The projection
concentrates the current at the faying surfaces.
Large, flat electrodes are used on both sides of the components to produce several
welds simultaneously. As an example, a stamped bracket may have three or four
projections formed in it so that it can be welded to a sheet with one welding cycle.
In seam welding, electrodes in the form of rolls are used to transmit pressure and to
send current through the overlapping sheet being moved between them. Flash welding
is usually an automatic process. Parts are clamped in place by a welding operator who
simply presses a button to start the welding sequence. The usual flash weld joins rods or
bars end to end or edge to edge.
The flashing action is continued until a molten layer forms on both surfaces. Then the
components are forced together rapidly to squeeze out the molten metal. This produces
a hot worked joint free of weld metal. The mechanical properties of flash welds are
often superior to other types of welds.

Fig. 2.25: Basic resistance welding methods

The limitations seam welds are: i) seam welds must be made in a straight or uniformly
curved path, ii) abrupt changes in welding direction or in joint contour along the path
cannot be welded leak-tight, so this limits the design of the assembly, iii) strength
properties of seam welded lap joints are generally lower than those of fusion welded.
The limitations of projection welding process are: i) the forming of projections may
require an additional operation unless the parts are press-formed to design shape, ii)
with multiple welds, accurate control of projection height and precise alignment of the
welding dies are necessary to equalize the electrode force ad welding current, iii) with
sheet metal, the process is limited to thicknesses in which acceptable projections can be
formed and for which suitable welding equipment is available, iv) multiple welds must

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 be made simultaneously and this requires higher capacity equipment than does spot
welding. It also limits the practical size of the component containing the projections.
2.3.2.1.9 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
Oxyfuel gas welding includes a group of welding processes that use the heat produced
by a gas flame or flames for melting the base metal and, if used, the filler metal.
Oxyfuel gas welding is an inclusive term used to describe any welding process that uses
a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame having sufficient energy to melt
the base metal. The fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a
chamber which is generally a part of the welding torch assembly. The torch is designed
to give the welder complete control of the welding flame to melt the base metal and the
filler metal in the joint. This process is illustrated in Fig. 2.26.

Fig. 2.26: Oxyfuel gas welding process

Oxyfuel gas welding is normally done with acetylene fuel gas. Other fuel gases, such as
methyl acetylene propadience and hydrogen, are sometimes used for oxyfuel gas
welding of low melting metals.
The welding flame must provide high localized energy to produce and sustain a molten
weld pool. With proper adjustment, the flames can also supply a protective reducing
atmosphere over the molten weld pool.
Oxyfuel gas welding can be used for joining thick plates, but welding is slow and high
heat input is required. Welding speed is adequate to produce economical welds in sheet
metal and thin-wall and small diameter piping. Thus, OFW is best applied on material
of about 1/4 in. (6 mm) maximum thickness.
2.3.2.1.10 Brazing process
Brazing is a metal joining process where the base metal is heated to a temperature of
about 425oC. Non-ferrous filler metals, such as brass or silver alloys, are melted by the
heat of the base metal and flow by capillary attraction between the closely fitted
surfaces of the joint.
Heat for brazing is usually applied by flame torches, furnaces, electric induction,
electric resistance or dropping the work into a hot salt bath.
Filler and flux are either applied manually or are replaced in the form of powder,
metallic rings or strips.The main disadvantage of the brazing is that the strength of the
brazing is lower than the other welding processes.
2.3.2.1.11 Miscellaneous welding processes
There are number of other welding processes sometimes encountered. Some of the
important ones of these processes are briefly discussed below:

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2.3.2.1.11.1 Electron beam and laser welding
These methods are generally utilized for precision assemblies requiring high-quality
welds. The procedure is conducted by focusing an electron beam or laser beam on the
joint interface and causing melting and fusion of the metal.
Beam welds require that the mating of the components to be welded be fitted closely
since there is no filler metal. The weld joint is created by the fusion of the material
penetrated by the beam, therefore, the mating surface should be geometrically prepared
so that they are in intimate contact over the entire joint surface.
Electron beam welds are usually made in a vacuum while laser welding is conducted
using an inert gas surrounding the laser beam. At the present time, electron beam has
the capability for welding thicker specimens (up to 200 mm in steel), but is limited by
the size of the vacuum chamber.
The limitations of this process are:
i) vacuum chamber is required for EBW,
ii) extra cleaning is required before the joining of surface, iii) the operator and
other persons near the machine must be protected from the radiation given off
by the beam, iv) for control of radiation lead shielding is required, v) laser
welding is recommended only up to 10 mm thickness.
2.3.2.1.11.2 Friction welding (FW)
In friction welding the heat for coalescence is produced by direct conversion of
mechanical energy to thermal energy at the joint interface. The mechanical energy is
generated by the sliding action between rotating or rubbing surfaces.
The basic process involves holding a non-rotating work piece in contact with a rotating
work piece under constant or gradually increasing pressure until the interface reaches
welding temperature. The rotation is then stopped.
It is a solid state process in which coalescence occurs at a temperature below the
melting point of the metals being joined. Many ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be
friction welded, and the method can be used to join metals of widely differing thermal
and mechanical properties.
The limitations of this process are: i) the control of this type of weld is based on the
pressure and the speed at which the surfaces rotate against one another therefore, more
trained manpower is required, ii) friction welding produces considerable sparking, so
the operator needs to wear goggles or a face shield to avoid injury.
2.3.2.1.11.3 Ultrasonic welding (USW)
Ultrasonic welding is a form of friction welding that has long been used to join plastics.
Recently, such high frequency vibration has been successfully applied to the welding of
metals, mostly non-ferrous metals.
It is known as a cold bonding process, because atomic combination and diffusion
occurs while materials are in a semisolid or solid state. Although some heating occurs,
welding depends more on the cleaning action of the process than on material heating.
In practice the parts to be welded are clamped under pressure between an anvil and a tip
connected to a horn that vibrates at a high frequency. The welding tip and anvil may be
contoured to the shape of the parts.

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 The part in direct contact with the tip is rubbed at a high frequency against the
stationary part. This vibratory action first erodes oxides and other contaminants on the
interface surfaces. Once they are clean the surfaces come into intimate contact, and
solid state bonding takes place.
Ultrasonic welding is best suited for joining small parts, sheet and foil. The process is
fast, requires no consumables, and, because of its low heat, the result of the processing
eliminates the need for further cleaning.
The limitations of this process are:
i) Extra clean and free of oxidation surface is required
ii) the capital cost of the equipment is comparatively higher than other welding
processes.
2.3.2.1.12 Weld defects and discontinuities
During the process of welding, discontinuities of various types may occur. These may
be classified under the headings of procedure and process, design, and metallurgical
behaviour. The groups should be applied loosely because discontinuities listed in each
group may have secondary origins in other groups.
Discontinuities related to process, procedure, and design is, for the most part, those that
alter stresses in a weld or heat-affected zone. Metallurgical discontinuities may also
alter the local stress distribution, and in addition, may affect the mechanical or chemical
(corrosion resistance) properties of the weld and heat-affected zone.
2.3.2.1.12.1 Porosity
Molten weld metal has a considerable capacity for dissolving gases which come into
contact with it, such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. As the metal cools its ability to
retain the gases diminishes. For instance, in steel the oxygen reacts with the carbon to
form carbon monoxide, which is given off as a gas.
With the change from the liquid to the solid state, there is reduced solubility with falling
temperature. This causes an additional volume of gas to be evolved at a time when the
metal is becoming mushy and therefore incapable of permitting the gas to escape freely.
Entrapment of the gas causes gas pockets and porosity in the final weld.
The type of porosity within a weld is usually designated by the amount and distribution
of the pores. Some of the types are classified as follows: (Fig. 2.27).

(a)

(b)

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 (c)
Fig. 2-27: Three types of weld porosity

The common causes of porosity, and suggested methods of preventing it, are
summarized in Table 2b.
Table 2b: COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF POROSITY

Causes Remedies
Excessive hydrogen, nitrogen, or Use low-hydrogen welding process, filler metals high in
oxygen in welding atmosphere deoxidizers; increase shielding gas flow
High solidification rate Use preheat or increase heat input
Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent surfaces
Dirty filler wire Use specially cleaned and packaged filler wire, and
store it in clean area
Improper arc length, welding Change welding conditions and techniques
current, or electrode manipulation
Volatilization of zinc from brass Use copper-silicon filler metal; reduce heat input
Galvanized steel Use E6010 electrodes and manipulate the arc heat to
volatilize the zinc ahead of the molten weld pool
Excessive moisture in electrode Use recommended procedures for baking and storing
covering or on joint surfaces electrodes. Preheat the base metal
High sulphur base metal Use electrodes with basic slagging reactions

2.3.2.1.12.2 Pipe or wormholes

Some gas inclusions have an elongated form known as pipes or wormholes. They are
usually almost perpendicular to the weld surface. They can result from the use of wet
powdered flux or from inadequate welding current. Another typical form of pipe has
appearance of a branch of a tree (Fig. 2-28). These can be caused by use of wet welding
electrodes.

Fig. 2-28: Piping in weld

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2.3.2.1.12.3 Non-metallic inclusions
These may be the result of weld-metal contamination by substances on the surface of
the joint or by the atmosphere. But the usual source is the slag formed by the electrode
covering or flux used in the welding process. Some slag may be trapped in the
deposited metal during its solidification, particularly if the metal fails to remain molten
for a sufficient period to permit the slag to rise to its surface. In multi-pass welding,
insufficient cleaning between weld passes can leave a portion of the slag coating in
place to be covered by subsequent passes. A particular characteristic of slag inclusions
is the `slag line', intermittent or continuous. Such slag lines are often accompanied by a
pronounced lack of fusion to the base metal. In general inclusions may be due to any
one of several reasons which include failure to clean the surface of the joint, failure to
remove slag from a previous deposit, incorrect edge preparation, incorrect manipulation
of the electrode and insufficient arc shielding. The common causes and remedies of
inclusion-type discontinuities are shown in Table 2c.
Table 2c: COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF SLAG INCLUSIONS
Causes Remedies
Failure to remove slag Clean the surface and previous weld bead
Entrapment of refractory oxides Power wire brush the previous weld bead
Improper joint design Increase groove angle of joint
Oxide inclusions Provide proper gas shielding
Slag flooding ahead of the welding Reposition work to prevent loss of slag
control
Poor electrode manipulative technique Change electrode or flux to improve slag
control
Entrapped pieces of electrode covering Use undamaged electrodes

2.3.2.1.12.4 Tungsten inclusions

Tungsten inclusions are particles of metallic tungsten embedded in the weld metal
which originate from the tungsten electrode used in tungsten arc welding. Causes are
excessive welding current allowing the melting and deposition of tungsten in the weld
and incorrect polarity of electrode using a d.c. source.
Tungsten inclusions can also be caused from dipping the electrode into the molten weld
metal or by touching the filler rod to the electrode during welding. Tungsten inclusions
frequently occur at the start of welds when the electrode may be cold. Small globular
and widely scattered tungsten inclusions are sometimes permissible, but sharp edged
inclusions are dangerous.
2.3.2.1.12.5 Lack of fusion
This is due to the lack of union in a weld between the weld metal and parent metal or
between parent metal and parent metal or between weld metal and weld metal.
Consequently the lack of fusion can be of three types namely lack of side fusion, lack of
root fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.

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 The defect results mainly from the presence of slag, oxides, scale, or other non-metallic
substances, too low a welding current or incorrect edge preparation.
Incomplete fusion can also arise from too high a welding current when the high melt
rate encourages the welder to use excessive welding speed. The defect reduces
considerably the strength of a joint subjected to static loading, and under cyclic or shock
loading it is quite serious. The causes and remedies for incomplete fusion are
summarized in Table 2d.
Table 2d: COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF INCOMPLETE FUSION

Causes Remedies
Insufficient heat input, wrong type or size Follow correct welding procedure
of electrode, improper joint design, or specification
inadequate gas shielding
Incorrect electrode position Maintain proper electrode position
Weld metal running ahead of the arc Reposition work, lower current, or
increase weld travel speed
Trapped oxides or slag on weld groove or Clean weld surface prior to welding
weld face
2.3.2.1.12.6 Incomplete root penetration
In butt welding, a root opening is usually left at the bottom of the groove (in one-side
welding) or at the centre of the weld (in two-side welding). If the opening between the
two plates is narrow, it is difficult to achieve complete penetration and fusion at the
root of the weld.
Therefore there can be a lack of fusion in the root of the weld or a gap left by the failure
of the weld metal to fill the root of a butt weld (Fig. 2-29). It is caused by the electrode
held at an incorrect angle, an electrode too large in diameter, a rate of travel too fast, an
insufficient welding current, or an improper joint preparation (e.g. joint misalignment).

Fig. 2-29: Incomplete root penetration

2.3.2.1.12.7 Cracks
Cracks are linear ruptures of metal under stress. Although sometimes wide, they are
often very narrow separations in the weld or adjacent base metal.
Cracks can occur in a wide variety of shapes and types and can be located in numerous
positions in and around a welded joint (Fig. 2-30).
Cracks associated with welding may be categorized according to whether they originate
in the weld itself or in the base metal. Four types commonly occur in the weld metal,
i.e. transverse, longitudinal, crater and hat cracks. Base-metal cracks can be divided into

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four categories, namely, transverse cracks, lamellar tearing, de-laminations and fusion-
line cracks.
(a) Transverse cracks
In the weld metal, these are formed when the predominant contraction stresses are in
the direction of the weld axis (No.2 in Fig. 2-30). They can be hot cracks, which
separate intergranularly as a result of hot shortness or localized planar shrinkage, or
they can be transgranular separations produced by stresses exceeding the strength of the
material. Transverse cracks lie in a plane normal to the axis of the weld and are usually
open to the surface. They usually extend across the entire face of the weld and
sometimes propagate into the base metal.

Fig. 2-30: Different types of cracks located in and around a welded joint
Transverse cracks in base metal (No. 3 in Fig. 2-30) occur on the surface in or near the
heat-affected zone. They are the result of the high residual stresses induced by thermal
cycling during welding. High hardness, excessive restraint, and the presence of
hydrogen promote their formation. Such cracks propagate into the weld metal or
beyond the heat affected zone into the base metal.
(b) Under bead cracks
These are similar to transverse cracks in that they form in the heat-affected zone
because of high hardness, excessive restraint, and the presence of hydrogen. Their
orientation follows the contour of the heat-affected zone (No.6 in Fig. 2-30).
(c) Longitudinal cracks
These cracks may exist in three forms, depending on their position in the weld (No.4 in
Figure 2.43). Check cracks are open to the surface and extend only partway through the
weld. Root cracks extend from the root to some point within the weld. Full centreline
cracks may extend from the root to the face of the weld metal.
Check cracks are caused either by high contraction stresses in the final passes applied to
a weld joint or by a hot-cracking mechanism.
Root cracks are the most common form of longitudinal weld-metal cracks because of
the relatively small thickness and size of the root pass. If such cracks are not removed,

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 they can propagate through the weld as subsequent passes are applied. This is the usual
mechanism by which full centreline cracks are formed.
Centreline cracks may occur at either high or low temperatures. At low temperatures,
cracking generally is the result of poor fit-up, overly rigid fit-up, or a small ratio of weld
metal to base metal.
All three types of longitudinal cracks usually are oriented perpendicular to the weld face
and run along the plane that bisects the welded joint. Seldom are they open at the edge
of the joint face, because this requires a fillet weld with an extremely convex bead.
(d) Crater cracks
As the name implies, crater cracks occur in the weld crater formed at the end of a
welding pass (No.1 in Fig. 2-30). Generally, this type of crack is caused by failure to fill
the crater before breaking the arc. When this happens, the outer edges of the crater cool
rapidly, producing stresses sufficient to crack the interior of the crater.
This type of crack may be oriented longitudinally or transversely, or may occur as a
number of intersecting cracks forming the shape of a star. Longitudinal crater cracks
can propagate along axis of the weld to form a centreline crack. In addition, such cracks
may propagate upward through the weld if they are not removed before subsequent
passes are applied.
(e) Hat cracks
These cracks derive their name from the shape of the weld cross section with which
they are usually associated. This type of weld flares out near the weld face, resembling
an inverted top hat (No.9 in Fig. 2-30).
Hat cracks are the result of using excessive voltage or too low a welding speed. The
cracks are located about halfway up through the weld and extend into the weld metal
from the fusion line of the joint.
Table 2e: COMMON CAUSES AND REMEDIES OF CRACKING

Causes Remedies

Highly rigid joint Preheat; relieve residual stresses mechanically;

minimize shrinkage stresses using back step or block
welding sequence
Excessive dilution Change welding current and travel speed; weld with
covered electrode negative, butter the joint faces prior to
welding
Defective electrodes Change to new electrode; bake electrodes to remove
moisture
Poor fit-up Reduce root opening; build up the edges with weld metal
Small weld bead Increase electrode size; raise welding current; reduce travel
speed
High sulfur base metal Use filler metal low in sulfur
Angular distortion Change to balanced welding on both sides of joint

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 Crater cracking Fill crater before extinguishing the arc; use a welding
current decay device when terminating the weld bead
Hydrogen in welding Use low-hydrogen welding process; preheat and hold for 2
atmosphere h after welding or post weld heat treat immediately
Hot cracking Use low heat input; deposit thin layers; change base metal
Low ductility Use preheat; anneal the base metal
High residual stresses Redesign the weldment; change welding sequence; apply
intermediate stress-relief heat treatment
High hardenability Preheat; increase heat input; heat treat without cooling to
room temperature
Brittle phases in the Solution heat treat prior to welding
microstructure

(f) Toe and root cracks

These cracks occur in the root area of the weld or near the boundary between the weld
metal and the parent metal (Nos. 5 and 8 in Fig. 2-30).
2.3.2.1.12.8 Undercut
During the final or cover pass the exposed upper edges of the beveled weld preparation
tend to melt and to run down into the deposited metal in the weld groove.
The result is a groove which may be either intermittent or continuous, with more or less
sharp edges along the weld reinforcement (Fig. 2-31).

Fig. 2-31: Undercut

2.3.2.1.12.9 Concavity at the root of the weld
A concave surface at the root of the weld can occur specially in pipe welding (without a
cover pass on the root side).
Root concavity is commonly produced by the flux cored arc welding (FCAW) process.
In overhead welding this condition is a consequence of gravity which causes the molten
metal to sag away from the inaccessible upper surface of the weld.
It can also occur in downhand welding with a backing strip at the root of the weld
groove if slag is trapped between the molten metal and the backing strip (Fig. 2.32).

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 Fig. 2-32: Root concavity

2.3.2.1.12.10 Excessive penetration

In welds molten metal sometimes runs through the root of the weld groove producing
an excessive reinforcement at the back side of the weld. In general this is not
continuous but has an irregular shape with characteristic hanging drops of excess metal
(Fig. 2-33).

Fig. 2-33: Excessive penetration

2.3.2.1.12.11 Overlap
Overlap is an imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by an overflow of weld
metal onto the surface of the parent metal, without fusing with the latter (Fig. 2-34). It is
caused when the welding rod has been used at an incorrect angle, the electrode has
travelled too slowly, or the current was too low.

Fig. 2-34: Overlap

2.3.2.1.12.12 Lamellar tearing

This is a phenomenon that occurs in T-joints where the web plate is welded on both
sides with usually full penetration welds. The stresses developed by this configuration
result in a separation that takes place in the base metal between the roots of the two
welds extending in a plane parallel to the surface of the base metal. Such a discontinuity
is often associated with laminations or other planes of weakness in the metal.
It is characterized by a step-like tear and caused by the shrinkage of the weld bead
stressing the base metal through its thickness. These results initially in decohesion of
non-metallic inclusions and then ductile tearing at about 45 o between adjacent non-

2-35 | P a g e
 metallic inclusions to produce the step-like tears. Lamellar tearing can occur outside the
heat affected zone 5-10 mm below the fusion face
(Fig. 2-35).

Fig. 2-35: Lamellar tearing

2.3.2.1.12.13 Burn through
A burn through area is that portion of the weld bead where excessive penetration has
caused the weld pool to be blown into the pipe or vessel. It is caused by the factors,
such as high current, slow rod speed, incorrect rod manipulation, etc., that produce
excessive heat in one area. It is often accompanied by excessive drop through of the
metal on the inside of the pipe. (Fig. 2-36)

Fig. 2-36: Burn through

2.3.2.1.12.14 Root pass oxidation
Oxidation is the result of insufficient protection of the weld and heat affected zone from
the atmosphere. Severe oxidation will occur on stainless steels, for example, reducing
corrosion resistance, if the joint is not purged with an inert gas.
2.3.2.2 Forging Processes
Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing and is the
oldest of the metal forming processes. Most forging operations are carried out hot,
although some metals are cold-forged. The hot working of metals in the forging process
results in an improvement in the mechanical properties.
This method of shaping is therefore used in the manufacture of parts requiring good
mechanical properties.
Improvement in the mechanical properties results from a general consolidation of the
metal and closing of gas and contraction cavities by means of mechanical pressure, a
refinement of the crystal structure and a destruction of the continuity of intergranular
concentrations of impurities and inclusions.
Forging is done on either a hammer or a press. A horizontal press (forging machine) is
used in certain instances for forging small parts; otherwise forging machines are
vertical, the lower die of which is fixed while the upper die is moveable, being carried

2-36 | P a g e
on a vertical ram. In the case of hammers the die is raised mechanically and the blow is
struck by the die falling freely (Fig. 2-37).

Fig. 2-37: Vertical forging press

Forging may be considered under two categories. First where the working surface of the
dies is flat or of uniform curved contour and shaping is done by manipulation using
tools of simple shape. This is called `open-die' forging. The second is where impression
dies are used and the metal is shaped by being forced into the die impressions.
This is called `closed-die' forging. In the first category are forgings of simple, round or
rectangular cross-section and forgings of more complicated shapes which are so large
that `sinking' of closed dies would be impractical or too costly. Small forgings of
complicated final shape may be rough forged on simple dies and then machined to final
form if the number required is too small to justify the cost of an impression die. In this
category also are hollow forged parts. For these, the centre metal of the rough piece of
proper size is either machined out cold (trepanned), or is punched out hot using suitable
dies on a press.
The part is then forged on a mandrel passing through the centre hole and supported at
both ends so that the mandrel acts as the bottom die. In closed die forging on a hammer
or vertical press the lower die has an impression corresponding to one half of the part to
be made while the upper die has an impression corresponding to the other half. For
relatively simple shapes the dies may have only one impression but more commonly
they incorporate a series of impressions in which the part is successively shaped to the
final form.
Closed die forging is commonly known as `drop forging'. Around the impressions the
dies are shaped to provide space for the excess stock, as it is not practical to have
exactly the amount of metal required to fill the impressions. The excess metal that is
forced into this space is referred to as `flashing' or `flash'. After forging this is trimmed
off in suitable dies. The closed die forging business (Fig. 2-38) is so competitive that
the losses in trim scrap provide one of the most important areas for economy.
The hot forging process whereby bolts, for example, are headed is referred to as hot
upset forging or hot heading. In this process, a bar of uniform cross section is gripped
between grooved dies and pressure is applied on the end in the direction of the axis of
the bar by means of a heading tool. The metal flows under the applied pressure and fills
the cavity between the dies.

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 Fig. 2-38: Forging operations; (a,b) edding; (c) fullering; (d) drawing, (e) swaging,
(f) back extruding; (g) punching
2.3.2.3 Rolling Processes
The flattening of metal between rollers is used for the production of strip, sheet, plate,
bar and sections. Since the metal is formed by a squeezing action, rolling can be
considered as a continuous forging process with the rolls acting as hammers and the
metal being drawn down.
Rolling may be performed above the temperature of recrystallisation (hot rolling) or
below the temperature of recrystallisation (cold rolling). Hot rolling is always used for
the initial rolling of the cast ingot.
Not only is it easier to break down the ingot to size quickly when it is hot and plastic,
but the hot-rolling process closes any casting discontinuities and forge welds their
surfaces together.
This prevents any faults, which could lead to lamination, being carried forward into
subsequent rolling operations. In hot rolling the coarse grains are first elongated and
distorted and then formed into equi-axed crystals due to recrystallization. The crystals
elongated and distorted by cold rolling do not recrystallise and the metal therefore
remains work-hardened.
Rolling mills are described according to the arrangement of the rolls. The simplest is the
two-high reversing mill (Fig. 2-39 b).
In this the metal is passed through from one side, the rolls are then lowered and their
direction of rotation is reversed, and the metal is passed back through them.
This cycle is repeated until the metal is of the required thickness. In the three-high mill
(Fig. 2-39 c) the rolls rotate continuously in one direction.
The roller beds rise and fall to pass the metal between the lower two rolls first and then
back again between the upper two rolls. The cycle is repeated until the metal is of the
required thickness.

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In the four-high mill (Fig. 2-39 d) and the cluster mill (Fig. 2-39 e) the additional rolls
`back-up' the working rolls and allow them to apply greater pressure on the metal being
rolled without deflection.
Four-high and cluster mills operate in the same manner as the two-high reversing mill,
and are widely used for cold rolling bright finished strip. Some typical rolling-mill
processes are slabbing, cogging and re-rolling. Slabbing is the process of breaking
down the ingot into slabs ready for re-rolling into strip, sheet and plate.
The process is carried out at 1300°C and casting discontinuities in the ingot are welded
by the process thus making the slab homogeneous. Cogging is similar to slabbing
except that the ingot is rolled into 'blooms' ready for re-rolling into bars and sections.
Two-high and four-high reversing mills are usually used for rolling both slabs and
blooms. The re-rolling of slabs into strip is usually performed in a continuous strip mill.
The slab is reheated to 1300 °C and passed through a water spray and scale-breaking
rolls to remove the scale left on the surface of the slab from previous processing. It is
then roughed down, and finally passed to the finishing `train' of rolls.
The strip is finally coiled ready for further processing. The re-rolling of sections and
bars is usually performed in two-high reversing mills fitted with grooved rolls.
Some modern plants handling large quantities of standard section beams and joints are
often laid out to provide a continuous train (Fig. 2-40).

Fig. 2-39: Typical arrangements of rolls for rolling mills; (a) Two-high pullover,
(b) two-high reversing, (c) three-high, (d) four-high, (e) cluster

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 Fig. 2-40: Schematic drawing of strip rolling on a four-stand continuous mill

Whilst materials that are forged into wire and tube require the property of malleability,
materials that are drawn into wire and tube require the property of ductility, combined
with a relatively high tensile strength and a low work-hardening capacity as the process
is performed cold. The reduction in size of the drawn section is provided by the material
being pulled through a die. Rods and bars are drawn using draw-benches (Fig. 2-41).

Fig. 2-41: Schematic drawing of a draw bench.

Fine wire, especially the copper wire used for electrical conductors, is drawn on
multiple-die machines. A capstan block pulls the wire through each die and passes it
onto the next stage in the machine. As the wire becomes finer its length increases and
the speed of the last capstan has to be very much higher than the first (Fig. 2-42).

Fig. 2-42: Schematic wiredrawing equipment

Tube drawing is similar to rod drawing using a draw bench. However, the billet is
pierced to start the hole and the tube is drawn over a mandrel. Where longer lengths of
tube are required, the stock and the drawn tube have to be coiled. This prohibits the use
of a fixed mandrel, and a floating mandrel or plug is used.

2-40 | P a g e
2.3.2.4 Extrusion Processes
Another process which is similar to rolling is extrusion. In principle, extrusion is similar
to squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube. The raw material is a heated cast billet
of the required metal. Usually this is either a copper alloy, an aluminium alloy or lead.
The pressure necessary to force the metal through the die is provided by the hydraulic
ram. Since the billet is reduced to the size of the finished section in one pass through the
die, extrusion is a highly productive process.
However, the plant is extremely costly and so is its operation and maintenance. Like
most hot processes the finish and dimensional accuracy of the section is lower than that
associated with cold drawing. Therefore, where greater accuracy is required, the
extruded section is given a light draw to strengthen the section and finish, and improve
its dimensional accuracy (Fig. 2-43 a & b).

(a) (b)
Fig. 2-43: Types of extrusion
The Mannesmann mills, plug rolling mills, three-roll piercing mills, and reeling mills
are also used for producing seamless pipe and tubing (Fig. 2-44). The Mannesmann mill

(Fig. 2-44a) is used extensively for the rotary piercing of steel and copper billets. The
process employs two barrel-shaped driven rolls which are set at an angle to each other.
An axial thrust is developed as well as rotation to the billet. Because of the low arc of
contact with the billet, tensile stresses develop along the axis of the billet.
This assists in opening up the centre of the billet as it flows around the piercing point to
create the tube cavity. Piercing is the most severe hot-working operation customarily
applied to metals. The Mannesmann mill does not provide sufficiently large wall
reduction and elongation to produce finished hot-worked tubes. Various types of plug
rolling mills which drive the tube over a long mandrel containing a plug (Fig. 2-44 b)
have been widely adopted.
This has led to the development of three-roll piercing machines (Fig. 2-44 c) which
produce more concentric tubes with smoother inside and outside surfaces than the older
Mannesmann design. A reeling mill (Fig. 2-44d) which burnishes the outside and inside

2-41 | P a g e
 surfaces and removes the slight oval shape is usually one of the last steps in the
production of pipe or tubing.

Fig. 2-44: (a) Mannesmann mill, (b) plug rolling mill, (c) three-roll piercing mill, (d)
reeling mill

2.3.2.5 Forging and rolling defects

Discontinuities in forgings may originate in the slab or billet and be modified by the
rolling and forging of the material, or may result from the forging process itself. Some
of the defects that can occur in forgings are similar to those in castings since most
forgings originate from some form of cast ingot. Given below are some of the more
specific defects.
2.3.2.5.1 Laminations
Large porosity, pipe and non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets are flattened and
spread out during the rolling and forging processes. These flattened discontinuities are
known as laminations (Fig. 2-45).
2.3.2.5.2 Seams
Surface irregularities, such as cracks, on the slab or billet are stretched out and
lengthened during rolling and are then called seams. Seams may also be caused by
folding of the metal due to improper rolling. Seams are surface discontinuities and on
finished bars will appear as either continuous or broken straight lines. On round bar
stock they will appear as straight or slightly spiral lines, either continuous or broken.
2.3.2.5.3 Forging laps

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 Forging laps are the discontinuities caused by the folding of metal in a thin plate on the
surface of the forging. They are irregular in contour (Fig. 2-45).
2.3.2.5.4 Centre bursts
Ruptures that occur in the central region of a forging are called centre bursts. They can
arise because of an incorrect forging procedure (e.g. too low a temperature or too
drastic a reduction) or from the presence of segregation or brittle phase in the metal
being forged Fig. (2-45).

Fig. 2-45: Forging and rolling defects

2.3.2.5.5 Clinks (thermal cracks)

Clinks are cracks due to stresses arising from excessively high temperature gradients
within the material. Cracks formed during too rapid cooling originate at the surface and
extend into the body of the forging; those formed during too rapid heating occur
internally and can be opened up to become diamond-shaped cavities, during subsequent
forging.
2.3.2.5.6 Hairline cracks (flakes)
Flakes are very fine internal cracks of circular shape that develop and extend with time
and are associated with the presence of hydrogen in steel. There is greater susceptibility
in larger forgings than in smaller and in certain grades of alloy steel than in carbon
steel; they can be avoided by correct treatment.
2.3.2.5.7 Hot tears

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 Surface defects due to metal being ruptured and pulled apart during forging. They may
be associated with the presence of local segregation, seams, or brittle phases.
2.3.2.5.8 Stringers
Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets that are thinned and lengthened in the
direction of rolling by the rolling process are called stringers (Fig. 2-45).
2.3.2.5.9 Overheating
Normally identified by the facets seen on the fractured surfaces of a test-piece, but in
extreme cases can manifest itself as a severely broken-up surface.
2.3.2.5.10 Pipe
If there has been insufficient discard from the original ingot, remnant primary pipe will
normally show up axially. Secondary pipe that has never been exposed to the
atmosphere will be welded-up if there has been sufficient forging.
2.3.2.6 Finishing processes and related defects
2.3.2.6.1 Machining process
Machining is a shape-producing process in which a power-driven device causes
material to be removed in chip form. Most machining is done with equipment that
supports both the work piece and the cutting tool. Although there are many kinds of
machines used in manufacturing industry, the term machine tools has been assigned to
that group of equipment designed to hold a cutting tool and a work piece and establish a
suitable set of motions between them to remove materials from the work in chip form.
The common combination of motions is shown in Fig. 2-46.
2.3.2.6.1.1 Turning and boring
These machines normally rotate the work piece to produce the cutting motion and feed
a single point tool parallel to the work axis or at some angle to it. External cylindrical
machining is called turning, internal cylindrical machining is called boring, and making
a flat surface by feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of revolution is termed as
facing.
2.3.2.6.1.2 Drilling
A special fluted tool with two or more cutting lips on its exposed end is called a drill
and is rotated and advanced axially into the work piece by use of a drill press. The
principal work is the making of, or enlarging of, cylindrical holes.

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 Fig. 2-46: Feed and cutting motions

2.3.2.6.1.3 Milling
There are a great variety of milling machines which like the drill press employ special
multi-edge cutters. Except for some special production type milling machines, this
equipment permits multi-direction feeding and the cutters perform their principal
cutting on their periphery edges.
2.3.2.6.1.4 Straight line machines
One group of machine tools provide straight line cutting motion for its cutting action.
This includes the shaper (straight line motion of the cutter), the planer (straight line
motion of the work piece), and the broach (straight line motion of a special multitooth
cutter).
Because of the high cost of the special cutter, broaching is used only for production
quantity machining but the shaper and planer are more commonly used.
Machine tears are caused by dull machine tools. They will show up as short irregular
lines at right angle to the direction of machining. They are the result of tool removing
the metal more through a tearing action than through a cutting action.
2.3.2.6.1.5 Grinding processes
Grinding processes employ an abrasive wheel containing many grains of hard material
bonded in a matrix. The action of a grinding wheel may be considered as a multiple-
edge cutting tool except that the cutting edges are irregularly shaped and randomly
spaced around the face of the wheel.
Each grain removes a short chip of gradually increasing thickness, but because of the
irregular shape of the grain there is considerable ploughing action between each grain
and the work piece.
The depth of cut in grinding usually is very small (a few m), and this results in very
small chips that adhere readily to the wheel or the work piece. The net effect is that the
specific cutting energy for grinding is about 10 times greater than for turning or milling.
In grinding, greater than 70 percent of the energy goes into the finished sur This results
in considerable temperature rise and generation of residual stresses.
Grinding cracks are a processing type discontinuity caused by stresses which are built
up from excess heat created between grinding wheel and metal. Grinding cracks are

2-45 | P a g e
 fine sharp type cracks and will usually occur at right angles to the rotation of the
grinding wheel.
2.3.2.6.2 Heat treatment of steel
A number of heat treatment cycles have been developed to alter the structure and hence
the properties of iron and steel. Some of usual treatments and the specific properties
they develop in iron and steel are discussed in the following (Fig. 2-47). The first is
annealing.
Steel is annealed to soften it for easy machining and to release internal stresses that
might have been caused by working of the metal or by unequal contraction in casting.
For annealing the steel is heated slowly to a temperature between 800C and 1000C.
It is then held at this temperature for sufficient time so as to enable the internal changes
to take place. It is then cooled slowly. For slow cooling, which is very essential, the
heated steel is taken out of the furnace and embedded in sand, ash, lime or some other
non-conducting material.

Fig. 2-47: Temperature ranges for various heat treating processes

Normalizing is another heat treatment process. This treatment is done to refine the
structure and to remove strains that might have been caused by cold working. When
steel is cold worked its crystalline structure may get upset and the metal may become
brittle and unreliable. Also when the metal is heated to very high temperatures as for
forging then it may lose its toughness. To remedy these effects steel is slowly heated to
about 1000°C and allowed to cool in air. Hardening or quenching of steel consists of
heating the steel to above the transformation temperature and then suddenly cooling it
by dipping it in a bath of cold water or oil. This way of cooling of hot steel is known as
quenching or hardening. The steel after quenching is known as quenched steel.
face.

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 This type of steel is hard and brittle because of martensitic crystal structure. The
hardness of quenched steel depends upon the medium used for quenching and the rate
of cooling.
When steel is heated to or above its critical temperature (transformation temperature
range the value of which is dependent upon the alloy percentages) and held at this
temperature for some period of time carbon unites in solid solution with iron in the
gamma or face centred cubic lattice form. In this phase, as much as 2% carbon can
dissolve at the eutectic temperature of 1148oC at which the widest range of gamma
composition exists. This is called the process of austentization.
Tempering involves heating of hardened steel to a suitable temperature between 230 oC
and 600oC. This causes a particle transformation of the martensitic back to pearlite
again thereby taking away some of the hardness of the steel to make it tougher.
Minimum hardness and maximum ductility of steel can be produced by a process called
spheroidizing, which causes the iron carbide to form in small spheres or nodules in a
ferrite matrix. In order to start with small grains that spheroids more readily, the process
is usually performed on normalized steel. Several variations of processing are used, but
all require the holding of the steel near the A1 temperature (usually slightly below) for a
number of hours to allow the iron carbide to form in its more stable and lower energy
state of small, rounded globules
Heat treating cracks are often caused by stresses built up during heating and cooling.
Unequal cooling between light and heavy sections may cause heat treatment cracks.
Heat treatment cracks have no specific direction and usually start at sharp corners
which act as stress concentration points (stress raisers).
2. 4 MATERIALS IN SERVICE
2.4.1 BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS IN SERVICE
Materials have to operate and perform in widely varied environments and situations.
The requirements of safety and reliability demand that the materials and components
should perform well in their environments and situations without premature failure.
There are a number of factors and processes which can cause the failure of materials.
As premature failure of critical components can be disastrous in many situations apart
from being a cause for lost production and bad reputation, it is essential to understand
and control these causes of failure.
2.4.2 CONDITIONS LEADING TO DEFECTS AND FAILURES
Due to advances in technology and the understanding of materials and their design,
and due to sophisticated inspection and testing methods, such as the non-destructive
testing methods, metal failures occur only in an extremely low percentage of the
millions of tons of metals fabricated every year. Those that do occur fall mainly into
three categories. Operational failures can be caused by overload, wear, corrosion and
stress-corrosion, brittle fracture and metal fatigue. In the second category fall the
failures due to improper design. In this it is necessary to consider whether sharp
corners or high-stress areas exist in the design, has sufficient safety stress factor been
considered and whether the material selected is suitable for particular application. The
third type of failure is caused by thermal treatments such as forging, hardening,
tempering and welding, and by surface cracks caused by the heat of grinding.

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 These aspects and especially those related to operational or in-service conditions will be
described here in more detail.
2.4.2.1 Corrosion
With the exception of some noble metals, all metals are subject to the deterioration
caused by ordinary corrosion. Iron, for example, tends to revert back to its natural state
of iron oxide. Other metals revert to sulphides and oxides or carbonates. Buildings,
ships, machines and automobiles are all subject to attack by the environment. The
corrosion that results often renders them useless and they have to be scrapped. Billions
of dollars a year are lost as a result of corrosion.
Corrosion can also cause dangerous conditions to prevail, such as on bridges, where the
supporting structures have been eaten away, or in aircraft in which an insidious
corrosion called intergranular corrosion can weaken the structural members of the
aircraft and cause a sudden failure.
Corrosion in metals is the result of their desire to unite with oxygen in the atmosphere
or in other environments to return to a more stable compound, usually called ore. Iron
ore, for example, is in some cases simply iron rust. Corrosion may be classified by the
two different processes by which it can take place; direct oxidation corrosion, which
usually happens at high temperature, and galvanic corrosion, which takes place at
normal temperatures in the presence of moisture or an electrolyte.
Direct oxidation corrosion is often seen in the scaling that takes place when a piece of
metal is left in a furnace for a length of time. The black scale is actually a form of iron
oxide, called magnetite (Fe3O4). Galvanic corrosion is essentially an electrochemical
process that causes a deterioration of metals by a very slow but persistent action. In this
process, part or all of the metal becomes transformed from the metallic state to the ionic
state and often forms a chemical compound in the electrolyte.
On the surface of some metals such as copper or aluminium, the corrosion product
sometimes exists as a thin film that resists further corrosion. In other metals such as
iron, the film of oxide that forms is so porous that it does not resist further corrosive
action, and corrosion continues until the whole piece has been converted to the oxide.
Corrosion requires the presence of an electrolyte to allow metal ions to go into solution.
The electrolyte may be fresh or salt water and acid or alkaline solutions of any
concentration. Even a finger print on metal can form an electrolyte and produce
corrosion. When corrosion of a metal occurs, positively charged atoms are released or
detached from the solid surface and enter into solution as metallic ions while the
corresponding negative charges in the form of electrons are left behind in the metal.
The detached positive ions bear one or more positive charges. In the corrosion of iron,
each iron atom releases two electrons and then becomes a ferrous iron carrying two
positive charges. Two electrons must then pass through a conductor to the cathode area.
The electrons reach the surface of the cathode material and neutralize positively
charged hydrogen ions that have become attached to the cathode surface.
Two of these ions will now become neutral atoms, and are released generally in the
form of hydrogen gas. This release of the positively charged hydrogen ions leaves an
accumulation and a concentration of OH negative ions that increases the alkalinity at
the cathode.
When this process is taking place, it can be observed that hydrogen bubbles are forming
at the cathode only. When cathodes and anodes are formed on a single piece of metal,

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 their particular locations are determined by, for example, the lack of homogeneity in the
metal, surface imperfections, stresses, inclusions in the metal, or anything that can form
a crevice such as a washer.
Corrosion can also take the form of erosion in which the protective film, usually an
oxide film, is removed by a rapidly moving atmosphere or medium. Depolarization can
also take place, for example, on the propellers of ships because of the movement
through the water, which is the electrolyte. This causes an increased corrosion rate of
the anodic steel ship's hull. Impellers of pumps are often corroded by this form of
erosion corrosion in which metal ions are rapidly removed at the periphery of the
impeller but are concentrated near the centre where the velocity is lower. Another form
of corrosion is intergranular corrosion. This takes place internally.
Often the grain boundaries form anodes and the grains themselves form cathodes, caus-
ing a complete deterioration of the metal in which it simply crumbles when it fails. This
often occurs in stainless steels in which chromium carbides precipitate at the grain
boundaries. This lowers the chromium content adjacent to the grain boundaries, thus
creating a galvanic cell. Differences in environment can cause a high concentration of
oxygen ions. This is called cell concentration corrosion.
Pitting corrosion is localized and results in small holes on the surface of a metal caused
by a concentration cell at that point. When high stresses are applied to metals in a
corrosive environment, cracking can also be accelerated in the form of stress-corrosion
failure. It is a much localized phenomenon and results in a cracking type of failure.
Cathodic protection is often used to protect steel ships hulls and buried steel pipelines.
This is done by using zinc and magnesium sacrificial anodes that are bolted to the ship's
hull or buried in the ground at intervals and electrically connected to the metal to be
protected. In the case of the ship, the bronze propeller acts as a cathode, the steel hull as
an anode and the seawater as an electrolyte.
Severe corrosion can occur on the hull as a result of galvanic action. The sacrificial
anodes are very near the anodic end of the galvanic series and have large potential
differences between both the steel hull of the ship and the bronze propeller. Both the
hull and propeller become cathodic and consequently do not deteriorate. The zinc or
magnesium anodes are replaced from time to time.
Selection of materials is of foremost importance. Even though a material may be
normally resistant to corrosion, it may fail in a particular environment or if coupled with
a more cathodic metal.
Coatings are extensively used to prevent corrosion. There are different types of such
coatings, for example; anodic coatings, cathodic coatings, organic and inorganic
coatings, inhibitive coatings, etc.
2.4.2.2 Fatigue
When metal parts are subjected to repeated loading and unloading over prolonged
periods they may fail at stresses far below their yield strength with no sign of plastic
deformation. This is called a fatigue failure.
When designing machine parts that are subject to vibration or cyclic loads, fatigue
strength may be more important than ultimate tensile or yield strength. Fatigue is a
universal phenomenon observed in most solids. Cyclic loading leads to a continuous
accumulation of damage which, as in the case of static fracture, eventually results in
rupture.

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Fatigue limit, or endurance limit, is the maximum load that can be applied an infinite
number of times without causing failure (Fig. 2-48). But 10 million loading cycles are
usually considered enough to establish fatigue limits.
The number of cycles leading to fracture at a given stress is often referred to as the
fatigue strength or endurance. This phenomenon of failure of a material when subjected
to a number of varying stress cycles is known as fatigue since it was once thought that
fracture occurred due to the metal weakening or becoming tired.

Fig. 2-48: Typical fatigue curves for ferrous and non-ferrous metals

Failures caused by fatigue are found in many of the materials of industry. Some plastics
and most metals are subject to fatigue in varying degrees as these are widely used in
dynamically loaded structures and machines. It has been estimated that at least 75% of
all machine and structure failures have been caused by some form of fatigue. Fatigue
failure is caused by a crack that is initiated by a notch, bend, or scratch that continues to
grow gradually as a result of stress reversals on the part. The crack growth continues
until the cross-sectional area of the part is reduced sufficiently to weaken the part to the
point of failure. In welding, even spatter on a sensitive surface such as a steel spring can
initiate fatigue failure. Fatigue is greatly influenced by the kind of material, grain
structure and the kind of loading. Some metals are more sensitive to sharp changes in
section (notch sensitive) than others.
There are various types of fatigue failure. In the case of one-way bending load a small
elliptically shaped fatigue crack usually starts at a surface flaw such as a scratch or tool
mark. The crack tends to flatten out as it grows. It is caused by the stress at the base of
the crack being lower because of the decrease in distance from the edge of the crack to
the neutral axis.
If a distinct stress raiser such as a notch is present, the stress at the base of the crack
would be high, causing the crack to progress rapidly near the surface, and the crack
tends to flatten out sooner. In a two-way bending load cracks start almost
simultaneously at opposite surfaces when the surfaces are equally stressed. The cracks
proceed toward the centre at similar rates and result in a fracture that is rather
symmetrical. In the early stages of fatigue testing, specimens will generally evolve an
appreciable amount of heat.
Later fissures develop at the surface eventually leading to failure. The surface of the
specimen is a preferential seat of damage initiation. Corrosive effects may also assist in
degradation of the structure at the surface. Corrosion is essentially a process of
oxidation and under static conditions a protective oxide film is formed which tends to
retard further corrosion attack. In the presence of cyclic stress the situation is quite
different, since the partly protective oxide film is ruptured in every cycle allowing
further attack.

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 It is a rather simplified explanation that the microstructure at the surface of the metal is
attacked by the corrosive environment causing, an easier and more rapid initiation of
cracks. One of the important aspects of corrosion fatigue is that a metal having a fatigue
limit in air no longer possesses one in the corrosive environment and therefore fracture
can occur at relatively very low stress levels.
In commercial alloys the technical fatigue limit generally lies between 0.3 and 0.5 of
the ultimate tensile stress. The fatigue strength of metals can often be enhanced by
treatments which render the surface more resistant to deformation. Fracture then tends
to start at the interface between the hard surface layer and the softer core. Stress raisers,
such as sharp
notches, corners, key ways, rivet holes and scratches can lead to an appreciable
lowering of the fatigue strength of metal components. Good surface finish and
corrosion protection are desirable to enhance fatigue resistance. Fatigue is basically a
low temperature problem and at temperatures relatively high with respect to the melting
point, fracture and hence specimen life are governed by creep.
Fractured surfaces of fatigued metals generally show a smooth and lustrous region due
to the polishing effects arising from attrition at fissures. The remaining parts of the
fracture surface, over which failure occurred through weakening of the specimen by the
reduction of its load bearing cross-section by surface cracks and fissures, may look
duller and coarser, as it is essentially caused by static fracture.
Fatigue cracks are service type discontinuities that are usually open to the surface where
they start from stress concentration points (Fig. 2-49).

Fig. 2-49: Fatigue cracks

2.4.2.3 Creep
The progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. To
determine the engineering creep curve of a metal, a constant load is applied to a tensile
specimen maintained at a constant temperature, and the strain (extension) of the
specimen is determined as a function of time.
Although the measurement of creep resistance is quite simple in principle, in practice it
requires considerable laboratory equipment. The elapsed time of such tests may extend
to several months, while some tests have been run for more than 10 years.
Curve A in Fig. 2-50 illustrates the idealized shape of a creep curve. The slope of this
curve (d/dt) is referred to as the creep rate. Following an initial rapid elongation of the
specimen, o, the creep rate decreases with time, then reaches essentially a steady state
in which the creep rate changes little with time, and finally the creep rate increases
rapidly with time until fracture occurs. Thus, it is natural to discuss the creep curve in

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 terms of its three stages. It should be noted, however, that the degree to which these
three stages are readily distinguishable depends strongly on the applied stress and
temperature.

Fig. 2-50: Typical creep curve showing the three steps of creep curve A, constant-load test;
curve B, constant-stress test

In making an engineering creep test, it is usual practice to maintain the load constant
throughout the test. Thus, as the specimen elongates and decreases in cross-sectional
area, the axial stress increases. The initial stress which was applied to the specimen is
usually the reported value of stress. Methods of compensating for the change in
dimensions of the specimen so as to carry out the creep test under constant-stress
conditions of the specimen have been developed. When constant-stress tests are made it
is found that the onset of stage III is greatly delayed. The dashed line (curve B) shows
the shape of a constant-stress creep curve. In engineering situations it is usually the load
not the stress that is maintained constant, so a constant-load creep test is more
important. However, fundamental studies of the mechanism of creep should be carried
out under constant-stress conditions.
The first stage of creep, known as primary creep, represents a region of decreasing
creep rate. Primary creep is a period of predominantly transient creep in which the
creep resistance of the material increases by virtue of its own deformation. For low
temperatures and stresses, as in the creep of lead at room temperature, primary creep is
the predominant creep process.
The second stage of creep, known also as secondary creep, is a period of nearly
constant creep rate which results from a balance between the competing processes of
strain hardening and recovery. For this reason, secondary creep is usually referred to as
steady-state creep. The average value of the creep rate during secondary creep is called
the minimum creep rate. Third-stage or tertiary creep mainly occurs in constant-load
creep tests at high stresses at high temperatures. Tertiary creep occurs when there is an
effective reduction in cross-sectional area either because of necking or internal void
formation. Third-stage creep is often associated with metallurgical changes such as
coarsening of precipitate particles, recrystallization, or diffusional changes in the phases
that are present.
2.4.2.4 Wear
Wear may be defined as undesired removal of material from contacting surfaces by
mechanical action. Excessive wear can be caused by continuous overload, but wear is

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ordinarily a slow process that is related to the friction between two surfaces. Rapid wear
can often be attributed to lack of lubrication or the improper selection of material for the
wear surface. Some wear is to be expected, however, and could be called normal wear.
Wear is one of the most frequent causes of failure. We find normal wear in machine
tooling such as carbide and high-speed tools that wear and have to be replaced or
resharpened. Parts of automobiles ultimately wear until an overhaul is required.
Machines are regularly inspected for worn parts, which when found are replaced; this is
called preventive maintenance. Often normal wear cannot be prevented; it is simply
accepted, but it can be kept to a minimum by the proper use of lubricants. Rapid wear
can occur if the load distribution is concentrated in a small area because of the part
design or shape. This can be altered by redesign to offer more wear surface. Speeds that
are too high can increase friction considerably and cause rapid wear.
Metallic wear is a surface phenomenon, which is caused by the displacement and
detachment of surface particles. All surfaces subjected to either rolling or sliding
contact show some wear. In some severe cases the wear surface can become cold
welded to the other surface. In fact, some metals are pressure welded together in
machines, taking advantage of their tendency to be cold welded. This happens when
tiny projections of metal make a direct contact on the other surface and produce friction
and heat, causing them to be welded to the opposite surface if the material is soft.
Metal is torn off if the material is brittle. Insufficient lubrication is usually the cause of
this problem. High pressure lubricants are often used while pressing two parts together
in order to prevent this sort of welding. Two steel parts such as a steel shaft and a steel
bore in a gear or sprocket, if pressed together dry, will virtually always seize or weld
and cause the two parts to be ruined for further use. In general, soft metals, when forced
together, have a greater tendency to “cold weld” than harder metals. Two extremely
hard metals even when dry will have very little tendency to weld together.
For this reason, hardened steel bushings and hardened pins are often used in earth
moving machinery to avoid wear. Some soft metals when used together for bearing
surfaces (for example, aluminium to aluminium) have a very great tendency to weld or
seize. Among these metals there are aluminium, copper and austenitic stainless steel.
Different types of wear include abrasive wear, erosive wear, corrosive wear and surface
fatigue. In abrasive wear small particles are torn off the surfaces of the metal, creating
friction. Friction involving abrasive wear is sometimes used or even required in a
mechanism such as on the brakes of an automobile. The materials are designed to
minimize wear with the greatest amount of friction in this case. Where friction is not
desired, a lubricant is normally used to provide a barrier between the two surfaces.
This can be done by heavy lubricating films or lighter boundary lubrication in which
there is a residual film. Erosive wear is often found in areas that are subjected to a flow
of particles or gases that impinge on the metal at high velocities. Sand blasting, which is
sometimes used to clean parts, utilizes this principle. Corrosive wear takes place as a
result of an acid, caustic, or other corrosive medium in contact with metal parts.
When lubricants become contaminated with corrosive materials, pitting can occur in
such areas as machine bearings. Surface fatigue is often found on roll or ball bearing or
sleeve bearings where excessive side thrust has been applied to the bearing. It is seen as
a fine crack or as small pieces falling out of the surface.
Various methods are used to limit the amount of wear in the part. One of the most
commonly used methods is simply to harden the part. Also, the part can be surface

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 hardened by diffusion of a material, such as carbon or chrome, into the surface of the
part. Parts can also be metallized, hard faced, or heat treated. Other methods of limiting
wear are electroplating (especially the use of hard industrial chromium) and anodizing
of aluminium. Some nickel plate is used, as well as rhodium, which is very hard and has
high heat resistance. The oxide coating that is formed by anodizing on certain metal
such as magnesium, zinc, aluminium, and their alloys is very hard and wear resistant.
These oxides are porous enough to form a base for paint or stain to give it further
resistance to corrosion. Some of the types of diffusion surfacing are carburizing, carbo-
nitriding, cyaniding, nitriding, chromizing, and siliconizing. Chromizing consists of the
introduction of
chromium into the surface layers of the base metal. This is sometimes done by the use
of chromium powder and lead baths in which the part is immersed at a relatively high
temperature. This, of course, produces a stainless steel on the surface of low carbon
steel or an iron base metal, but it may also be applied to non-ferrous material such as
tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt, or nickel to improve corrosion and wear resistance. The
fusion of silicon, which is called ihrigizing, consists of impregnating an iron base
material with silicon. This also greatly increases wear resistance.
Hard facing is put on a metal by the use of several types of welding operations, and it is
simply a hard type of metal alloy such as alloying cobalt and tungsten or tungsten
carbide that produces an extremely hard surface that is very wear resistant. Metal
spraying is used for the purpose of making hard wear resistant surfaces and for
repairing worn surfaces.
2.4.2.5 Overload
Overload failures are usually attributed to faulty design, extra loads applied, or an
unforeseen machine movement. Shock loads or loads applied above the design limit are
quite often the cause of the breakdown of machinery. Although mechanical engineers
always plan for a high safety factor in designs (for instance the 10 to 1 safety factor
above the yield strength that is sometimes used in fasteners), the operators of machinery
often tend to use machines above their design limit.
Of course, this kind of overstress is due to operator error. Inadequate design can
sometimes play a part in overload failures. Improper material selection in the design of
the part or improper heat treatment can cause some failures when overload is a factor.
Often a machinist or welder will select a metal bar or piece for a job based upon its
ultimate tensile strength rather than upon its yield point. In effect this is a design error
and can ultimately result in breakdown.
Basically there are only two modes or ways in which metals can fracture under single or
monotonic loads. These two modes are shear and cleavage and they differ primarily in
the way the basic metal crystal structure behaves under load. Almost all commercial
solid metals are polycrystalline. Each individual crystal or grain is a structure composed
of a very large number of atoms of the constituent elements. These atoms are arranged
in cells within each crystal in a regular, repetitive three-dimensional pattern. Adjacent
cells share the corner atoms and their positions are balanced by electrical forces of
attraction and repulsion.
Applied forces can cause distortion of the cells. Shear deformation represents a sliding
action on planes of atoms in crystals. In a polycrystalline metal slight deformation
causes no permanent change in shape, it is called elastic deformation. That is, the metal
returns to its original size and shape, like a spring, after being unloaded. If a greater

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 load is imposed, permanent or plastic deformation occurs because of irreversible slip
between certain planes of atoms that make up the crystal structure. If the applied load or
force is continued, the shear deformation causes tiny micro voids to form in the most
highly stressed region. These tiny voids soon interconnect and form fracture surfaces.
The cleavage mode of separation of the cell is different. In this case separation occurs
suddenly between one face of the cell and the mating face of the adjacent cell without
any deformation being present.
Fracture will originate whenever the local stress, i.e. load per unit cross-sectional area,
first exceeds the local strength. This location will vary depending upon the strength of
the metal and the applied stress. When a shaft or similar shape is pulled by tensile force
it becomes longer and narrower. For ductile metals the shear strength is the weak link
and these metals fail through the shear mode. These metals fail when shear stress
exceeds the shear strength. In the case of brittle metals, these fail because the tensile
stress exceeds the tensile strength. Brittle metals always have a fracture that is
perpendicular to the tensile stress and little or no deformation because fracture takes
place before the metal can deform plastically as ductile metals do.
When a cylinder is loaded in axial compression, a ductile metal becomes shorter and
thicker. In short it bulges when squeezed by the compressive force and there is no
fracture. A brittle metal in pure compression will fracture parallel to the length of the
cylinder.
2.4.2.6 Brittle and ductile fracture
Fracture preceded by a significant amount of plastic deformation is known as ductile
fracture, otherwise it is brittle fracture. Brittle fracture occurs, when plastic flow is
inhibited either by the effective locking of atomic dislocations by precipitates or
elements or by the pre-existence or formation of cracks and imperfections acting as
local stress raisers in the material. All materials can be embrittled if the temperature is
lowered sufficiently.
Glass, sealing wax, germanium, silicon and other materials though ductile at
temperatures close to their melting point are brittle at ordinary temperatures. In most
materials the brittle strength, defined as the maximum tensile stress withstood without
the occurrence of brittle fracture, is low compared with the ideal strength the fault-free
material would be expected to exhibit. The source of brittle fracture is therefore to be
sought in the presence of structural defects.
As has already been mentioned brittle metals always have a fracture that is
perpendicular to the tensile stress and have little or no deformation because fracture
takes place before the metal can deform plastically. Thus a tensile fracture of a brittle
metal has a fracture plane that is essentially straight across. It also usually has a
characteristic bright sparkling appearance when freshly fractured.
The pattern of a break can often reveal how the failure was precipitated. For example, if
the break was caused by a sudden shock load such as an explosion, there are usually
chevron-shaped formations present that point to the origin of fracture. When a stress
concentration is present, such as a weld on a structure that is subject to a sudden
overload, the fracture is usually brittle across the entire break, showing crystals,
striations, and wave fronts. Brittle fractures are often intergranular (along the grain
boundaries); this gives the fracture surface a rock candy appearance at high
magnification. When grain boundaries are weakened by corrosion, hydrogen, heat

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 damage, or impurities, the brittle fracture may be intergranular. Brittle failures can also
be transgranular (through the grains): this is called cleavage.
Cleavage fracture is confined to certain crystallographic planes that are found in body
centred cubic or hexagonal close-packed crystal structures. For the most part, metals
having other crystalline unit structures do not fail by cleavage unless it is by stress-
corrosion cracking or by corrosion fatigue. Cleavage should normally have a flat,
smooth surface; however, because metals are polycrystalline with the fracture path
randomly oriented through the grains and because of certain imperfections, certain
patterns are formed on the surface.
Small quantities of hydrogen have a great effect on the ductility of some metals.
Hydrogen can get into steels when they are heated in an atmosphere or a material
containing hydrogen, such as during pickling or cleaning operations, electroplating,
cold working, welding in the presence of hydrogen-bearing compounds, or the steel-
making process itself. There is a noticeable embrittling effect in steels containing
hydrogen. This can be detected in tensile tests and seen in the plastic region of the
stress- strain diagram showing a loss in ductility. Electroplating of many parts is
required because of their service environment to prevent corrosion failure. Steel may be
contaminated by electroplating materials that are commonly used for cleaning or
pickling operations. These materials cause hydrogen embrittlement by charging the
material with hydrogen. Mono-atomic hydrogen is produced by most pickling or plating
operations at the metal-liquid interface, and it seems that single hydrogen atoms can
readily diffuse into the metal. Preventive measures can be taken to reduce this
accumulation of hydrogen gas on the surface of the metal.
A frequent source of hydrogen embrittlement is found in the welding process. Welding
operations in which hydrogen-bearing compounds such as oil, grease, paint, or water
are present, are capable of infusing hydrogen into the molten metal, thus embrittling the
weld zone. Special shielding methods are often used that help to reduce the amount of
hydrogen absorption. One effective method of removing hydrogen is a `baking'
treatment in which the part, or in some cases the welding rod, is heated for long periods
of time at temperatures of 121 to 204°C. This treatment promotes the escape of
hydrogen from the metal and restores the ductility.
Stress raisers such as notches on the surface of a material have a weakening effect and
cause embrittlement. A classical example is provided by the internal notches due to
graphite flakes in cast irons. The flakes embrittle the irons in tension. Therefore in
structural applications cast irons are most usefully employed under compressive loads.
Their brittle strength and toughness can, however, be increased appreciably if the
graphite is allowed to form in spheroidal rather than flaky form. This can be done by
alloying the melt, for example, with magnesium.
2.4.3 CONCEPTS OF RUPTURE DEVELOPMENT IN METALS
Most of the ideas related to the development of defects in materials have already been
discussed in Section 2.4.2. Rupture occurs when the size of these defects, especially
cracks, reaches a certain critical size.

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