Springer Studies in Computational Intelligence

Chapter 1

Introduction to IoT
arXiv:2312.06689v2 [cs.CR] 12 Jan 2024

1 2
Tajkia Nuri Ananna , Munshi Saifuzzaman
1
Department of CSE, Metropolitan University, Sylhet 3104, Bangladesh
2
Dynamic Solution innovators, Dhaka 1206, Bangladesh
Email Address of the Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract
The Internet of Things has rapidly transformed the 21st century, enhancing decision-making
processes and introducing innovative consumer services such as pay-as-you-use models. The
integration of smart devices and automation technologies has revolutionized every aspect of
our lives, from health services to the manufacturing industry, and from the agriculture sec-
tor to mining. Alongside the positive aspects, it is also essential to recognize the significant
safety, security, and trust concerns in this technological landscape. This chapter serves as
a comprehensive guide for newcomers interested in the IoT domain, providing a foundation
for making future contributions. Specifically, it discusses the overview, historical evolution,
key characteristics, advantages, architectures, taxonomy of technologies, and existing appli-
cations in major IoT domains. In addressing prevalent issues and challenges in designing
and deploying IoT applications, the chapter examines security threats across architectural
layers, ethical considerations, user privacy concerns, and trust-related issues. This discussion
equips researchers with a solid understanding of diverse IoT aspects, providing a compre-
hensive understanding of IoT technology along with insights into the extensive potential and
impact of this transformative field.
Keywords: Architectural Layers, Ethical Considerations, Security Threats, Hardware Plat-
forms, Trust-related Issues, Taxonomy of technologies.

1.1 Introduction
In today’s ubiquitous digital landscape, the Internet has profoundly impacted global exis-
tence, marking an ongoing journey towards even more pervasive connectivity—ushering in
the era of the Internet of Things (IoT). A groundbreaking invention in recent decades, IoT
revolutionizes the interaction between the physical and digital realms, as defined by Verme-
san et al. [1]. In this interconnected landscape, the digital world engages with the physical
Ananna et al. Revised on January 12, 2023

world through an array of sensors and actuators. Pena-López et al. [2] offer an expansive
interpretation, characterizing IoT as a paradigm where computing and networking seam-
lessly integrate into virtually any object, empowering remote querying and modification.
Broadly, the term ”Internet of Things” describes a transformative realm where nearly every
daily device is intricately linked to a network, enabling collaborative utilization for intelli-
gent and automated tasks. The concept of IoT was first introduced by Peter T. Lewis in
1985, defining it as the fusion of individuals, processes, and technology with interconnected
devices and sensors. This facilitates remote monitoring, status assessment, manipulation,
and trend analysis of these devices [3]. The IoT journey, far from its conclusion, promises
a future where diverse devices seamlessly connect to the web, reshaping human existence in
unprecedented ways.
The IoT is a network of interconnected devices with sensors, actuators, processors, and
various communication technologies. Sensors collect real-time data from both internal states
and external surroundings, ranging from mobile phones to microwave ovens. Actuators, in
turn, respond to data or commands, enabling automation and remote control of physical
devices. Data collected by sensors undergoes processing either at the network edge or on
central servers, with some preprocessing occurring directly in the sensors or end devices.
Processed data is then transmitted to remote servers for further analysis, storage, and pro-
cessing. These data form the basis for analysis, decision-making, and subsequent actions,
which can be physical (e.g., adjusting a smart thermostat) or virtual (e.g., sending notifica-
tions) [4]. The applications of IoT are extensive and diverse, impacting various aspects of
our lives. From personal convenience in smart homes to healthcare and fitness innovations,
IoT has the potential to influence personal, financial, physical, educational, professional,
and mental aspects of individuals. In smart homes, IoT enables remote control of electrical
appliances, lighting, coffee brewing, thermostat adjustments, and even hands-free operations
through voice commands [5]. In healthcare, wearable IoT devices offer remote monitoring,
allowing caregivers and healthcare professionals to provide timely assistance in emergencies.
Additionally, individuals can use wearable devices to track sleep patterns, physical activity,
and overall fitness [6]. These examples only scratch the surface of IoT’s broad application
landscape, indicating the exciting possibilities and challenges that researchers are exploring
for the future.
The IoT has the potential to transform how people interact with technology, providing
greater convenience, efficiency, and personalization in daily life. Despite its transformative
impact, IoT faces challenges. The sheer number of devices and the substantial data gen-
erated pose significant challenges, with a projected 41.6 billion IoT devices producing 79.4
zettabytes of data by 2025 [7]. Addressing this requires scalable architectures and enhanced
processing capabilities. Moreover, IoT heavily relies on wireless communication, leading to
challenges such as distortion and unreliability in geographically dispersed locations. En-
suring dependable data transmission becomes a pivotal challenge, emphasizing the critical
role of communication technologies in the IoT landscape. Beyond technical hurdles, various
general and domain-specific challenges are crucial for the success of IoT. Identifying and ad-
dressing these multifaceted challenges collectively is essential to unlocking the full potential
of IoT and overcoming obstacles for broader adoption and integration into our lives.
Motivation of this chapter: IoT is not a novel concept; researchers have been explor-
ing this field for decades. Consequently, the question arises: what sets this chapter apart

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from others, and why should readers invest their time in exploring the basics presented here?
While there are several book chapters introducing IoT, many share outdated concepts, lack-
ing the latest insights from the ongoing exploration of this dynamic field. For instance, in
[8], only IoT applications are discussed, and in [9], authors overlook major domains, includ-
ing IoT applications, advantages, challenges, and technologies. Notably, Nagaraj et al. [10]
present a well-structured discussion covering technologies, architectures, applications, and
challenges. However, their discussion is limited to these aspects, with a less extensive ex-
ploration of the application section. Therefore, the need arises for a comprehensive chapter
that covers all aspects and incorporates recent additions in the IoT field. This chapter goes
beyond the basics, encompassing fundamental components, characteristics, and advantages.
It delves into architectures, provides a taxonomy of technologies used in IoT, explores a
significant number of applications across diverse domains, and addresses ethical consider-
ations as well as legal and regulatory issues. In essence, our chapter serves as a holistic
guide, covering the most significant facets of IoT, from foundational principles to emerging
research challenges and future directions. Readers are encouraged to explore this chapter for
a thorough and up-to-date understanding of the evolving landscape of IoT.
Contributions: The contributions of this chapter can be summarized as follows:
1. This chapter provides an introductory overview of the IoT with the aim of assisting
future contributors. It assesses the benefits, generic architecture, key technologies
underpinning IoT, and its diverse applications across various domains.
2. Recent studies have been examined to facilitate this assessment. Additionally, this
chapter encompasses a taxonomy of IoT technologies, including extensive coverage of
field communication.
3. In conclusion, this chapter offers a comprehensive discussion of the open research chal-
lenges, ethical considerations, as well as the legal and regulatory aspects of IoT.
Chapter organization: It begins with an exploration of the fundamentals in Section
1.2, covering the history 1.2.1, components 1.2.2, and characteristics 1.2.3. In Section 1.3,
the advantages of IoT are examined. By introducing a generic architecture in Section 1.4,
the taxonomy of technologies that underpin IoT operations are discussed in detail in Section

Table 1.1: List of abbreviations

Name Abbreviation Name Abbreviation Name Abbreviation
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access LBT Listen Before Talk CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum CSS Chirp Spread Spectrum OOK On-Off Keying
Global System for Mobile
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access GSM PPM Pulse Position Modulation
Communications
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Orthogonal Frequency Division
GFSK Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying UMTS OFDM
System Multiplexing
Differential Quadrature Phase Shift
DWPSK GMSK Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying TDD Time Division Duplex
Keying
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
CSMA/CA LTE-A Long-Term Evolution Advanced FDD Frequency Division Duplex
Collision Avoidance
BPSK Binary Phase Shift Keying 3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project ALHOA Adaptive Link Hopping On Air
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Wideband Code Division Multiple Differential Binary Phase Shift
CSMA/CD WCDMA DBPSK
Collision Detection Access Keying
Orthogonal Frequency Division
O-QPSK Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying OFDMA QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Multiple Access
Single Carrier Frequency Division Cyclic Prefix Orthogonal Frequency
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying SC-FDMA CP-OFDM
Multiple Access Division Multiplexing

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1.5. Furthermore, Section 1.6 explores the extensive array of application domains of IoT,
with a focus on multiple promising research works within each domain, aiming to provide a
comprehensive understanding of its real-world applications. It concludes in Section 1.7 by
addressing the key challenges that IoT faces today, considering insights from the reviewed
literature, and sheds light on potential future scopes and developments in the ever-evolving
realm of IoT technology. Table 1.1 represents some abbreviations mentioned in this chapter.

1.2 Fundamentals of IoT

At its core, the IoT revolves around the concept of connecting everyday objects and devices to
the internet, enabling them to communicate, collect data, and perform actions autonomously
or in response to commands. This basic concept involves three key elements: sensors and
actuators that gather and interact with data, a network infrastructure for data transmission,
and cloud-based platforms for data storage, processing, and analysis. By interconnecting
these elements, IoT empowers us to enhance efficiency, gain real-time insights, and create
smart, responsive systems that impact various aspects of our lives, from smart homes and
cities to industries and healthcare. The evolution of IoT, which has unfolded over several
decades, began with the concept of smart objects. Since then, IoT has undergone numerous
groundbreaking transformations that have left the world astounded, thanks to its unique and
convenient characteristics. The advantages brought by this technology are unquantifiable,
as it touches nearly every aspect of people’s lives, simplifying and improving them. This
section comprehensively discusses these fundamental IoT concepts, covering the following
topics: history, components, characteristics.

1.2.1 Historical Development

Since the invention of the first landline, the telegraph, in the 1830s and 1840s, machines
have been instrumental in facilitating direct communication. A significant step towards the
IoT occurred on June 3, 1900, with the first radio voice transmission, often referred to as
“wireless telegraphy”. This paved the way for IoT. The development of computers, which
began in the 1950s, is another crucial aspect of IoT.
In 1962, the Internet, a fundamental component of IoT, started as a DARPA1 project. A
group of renowned researchers initiated efforts to connect computers and systems. By 1969,
DARPA had evolved into ARPANET2 , a precursor to today’s Internet [11].
While the term “Internet of Things” is relatively new, the concept of integrating com-
puters and networks to monitor and manage devices has a rich history spanning decades.
In the late 1970s, various stakeholders, including businesses, governments, and consumers,
began exploring ways to connect personal computers (PCs) and other machinery. This led
1
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is a research and development agency of the United
States Department of Defense responsible for the development of emerging technologies for use by the
military.
2
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first wide-area packet-switched
network with distributed control and one of the first computer networks to implement the TCP/IP protocol
suite. Both technologies became the technical foundation of the Internet.

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to the practical use of systems for remotely monitoring electrical grid meters via telephone
lines during that era [12].
In the 1980s, there was a growing interest in enhancing physical objects with sensors and
intelligence. Commercial service providers began supporting public access to ARPANET,
an early precursor to the modern Internet, during this time. Satellites and landlines played
pivotal roles in establishing the foundational communication infrastructure for the emerging
IoT. The concept of a network of smart devices was initially explored as early as 1982 when
a Coca-Cola vending machine3 at Carnegie Mellon University was modified to connect to
ARPANET. This allowed local programmers to remotely monitor the vending machine’s
contents, ensuring drinks were available and cold before making a purchase. However, the
technology was challenging to manage, and progress in this field was limited during that
period [13]. In parallel, during the 1980s, local area networks (LANs) gained popularity and
proved effective for real-time communication and document sharing among groups of PCs.
In the 1990s, advancements in wireless technology set the stage for the widespread adop-
tion of ”machine-to-machine” (M2M) solutions in enterprise and industrial contexts, par-
ticularly for equipment monitoring and operation. However, many of these early M2M
solutions relied on closed, purpose-built networks and proprietary or industry-specific stan-
dards rather than utilizing Internet Protocol (IP)-based networks and Internet standards
[14]. By the mid-1990s, the Internet had expanded its global reach, offering new possibilities
for researchers and technologists to explore ways to enhance connections between humans
and machines. A significant milestone in this journey was the creation of the first Internet-
connected ’device’ by John Romkey—an IP-enabled toaster that could be controlled over the
Internet. This innovative toaster was showcased at an Internet conference in 1990, marking
an early example of the IoT in action [15].
In 1991, Mark Weiser’s paper “The Computer of the 21st Century” [16] and academic
events like UbiComp and PerCom shaped the contemporary IoT vision [14]. Global Po-
sitioning System (GPS) became a reality in early 1993 with the Department of Defense
establishing a stable system of 24 satellites. Privately owned commercial satellites soon fol-
lowed, enhancing IIoT functionality [3]. In early 1994, Reza Raji introduced the IoT concept
in IEEE Spectrum, describing it as “moving small data packets to integrate and automate
from home appliances to entire factories” [17]. Later that year, Steve Mann invented the
near-real-time WearCam, powered by a 64-processor setup. Between 1993 and 1997, compa-
nies proposed IoT solutions, including Microsoft’s “at Work” and Novell’s NEST. Momentum
grew as Bill Joy introduced device-to-device communication in his ”Six Web” framework at
the 1999 World Economic Forum [3].
The term “Internet of Things” was coined by Peter T. Lewis in a 1985 speech during the
Congressional Black Caucus Foundation’s 15th Annual Legislative Weekend in Washington,
D.C. Lewis defined IoT as the integration of people, processes, and technology with con-
nectable devices and sensors for remote monitoring, status assessment, manipulation, and
trend evaluation related to these devices [3]. In 1997, Paul Saffo described sensors and their
future roles. British technologist Kevin Ashton, while serving as the executive director of
the Auto-ID Center at MIT, independently coined the term “Internet of Things”. During
his time at Procter and Gamble, he explored radio-frequency identification (RFID), a tech-
3
The ”Only” Coke Machine on the Internet. Available at: Carnegie Mellon University

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nology framework enabling physical devices to connect via microchips and wireless signals.
In the same year, they developed a global RFID-based item identification system [14].
In 1999, Kevin Ashton was the first to describe the IoT and proposed the name “Internet
of Things” during a presentation for Procter and Gamble. He believed RFID technology,
primarily designed for inventory tracking, was a significant prerequisite for the IoT, allowing
computers to efficiently manage and monitor individual objects. The concept of tagging
objects has been realized through technologies like digital watermarking, barcodes, and QR
codes, used for identification and tracking purposes [18]. Subsequent technological advance-
ments, including the proliferation of smartphones, cloud computing, improved processing
power, and enhanced software algorithms, along with the availability of sophisticated sen-
sors capable of measuring various parameters, laid the foundation for robust data collection,
storage, and processing for the IoT’s growth.
As a significant step forward in commercializing IoT, LG announced plans to launch a
smart refrigerator capable of autonomously managing its contents in 2000. Walmart and
the US Department of Defense pioneered inventory tracking using RFID and the IoT in
2002−2003. RFID gained prominence in the US Army’s Savi program in 2003, and Walmart
expanded its RFID usage worldwide that same year. In 2004, Cornelius “Pete” Peterson,
CEO of NetSilicon, predicted that IoT devices would dominate the next era of information
technology, particularly in fields like medical devices and industrial controls [3]. In 2005,
numerous articles in mainstream newspapers such as The Guardian, Scientific American,
and The Boston Globe discussed IoT’s future direction.
The IPSO Alliance was founded in 2008 to promote the use of IP in networks of “smart
objects”, while the FCC allowed the use of the “white” label in 2008. Google initiated
the development of autonomous cars in 2009, and in 2011, Google’s Nest smart thermostat
entered the market, enabling remote heating management. In June 2012, major Internet
service providers and web-based companies agreed to expand the global Internet’s address
space by enabling IPv6 for their services and products, a significant step towards a viable
IoT. This led to substantial growth and interest in the field. IT giants like Cisco, IBM, and
Ericsson later took numerous educational and commercial initiatives related to IoT. Cisco
Systems estimated that the IoT was ”born” between 2008 and 2009, with the things/people
ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010 [18].

1.2.2 Components
The IoT consists of several key components that serve as the essential building blocks for
constructing an IoT system. This section provides an in-depth exploration of the principal
components of the IoT. IoT comprises three main components: (1) sensors/devices, and
actuators; (2) storage and data analytics; and (3) interpretation and visualization tools.
Each of these is further categorized into various subcomponents.

Sensors/Devices and Actuators

1. Sensors/Devices: Sensors play a crucial and essential role within an IoT system. Given
that IoT operates by gathering data from the surrounding environment, it is necessary

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for all IoT applications to incorporate one or more sensors to meet this need. A defining
characteristic of IoT devices is their context awareness, which is made possible through
the utilization of sensor technology. Sensors are not only compact and cost-effective
but also energy-efficient. However, they are subject to limitations such as battery
capacity and ease of deployment. [4]. An overview of various types of sensors has been
provided below.

(a) Mobile-based Sensors

Smartphones, which are widespread and commonly used, are equipped with vari-
ous sensors. Given their extensive usage, researchers are exploring the potential of
using smartphones as integral components in building smart IoT solutions. These
applications can harness sensor data from smartphones to generate valuable in-
sights and outcomes. Some of the general sensors found in smartphones include
an accelerometer, gyroscope, GPS, magnetometer, light sensor, and proximity
sensor [19]. Certain smartphones, like the Samsung Galaxy S4, come equipped
with extra sensors, including a thermometer, barometer, and humidity sensor [4].
(b) Medical Sensors
The healthcare industry is one of the most influential fields where innovation and
IoT have paved the way. Wearable devices and sensors have facilitated remote
monitoring for physicians and enabled researchers to collect data continuously and
in real-time. These devices come in different forms, such as wristbands, smart-
watches, and monitoring patches. Smartwatches and fitness trackers, known for
their versatility, have gained popularity among consumers. Likewise, monitoring
patches have emerged as a valuable asset to the healthcare sector by enabling
remote treatment for patients.
(c) Neural Sensors
Neural sensors play a crucial role in comprehending the workings of human neu-
rons by enabling us to decode brain signals, assess the brain’s current state, and,
when necessary, optimize it for improved focus and attention. This practice is
commonly referred to as Neurofeedback [22].
(d) Environmental and Chemical Sensors
While conventional tools manage parameters such as temperature and pressure,
specialized environmental sensors play a crucial role in evaluating air quality.
These sensors detect gases and particulate matter [23], while also measuring fac-
tors like temperature, humidity, pressure, and pollution. Besides, chemical sen-
sors play a crucial role in detecting both chemical and biochemical substances.
Among the innovative technologies available are the electronic nose (e-nose) and
electronic tongue (e-tongue), which rely on pattern recognition to sense chemicals
based on odor and taste. These sensors find valuable applications in smart cities
for monitoring pollution levels [24].
(e) Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)
RFID technology, which serves as sensors, finds widespread use in various IoT
applications. For instance, it is employed for tracking products within extensive
inventories or monitoring items within large retail stores.

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2. Actuators: Actuators hold a crucial role and operate in direct contrast to sensors.
They transform energy into physical motion and are typically positioned on the outer
periphery of a system. Take, for instance, a scenario involving a smart home system
that incorporates numerous sensors and actuators. In this setup, the actuators receive
signals from the sensors and, depending on the context, carry out actions such as
locking or unlocking doors, toggling lights or electrical devices on or off, regulating the
house’s temperature, or setting alarms for emergencies. Essentially, actuators respond
to and execute commands based on the signals they receive from sensors or other
devices.

Storage and Data Analytics

Another crucial aspect of IoT is the management of the substantial volume of data generated
and exchanged by IoT devices continuously. Storing this data presents a significant challenge
within IoT networks. Furthermore, the data collected from these devices must undergo
filtering, processing, and analysis to enable the effective functioning of the IoT system. In
this process, gateways, cloud services, and analytics collaborate to handle data storage and
processing tasks.
1. Gateway: Gateways, designed to simplify the IoT system, function as the intermediate
medium of communication between the devices and the central cloud system. The
major functionalities of IoT gateways are listed below:
(a) Data Preprocessing
The IoT gateway serves as an intermediary between sensor devices and the cen-
tral cloud, conducting basic data analytics before forwarding information directly
to the cloud. This layer performs the tasks of local data filtering, cleaning, pre-
processing, and protocol translation. During this process, it may also aggregate,
remove duplicates, or summarize the data to enhance response times and lower
transmission costs [25].
(b) Data Acquisition
In this layer, data is collected from multiple sources, converted into the desired
format, and then transferred to the processing layers. The role of the gateway in
this stage is to provide secure connectivity between IoT devices and processing
structures [26].
(c) Data forwarding and Temporary Storage
The primary role of the gateway is to ensure secure data transfer between the
sensor layer and the central cloud [27]. Additionally, this layer serves as the
temporary storage repository for the collected data.
(d) Device Management
This layer facilitates real-time device configuration, allowing adjustments to de-
vice statuses, operational modes, error acknowledgments, and more [27].
(e) Diagnostics
The IoT gateway identifies errors and faults within the entire technology layer,
including self-diagnostics for the IoT gateway itself [27].

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2. Cloud: The cloud serves as the central hub of an IoT network, taking on pivotal roles
in data processing, storage, and management. The key characteristics of the cloud
include the ability to store and process extensive data generated by devices, scalability
to effortlessly handle thousands of devices, flexibility by allowing devices to be added
or removed as needed without requiring a complete system reconfiguration, supervision
and management by the cloud service provider, and cost-effectiveness.
While cloud services are not mandatory for IoT, the recent shift toward edge and fog
computing empowers local data processing. Nevertheless, the cloud is incorporated
into the system for its scalability. storage and cost-effective service provision [28].
Furthermore, cloud-based services offer security functionalities such as encryption and
authentication while enabling remote access and control of IoT devices.

3. Analytics: This represents one of the most intricate and vital layers within IoT. It
involves the analysis of data, generating valuable insights through the application of
diverse machine learning (ML) algorithms and statistical analysis techniques. Nu-
merous applications of analytics in IoT encompass anomaly detection, environmental
monitoring, energy management, smart cities, and agriculture [29].

Interpretation and Visualization Tools

This segment essentially serves as the user interface (UI). The UI offers a platform for users
to interact directly with the application or system, facilitating communication. A user in-
terface is not always reliant on a screen. For instance, a TV remote utilizes a user interface
comprising multiple buttons, while devices like the Amazon Echo respond to voice com-
mands for control. Receiving Automatic Notification, Monitoring Information Proactively,
and Controlling the System Remotely are some common examples for user interfaces in IoT
systems [30].

© Copyright www.free-ppt-templates-download.com
Connectivity 1 10 Security

Intelligent decision Energy

making capability 2 9 Efficiency

Dynamic and
Self Adapting 3 8 Heterogeneity

Unique
Identity 4 7 Interoperability

Self Configuring 5 6 Scalability

Figure 1.1: IoT characteristics

www.free-ppt-templates-download.com

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1.2.3 Characteristics
This segment essentially serves as the user interface (UI). The UI offers a platform for users
to interact directly with the application or system, facilitating communication. A user in-
terface is not always reliant on a screen. For instance, a TV remote utilizes a user interface
comprising multiple buttons, while devices like the Amazon Echo respond to voice com-
mands for control. Receiving automatic notifications, monitoring information proactively,
and controlling the system remotely are some common examples of user interfaces in IoT
systems [30]. The IoT characteristics discussed in this chapter are illustrated in Figure 1.1.

1. Connectivity: Connectivity is the most vital requirement of IoT. The main aspect of
IoT is a network with millions of devices connected to each other. The connectivity
remains constant, allowing anyone from anywhere to connect to the IoT network at
any given moment.
2. Intelligent decision making capability: The extraction of knowledge from the data
generated is highly significant. Consider a sensor that produces data; however, the
true value of that data lies in its proper interpretation. This represents a crucial aspect
of IoT, wherein IoT devices possess the capability to transform raw data collected by
sensors into meaningful information and make decisions based on it.
3. Dynamic and Self Adapting: IoT devices should have the ability to adapt to changes
in context, their surrounding environment, and the existing situation. For instance,
within a surveillance system, cameras are capable of switching between day and night
modes or adjusting their resolution in response to motion detection, demonstrating
their adaptability.
4. Unique Identity: Every IoT device should have a unique identity and unique identifier.
IoT device interfaces enable users to inquire about device information, monitor their
status, and remotely manage them. Having a distinct identity is essential to empower
users to safeguard their devices, whether through password protection or alternative
security measures [33].
5. Self Configuring: IoT devices possess the capability to autonomously update their sys-
tems in response to the situation, eliminating the need for user intervention. Moreover,
they exhibit flexibility in network management, allowing new devices to seamlessly join
the network and permitting any device to depart from the network at any time.
6. Scalability: The IoT network is experiencing a continual growth in the number of
connected devices, resulting in a substantial and continuous generation of data. Con-
sequently, scalability emerges as the foremost feature of any IoT system.
7. Interoperability: IoT devices rely on standardized protocols and technologies to guar-
antee seamless communication among themselves and with other systems. Interoper-
ability represents a fundamental block of the IoT, signifying the capacity for various
IoT devices and systems to interact and share data, irrespective of the underlying tech-
nology or the manufacturer. Hence, IoT devices employ standardized protocols, data
formats, and technologies to uphold interoperability.

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Control and Automation, Real-time Access

to Information, improved Efficiency &
Improvement in Learning Quality of Life, Cost and Time Effective,
Environment, Distance Asset Tracking, Data Analysis for Research
Learning, Enhanced Assistant Purpose, Big Data and Predictive Analysis,
for Special Students Increased Productivity, Safety & Security,
Improved Technology, Efficient Resource
Community Farming, Safety Utilization, Enhance Customer
Control and Fraud Prevention, Engagement
Competitive Advantages, Education
Wealth Creation and
Distributions, Cost Reduction
and Wastage, Operational Remote Medical Assistance,
Efficiency, Awareness, Asset Improved Treatment , Faster
Management
Agriculture Healthcare Disease Diagnosis, Emergency
IoT monitoring and reporting
Advantages

Decision Making, Smart

Transportation, Smart Efficiency and Transparency,
Loading and Unloading, Supply Warehouse Efficient Order Monitoring,
Smart Carriage, Smart Chain Ensure Quick Tally, Enhance
Packaging, Smart Warehouse Automation
Distribution Management

Figure 1.2: Advantages of IoT

8. Heterogeneity: The devices within an IoT network exhibit heterogeneity, showcasing

the network’s capability to accommodate diverse elements.

9. Energy Efficiency: Energy efficiency stands out as a significant characteristic of IoT.

Numerous IoT devices are purposefully crafted to minimize energy consumption and
create low-power devices. Furthermore, various IoT approaches are tailored to optimize
power usage, such as opting for fog/edge computing over cloud computing to decrease
bandwidth requirements and reduce power consumption when constructing an IoT
system [34].

10. Security: The presence of millions of internet-connected devices and the vast amount
of data generated underscore the vulnerability of the IoT network to security threats.
Hence, safety and security emerge as pivotal characteristics of the IoT. Ensuring safety
is of paramount importance to preserve the effectiveness of IoT’s advantages, including
efficiency and novel experiences.

1.3 Advantages of IoT

The amount of benefits IoT offers to people’s lives is the main reason IoT is becoming
more popular by the day. IoT solutions are developed and invented to make people’s lives
easier and more convenient. IoT technology affects almost every field, including healthcare,
education, and business. This section elaborates on the most visible benefits of IoT in
people’s daily lives [35, 36], and Fig. 1.2 provides a visual overview.

1. Efficient Data Collection: IoT-based data collection has been particularly beneficial in
sectors such as healthcare and finance [37]. A straightforward illustration of efficient
data collection is the integration of IoT in the retail sector. Internet-connected tags
can provide data on purchase decisions and sales trends, whether weekly or monthly.

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This enhanced data gathering can improve inventory management and reveal valu-
able insights into customer behavior, ultimately contributing to the prosperity of the
business.

2. Control and Automation: IoT has provided its customers with a more convenient
lifestyle and allows them to control their daily activities with the touch of a button.
One simple yet remarkable example is the smart bulb, which can be controlled without
even touching the switches; the user can simply turn off or on the light remotely. Not
only can the light bulb, coffee maker, or any other electrical device in the home be
controlled with the tip of the device, but they can also be controlled using a voice
command when they are linked to Google’s or Amazon’s voice assistants.

3. Real-time Access to Information: IoT devices offer immediate access to information,

proving invaluable across healthcare, business, and everyday applications. A prime
illustration of the advantages of real-time data access is within the healthcare sector.
Physicians can access patient data in real-time, enabling continuous health monitoring.
This capability becomes particularly crucial in delivering emergency medical assistance
swiftly when unexpected health issues arise.

4. Improved Efficiency: IoT systems operate autonomously, which is a valuable asset

in various domains. Reduced human intervention leads to increased efficiency and
decreased labor reliance. For instance, a company with a fleet of delivery vehicles can
effortlessly track their real-time locations, eliminating the need for manual employee
involvement in this task.

5. Improved Quality of Life: The advent of IoT has significantly improved the lives of
its users in numerous ways. Real-time health monitoring, including devices like blood
pressure monitors and fitness trackers, empowers users to maintain their well-being
effectively. Smart homes offer a stress-free and effortless lifestyle. These advantages
extend beyond individuals and can benefit entire industries or communities. Smart
devices, linked not only to intelligent traffic lights but also to road safety monitors
and toll gates, can provide drivers with real-time information about road conditions
on their route.

6. Cost and Time Effective: IoT minimizes human effort and relies heavily on real-time
data transmission, leading to time savings. For example, real-time patient monitoring
benefits both patients and doctors by eliminating the need for physical meetings, thus
saving time for both parties. IoT aids businesses in streamlining their workflows by
offering valuable insights and real-time information, resulting in cost reductions. In
addition to businesses, individuals can reduce their everyday expenses through the use
of IoT.

7. Asset Tracking: This process involves tracking products within a business or logistics
management system. Manual asset tracking is labor-intensive and time-consuming,
but it can be streamlined through the application of IoT technologies like barcodes
and RFID tags. These technologies allow for remote monitoring of goods and provide
stakeholders with information about any faults or problems in real time [38].

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8. Data Analysis for Research Purpose: The enormous amount of data collected from
IoT devices has become a blessing for researchers in various fields like healthcare,
education, business, etc. The healthcare researchers can use the data collected via
biosensors to invent cures and vaccines for disease; the finance industry can use the
data to understand trends and improve customer experience; the super shops can
analyze customer behavior and improve their businesses; and so on.

9. Big Data and Predictive Analysis: “Big data” has been a widely recognized term in
the world long before the emergence of IoT. It involves the collection and analysis
of massive volumes of data. One of the primary objectives of IoT is to amass data
from diverse sources, sending this information back to systems for analysis. Effective
analysis of big data can yield valuable insights, spanning from stock market predictions
to understanding customer behavior, thereby enhancing the business landscape.

10. Increased Productivity: IoT utilization in both industry and homes has the potential
to boost productivity significantly. For instance, in a smart home, users can stream-
line various household tasks using voice commands, enabling efficient multitasking.
Similarly, in a business setting, analyzing customer behavior can enhance customer
satisfaction, ultimately contributing to the prosperity of the enterprise. As an exam-
ple, 46% of businesses that embraced IoT strategies saw improvements in efficiency,
even though only 29% initially anticipated such improvements [39]. In the healthcare
sector, doctors can offer more extensive services to their patients if they do not need
to make physical visits to each patient individually.

11. Safety and Security: The incorporation of IoT offers users a means of security not only
in their homes but also in their businesses, schools, offices, and virtually anywhere.
Individuals can remotely monitor their valuable assets, such as vehicles and other
important items. Parents can even keep track of their children’s whereabouts from
their workplaces, providing peace of mind. IoT allows for vehicle tracking and the
setup of alert systems in case of unusual incidents. Financial companies and banks can
enhance the security of their confidential rooms or vehicles by utilizing IoT [34].

12. Enhance Customer Engagement: The IoT offers several avenues for enhancing cus-
tomer engagement. It achieves this by leveraging valuable customer data, personalizing
experiences, improving convenience, and enabling real-time interactions.

13. Efficient Resource Utilization:IoT facilitates efficient resource utilization through var-
ious mechanisms and capabilities. Its ability to collect and monitor real-time infor-
mation allows organizations to track the status of their resources, such as equipment
and machinery, enabling the identification of inefficiencies. Predictive maintenance
powered by IoT in the industrial sector can anticipate machinery failures, reducing
downtime and optimizing resource allocation for maintenance.

14. Improved Technology: The innovation brought about by IoT leads to the creation
of newer and more advanced technologies on the market. For instance, consider the
scenario of an air conditioner that was initially controlled manually with a remote.
With the advent of IoT, users can now operate it using voice commands or control it

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Application Layer

Wearable devices, smart home, smart city, smart government

Network Layer

Wireless and Wired Networks including Access points

Perception Layer

RFIDs, Wireless Sensor Networks, Surveillance Camera

Figure 1.3: Generic architecture of IoT

remotely. When such innovations hit the market, they spark competition, driving the
development of improved solutions based on user feedback. This cycle of innovation in
response to IoT advancements contributes to the continuous progression of technology
[37].

1.4 IoT Architecture

Architecture refers to a structured framework depicting the tangible components of a net-
work, their operational arrangement and setup, underlying principles and structures, as well
as the manner in which data is organized and utilized within its functioning. IoT architec-
ture comprises a collection of devices, sensors, actuators, end users, cloud services, and most
importantly, various communication layers and IoT protocols. All IoT systems inherently
follow the generic three-layer architecture. However, based on necessities or specific applica-
tion requirements, the generic model can be modified by adding extra layers, thus forming
four- or five-layer architectures [4].
The IoT architecture can be divided in two ways: (1) layered architecture and (2) domain-
specific architecture. In this section, we have presented a generic architecture of IoT. IoT
follows a layered architecture, which refers to the structured framework used to design and
organize the various components and functions of an IoT system. This architecture is com-
posed of multiple layers, each with its own specific role and responsibilities, allowing for
efficient communication, data processing, and management within the IoT ecosystem. The
typical layers in the IoT architecture include the perception layer, network layer, and appli-
cation layer. These layers collaborate to ensure the smooth operation of IoT devices, data
transmission, and the provision of IoT services to end users.

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According to this generalized architecture, also known as the three-layer architecture, the
IoT system is divided into three layers [61], namely (i) the application layer, (ii) the network
layer, and (iii) the perception layer. Every one of these layers possesses inherent security
challenges [62]. A visual representation of the generic three-layer architecture is featured in
Fig. 1.3. The details are described below.

1. Perception Layer : The perception layer, also known as the sensor layer, is the founda-
tional layer of IoT architecture [61]. This layer engages with smart devices, including
but not limited to smartwatches and smart rings, employing an array of sensors and
actuators. The principal objective of this layer pertains to the collection of data from
these intelligent devices via sensors, subsequently transmitting the acquired data to
the upper layer known as the network layer.

2. Network Layer : The network layer, also known as the transmission layer, is the middle
layer of the IoT architecture [63]. This layer is responsible for receiving the information
passed from the perception layer and determining the routes to transmit the processed
data to various connected IoT devices and applications using integrated networks such
as wired or wireless secure connections. The network layer is the core layer of the IoT
three-layer architecture, as it uses various devices such as routing devices, gateways,
switches, and hubs and operates them by using various communication technologies
such as WiFi, Bluetooth, 3G, LTE, Zigbee, etc. In summary, the network layer is
responsible for transmitting data to and from several applications through interfaces
and gateways using multiple communication technologies and protocols.

3. Application Layer : Serving as the uppermost tier within the IoT architecture, denoted
as the application layer or business layer, as referenced in [58], this layer is tasked with
the aggregation of data from the network layer, thereby striving to attain the objective
of establishing a smart environment, the ultimate aim of the IoT paradigm. This
layer accommodates a diverse array of applications, each characterized by their own
requirements. Examples of such applications are smart grids, smart cities, and smart
transportation, as elaborated in [62]. Moreover, this layer assumes the responsibility of
upholding the data’s authenticity, integrity, and confidentiality, as elaborated in [64].

The three-layer architecture is the generalized and most common architecture, and several
systems have integrated this architecture [64]. Although this multi-layer architecture seems
simple at first glance, the functionalities of the network and application layers might get
complex at times. For example, the network layer is not only responsible for data trans-
mission but also provides data services such as data aggregation and processing, etc. On
the other hand, the application layer is not solely responsible for providing service to cus-
tomers and users but also provides data analysis, conducts data mining, etc. Therefore, in
response to specific requirements, additional layers have been incorporated, building upon
the fundamental layers. For instance, the four-layered or five-layered architectures enhance
the system’s flexibility. Nonetheless, the three-layer architecture serves as the foundation
for all these variations. Furthermore, new-generation applications require shorter response
times and low energy consumption as IoT devices have limited capacity [65, 66]. Therefore,
researchers have utilized fog and cloud layers, which are visualized in Fig. 1.4.

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Ananna et al. Revised on January 12, 2023

Cloud
Layer Data Centers

Fog
Fog nodes
Layer

Healthcare
Traffic
End agriculture Smart devices
Devices
City Grid Industry

Figure 1.4: Visual representation of Fog vs Cloud

1.5 Key Technologies of IoT

IoT requires a variety of technologies to operate, which are deployed in various layers of
an IoT architecture, and there are many different sorts of technologies, including hardware
technology, software technology, and, most crucially, communication technology. This section
discusses crucial IoT technologies that are used to ensure the successful operation of an IoT
system. Fig. 1.5 depicts the taxonomy of IoT technologies.

IoT Technology

Wireless
Hardware platforms Cloud Solutions Hardware & Software
Communication

Long-range Short-range Emerging NFC M2M V2V Hardware

Mobile
LPWAN RFID
Communication

Licensed Unlicensed

Figure 1.5: Technology Taxonomy of IoT

1.5.1 Hardware Platforms

The major components of an IoT system are devices attached to sensors or wearable devices
that are used for data collection. Therefore, various types of hardware platforms are used in
order to build these sensor devices. Several key points need to be considered before selecting

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Table 1.2: Comparison between popular short-range technologies based on various parame-
ters.
OWC
Parameters Bluetooth ZigBee LR-WPAN Wi-Fi
VLC BS-ILC
IEEE 802.11a/b/c/ IEEE 802.15.7m
Standard IEEE 802.15.1 IEEE 802.15.4 IEEE 802.15.4 LoRaWAN
d/g/n/ac/ah IEEE 802.15.13
Mainly at 2.4 GHz a: 5GHz, b: 2.4GHz, Varies by region,
868/915 MHz,
Frequency Band 1MHz - 2.48GHz Optionally 868MHz g: 2.4GHz, n: 2.4GHz 400-800 THz Europe: 868 MHz
2.4 GHz
or 915MHz 802.11ah: 1/2/16MHz USA: 915 MHz
a: 54Mbps, b: 11Mbps,
15.13: multi gigabit
Data Rate 1Mbps - 3 Mbps 20kbps to 250kbps 40-250 kbps g: 54Mbps, ah: 300Mbps 100Gbps
Recent: 100 Gbps
n: 600Mbps, ac: 7Gbps
Typically, within a room
Classic: 100m
Transmission range 10-100 meters 10-100 meters 100m to 1km 7m: 200 meters 200 meters
BLE: 240m
15.13: Several meters
Classic: High Transmitters: Moderate
Energy consumption Low Low Moderate to high Very low
BLE: Low Receivers:Minimal
Cost Cost-effective cost-effective Cost-effective moderate to high moderate to high Cost-effective
FHSS, FDMA CSMA/CA,
RA protocol CSMA/CA CSMA/CA CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA LBT
TDMA based polling TDMA/CDMA
GFSK, DQPSK,
Modulation type BPSK/O-QPSK BPSK/O-QPSK BPSK/QPSK/QAM OOK/PPM/OFDM CSS
π/4-DQPSK

the hardware platforms, such as the purpose of the IoT device or the type of connectivity it
requires.
The two most accessible and popular hardware platforms are the Raspberry Pi and
Arduino. Both of them have strong data acquisition, processing, and storage capabilities
and provide both wireless and wired connectivity. However, in terms of power management,
Arduino is superior to Raspberry Pi because Raspberry Pi does not contain sleep or suspend
modes for power utilization, while Arduino does [67]. Intel Galileo Gen and Intel Edison are
examples of using an Arduino IDE.

1.5.2 Wireless Communication Technology

Given the vast number of devices in the current IoT network and the expectation of diverse
connected devices in future IoT applications, there’s an urge to develop various technologies
to facilitate their connectivity. This subsection explores the existing wireless technologies
designed for IoT connectivity and categorizes them into three groups.

Short-Range Technologies
Short-range technologies are commonly used in IoT applications to enable communication
between devices within a limited proximity. These technologies are well-suited for scenarios
where devices need to exchange data within a small coverage area, typically spanning from
a few meters to a few kilometers. There are several short-range technologies, each with
unique characteristics and advantages suited for specific purposes. Table 1.2 provides a
comprehensive overview of various short-range technologies used in the IoT environment,
categorized based on various parameters such as frequency band, data rate, transmission
range, and more. The table summarizes the technical specifications of Bluetooth, ZigBee,
Wi-Fi, LR-WPAN, VLC, and BS-ILC [68, 32].

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 Ananna et al.
Table 1.3: Comparison between popular long-range technologies based on various parameters.
Mobile Communication Technology LPWAN TECHNOLOGIES
Technologies
UNLICENSED LPWAN LICENSED LPWAN
Parameters 2G 3G 4G 5G WiMax
LoRa Sigfox LTE-M NB-IoT
5G NR,
UMTS, LTE, LTE-A, Proprietary
Standard GSM, CDMA Wi-Fi 6 IEEE 802.16 LoRaWAN R1.0 3GPP LTE 3GPP LTE
CDMA2000 IEEE 802.16 technology
(802.11ax)
850MHz,
850MHz, 700MHz, 2.3GHz, Unlicensed ISM
900MHz, 60MHz - Unlicensed ISM Licensed LTE Licensed LTE
Frequency band 1900MHz, 1700/2100MHz, 2.5GHz, bands, 125kHz,
1800MHz, 80GHz bands, 100Hz bands, 1.4MHz bands, 200kHz
2100MHz 2500MHz 3.5GHz 250kHz
1900MHz
1Gbps -
9Kbps - 384Kbps - 100Mbps - 16d: 75Mbps 0.3Kbps - 100bps - 300bps - 200bps -
18

Data rate 20Gbps or

384Kbps several Mbps 1Gbps 16e: 1Gbps 50Kbps 600bps 1Mbps 250kbps
higher
several several several several several Urban: 5km Urban: 10km Urban: 1km several
Transmission range
kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers kilometers Rural: 20km Rural: 50km Rural: 10km kilometers
Moderate Low (Energy-
Energy consumtion low Moderate high Extremely low Low Moderate Low
to high efficient)
TDMA/ Massive MIMO/
CDMA/ OFDMA/ OFDMA/ ALOHA/
RA protocol CDMA/ beamforming/ ALOHA Slotted-ALOHA Slotted-ALOHA
WCDMA SC-FDMA TDD/FDD Slotted-ALOHA
FDMA CP-OFDM
OFDM/QPSK/ OFDM, QPSK,
QPSK/QAM/
Modulation type GMSK/QPSK QPSK/16-QAM 16-QAM/64-QAM/ 256-QAM 16-QAM, CSS GFSK/DBPSK QPSK/BPSK

Revised on January 12, 2023

BPSK
256-QAM 64-QAM
Depends on
Cost Cost-effective Moderate high high high Cost-effective subscription Moderate to high Moderate to high
model
Ananna et al. Revised on January 12, 2023

Bluetooth, ZigBee, LR-WPAN, and BS-ILC offer cost-effective communication solutions,

whereas the overall cost of Wi-Fi and VLC may vary depending on usage. In terms of
frequency bands, most technologies operate around 2.4 GHz, except for VLC, which utilizes
a much larger frequency band. The frequency of BS-ILC varies by region. VLC and BS-
ILC prioritize achieving high transmission rates of approximately 100 Gbps, while Wi-Fi
transmission rates can vary across different standards. Notably, VLC and BS-ILC exhibit
very low energy consumption, as indicated in the table.

Long Range Technologies

Long-range technologies are designed to transmit data or signals over considerable distances,
typically much farther than short-range technologies like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. Long-range
technologies are commonly used in various applications, such as long-distance wireless com-
munication, remote monitoring, tracking, and more, and are essential for scenarios where
data needs to be transmitted reliably over extensive geographical areas. These technologies
can be classified into two main categories: mobile communication technology and LPWAN
technologies. Table 1.3 presents a detailed overview of various long-range technologies uti-
lized in the IoT environment. It provides a summary of the technical specifications for var-
ious versions of mobile communication technologies as well as different versions of LPWAN
technologies.
It is evident from the table that when it comes to mobile communication technologies,
2G, 3G, and 4G operate within a frequency band ranging from approximately 850MHz to
2100MHz, while 5G utilizes a much broader frequency band of up to 80GHz. Additionally,
of all five technological variations, 5G offers the highest data rate, exceeding 20Gbps. In
terms of energy efficiency, both 2G and 5G have low consumption rates, whereas WiMax
exhibits high energy consumption. However, it is worth noting that 3G, 4G, and 5G all
come with higher implementation costs. In the UNLICENSED LPWAN category, the top
contenders are LoRa and Sigfox, while the most promising options in the LICENSED LP-
WAN technology are LTE-M (Long-Term Evolution for Machines) and NB-IoT (Narrowband
IoT). The key distinction highlighted in the table is that UNLICENSED LPWAN technology
operates within unlicensed spectrum resources, leading to lower deployment costs, whereas
LICENSED LPWAN technology relies on licensed spectrum resources, resulting in relatively
higher expenses for both devices and deployment [68].

Emerging For Massive Connectivity

While current wireless IoT technologies have achieved some success in supporting various IoT
applications, they still face challenges in meeting the future demands of IoT. For example,
handling the connectivity among a vast number of IoT devices with a limited transmission
payload and several random access protocols used by existing technologies often results in
significant problems such as frequent access collisions, increased delays, and a high amount
of signaling overhead for IoT devices. Furthermore, the constrained availability of wireless
resources for connecting IoT devices creates shortages and inefficient utilization of these
resources. Hence, there have been numerous ongoing initiatives to tackle the limitations of
current technologies. Among these, the solutions CS, NOMA, mMIMO, and ML stand out
as the most promising [68].
These emerging technologies offer the capability not only to support massive connectivity

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but also to deliver high reliability and low-latency transmissions. However, it is essential to
acknowledge that there are existing issues and constraints that must be resolved for their
effective implementation. It is anticipated that the development of even more advanced
technologies will address critical IoT challenges. Simultaneously, efforts should focus on
intelligently integrating existing and emerging technologies to unlock their full potential and
optimize system performance [68].

1.5.3 Cloud Solutions

IoT cloud solutions offer various services like real-time data collection, data transmission,
monitoring, data analytics, improved decision-making, and device management. These ser-
vices are available on a pay-as-you-use basis, allowing users to pay only for the services they
actually use. Cloud platforms can be integrated into numerous domains, including health-
care, smart cities, agriculture, education, and supply chain management. For simplicity,
Table 1.4 presents several popular platforms in the agriculture domain [32].

Table 1.4: Popular IoT cloud solutions in agriculture domain

IoT Cloud Real-time Data Cloud Data Developer
Provider
platform Data Capture Visualization Service Type Analytics Cost
ThingSpeak MathWorks Yes Yes (Matlab) Public Yes Free
Plotly
Plotly Yes Yes Public Yes Free
Technologies Inc.
Limited up to:
Carriots Altair Yes Yes Private No
10 devices
Exosite Exosite Yes Yes IoTSaaS Yes 2 devices
Limited up to:
GroveStreams 20 stream,
GroveStreams Yes Yes Private Yes
LLC 10K transaction,
5 SMS, 500 Email
ThingWorx PTC Yes Yes Private Yes Pay per use
Nimbits Open-source Yes Yes Hybrid No Free

1.5.4 Hardware and Software Technology

This category encompasses a range of hardware and software technologies responsible for
different aspects of IoT communication channels. Several technologies, such as NFC and
M2M, are considered both hardware and software technologies, whereas RFID is classified
as a hardware-only technology. The subsequent sections will provide brief insights into these
technologies.

RFID
RFID is a technology that consists of one or more readers and several RFID tags. These
tags are small microchips, have unique codes, and can be on items like products in a store or
even access cards. When an RFID reader device sends out electromagnetic radio waves, the
tags respond with their unique Electronic Product Codes (EPCs) [69]. The reader captures
these codes and sends them to a computer, which can then figure out what the tags belong

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to. This technology is used in various ways, like keeping track of inventory in stores, allowing
access to secure areas, or monitoring packages as they move through the delivery process.

Near Field Communication (NFC)

NFC, an extension of RFID technology, is a short-range wireless connectivity technology
that uses magnetic field induction to establish communication between devices when they
are brought within close proximity of each other without the need for prior connection
establishment. NFC chips are equipped in most modern phones, supporting applications
like Apple Pay and Google Pay. NFC operates in the unlicensed radio frequency band at
13.56MHz. Its typical range is about 20 meters, with the actual distance often determined
by the size of the antenna in the device. It is expected that NFC technology will play a vital
role in the future of IoT by providing a wireless connection tool to link with other smart
objects. For instance, using NFC on a mobile device, a user can transform their phone into
various objects, such as using it as a credit card for transactions [69].

M2M
M2M communication is gaining popularity and involves direct communication between com-
puters, embedded processors, smart sensors, actuators, and mobile devices. It comprises
four main components: sensing, heterogeneous access, information processing, and appli-
cations and processing. In practical terms, M2M functions within a five-part framework: a
device for responding to requests, gateways to interact and connect, an area network for pro-
viding connectivity between devices and gateways, applications serving as middleware, and
a communication network to facilitate communication between gateways and applications.
M2M technology is applied across various sectors, including healthcare, smart robotics, cy-
ber transportation systems (CTS), manufacturing systems, smart home technologies, and
smart grids [69].

Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communications (V2V)

V2V Communications treats each vehicle as a node and enables wireless data exchange (om-
nidirectional) between vehicles regarding their speed, location, and more. Vehicles equipped
with appropriate software, often referred to as safety applications, can use messages from
nearby vehicles to detect potential collision risks in real-time. There are two types of com-
munication within this network: one is between vehicles, and the other involves road infras-
tructure. However, the structure or arrangement of this communication is flexible as vehicles
move from one location to another. This network can be divided into four main categories:
safety and collision avoidance, traffic infrastructure management, vehicle telematics, and
entertainment services with Internet connectivity [69].

1.6 Applications of IoT

IoT has been effectively integrated into various domains, leading to the development of
intelligent applications. While some of these applications are already available, others are
still in the research phase. Nevertheless, the essence of these applications indicates that IoT
is set to enhance people’s lives by providing convenience and flexibility. The following section

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has categorized and provided brief descriptions of the areas where IoT integration has been
implemented or proposed.

1.6.1 Smart Cities

The concept of smart cities can be seen as a complex IoT paradigm where the management
of public affairs incorporates the introduction of information and communication technology
(ICT) solutions [70]. A smart city utilizes public resources to digitize the city and enhance
the quality of life. A real-world example of a smart city implementation is “Padova Smart
City”, which has been put into practice in the city of Padova, Italy [71]. Barcelona and
Stockholm are two noteworthy examples of smart cities. Barcelona has embarked on the
CityOS project, with the primary goal of creating a centralized operating system to manage
all the smart devices and services available within the city. Their focus has predominantly
been on enhancing smart transportation and water systems. Similarly, Stockholm has also
placed significant emphasis on these two domains and holds the distinction of being one
of the pioneering cities to implement the concept of congestion charges, wherein users are
imposed fees for entering congested areas [4]. In addition, Table 1.5 summarizes related
research works in this domain.

Table 1.5: Relevant applications in different Smart Cities domain

Applications Related Works Applications Related Works

Structural health of buildings [72, 70] Waste management [70]
Air quality and noise Smart Transport and
[73, 74] [4, 75, 76, 77, 78]
monitoring Traffic congestion
Smart grid [79, 80] Smart water systems [81, 4]

Structural Health of Buildings

This service involves continuous monitoring of areas prone to various external factors and
measuring the health of any building. IoT sensors connected to the buildings can store
information about the building’s strength, which will help analyze how sturdy the building
is or if it requires any refinement [72]. Depending on the usage, one can employ various
kinds of sensors, including those for tracking vibrations to measure the stress on the building,
temperature and humidity sensors, or other types of atmospheric sensors to assess the level
of pollution in an area [70]. Employing IoT in this area can reduce manual labor, where
humans have to manually assess the building’s health and environmental conditions, and it
can also reduce the overall cost to a great extent.

Waste Management
Waste management is a crucial operation in any city, whether it is considered a smart city
or not, as it directly impacts the livability of the area. Thus, an efficient waste management
system is essential for any society. Integrating the IoT into waste management offers multiple
benefits. It enables the detection of waste levels and real-time tracking of garbage truck
routes, leading to more efficient route planning. Moreover, it can streamline the manual labor
involved in waste separation and monitor the disposal process. Sensors on garbage vehicles

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Ananna et al. Revised on January 12, 2023

connected to a central software system achieve these tasks by analyzing and controlling the
system based on the data collected [70]. This approach reduces the cost of manual processes
and enhances recycling management.

Air Quality and Noise Monitoring

Creating a healthy and safe environment for all living beings is crucial, and monitoring air
quality and noise levels in any area is a key part of achieving this goal. Various environ-
mental sensors, including soil sensors, temperature and humidity sensors, and gas sensors,
can detect the presence of toxic and pollutant substances in the air and assess pollution
levels. This information enables local authorities to control pollution, implement effective
measures to reduce pollutant levels, identify highly polluted or toxic areas, and designate
suitable locations for outdoor activities with good air quality [73, 74]. Likewise, it is essen-
tial to maintain a balanced noise level for all living beings in society, including humans and
animals. Using noise sensors to measure decibel levels, the central authority can collect data
to identify noisy areas and regulate noise levels to keep them within acceptable limits.

Smart Transport and Traffic Congestion

In today’s world, traffic congestion is a widespread issue affecting nearly every country and
city, particularly as more than half of the world’s population now resides in urban areas [4].
To tackle this issue, many cities have adopted IoT solutions to establish smart transportation
systems aimed at managing traffic congestion. These initiatives include smart traffic lights
[4] and smart parking system [77, 78], which collectively enhance transportation capacity
and improve safety and speed for travelers. The primary advantages of smart transportation
systems are reducing traffic congestion, ensuring hassle-free travel, and facilitating easy
parking. Moreover, these systems enable quicker responses in case of accidents and contribute
to accident reduction by effectively managing traffic flow [4]. These objectives are achieved
through the use of a variety of sensor technologies, including accelerometers for measuring
speed, RFIDs for vehicle identification, GPS sensors for location tracking, gyroscopes for
direction detection, and cameras for recording traffic patterns and vehicle movements. Some
real-world uses of these sensors can be seen in applications for managing and monitoring
traffic [4, 75], applications to ensure safety [76], and application for detecting accidents.

Smart grid
A traditional grid system is an electrical grid that includes transmission lines, transformers,
and various communication utilities responsible for delivering electricity from power plants
to homes or businesses. One significant limitation of the traditional grid is its one-way
communication, which prevents power plants from efficiently responding to increasing power
demands from consumers. To address this challenge, the smart grid establishes a two-
way communication system between utilities and consumers, which enables more effective
management of economic, sustainable, and secure power resources [79]. Integrating IoT into
grid systems enables equipping houses and businesses with smart meters that monitor energy
generation, storage, and consumption, and transmit this data to the smart grid.

Smart Water Systems

Water is one of the most critical natural resources, and its scarcity is a prevalent issue in

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many parts of the world. Therefore, implementing smart water systems is not a luxury but
a necessity. The primary role of smart water systems is to monitor, measure, and efficiently
distribute water usage. Hauber-Davidson and Idris have designed a notable model in this
field, the smart water metre [81]. These metres can detect water inflow and outflow and
identify any potential leaks. Additionally, smart water metres can utilize data from smart
river sensors and weather information to assist in flood prediction [4].

1.6.2 Medical and Healthcare

The healthcare sector has experienced remarkable advancements through the integration of
IoT, offering solutions to real-life healthcare challenges and enhancing people’s lifestyles.
Researchers have proposed various applications in healthcare that utilize wearable sensor
devices to monitor patients’ health, diagnose diseases, issue emergency alerts, and notify
users when necessary. Remote monitoring saves time for both patients and doctors while
reducing overall healthcare costs. Furthermore, sharing data collected from these wearable
devices with healthcare researchers contributes to the development of safer and more timely
healthcare solutions and aids in the discovery of cures and vaccines for emerging diseases.
This section explores several IoT applications in healthcare, and a summary of the associated
research papers is presented in Table 1.6.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Monitoring

An ECG measures the heart’s electrical signals and serves as an indicator of heart health,
aiding in the detection of conditions like arrhythmia, prolonged QT interval, and myocardial
ischemia. An interesting example would be Wu et al.’s ECG data monitoring system [82],
where a bipotential chip is utilized by attaching to the user’s t-shirt and transmitting data
to a smartphone via Bluetooth. Combining IoT systems with big data analytics enables
real-time ECG data monitoring.

Glucose Level Monitoring

Diabetes is a medical condition characterized by higher blood glucose levels than those
found in individuals without diabetes. Among various approaches to identifying diabetes,
the fingerstick method, involving a small pinprick to the fingertip followed by blood glucose
level measurement, remains the most commonly used diagnostic approach. The advent of
IoT technology has brought about improvements in this process, making it quicker and more

Table 1.6: Relevant works in medical and healthcare applications

Applications Related Works Applications Related Works
ECG Monitoring [82, 83] Glucose level monitoring [84, 85]
Temperature monitoring [86, 87] Blood pressure monitoring [88, 89]
Oxygen saturation monitoring [90, 91] Mood monitoring [92, 93]
Medication management [94, 95] Wheelchair management [96, 97]
Rehabilitation [98, 99] Fitness [100, 101]
[102, 103, 104, 105],
Other notable application
[106, 107, 108, 109]

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convenient for patients. Istepanian et al. [84] have introduced an IoT-integrated noninvasive
blood glucose monitoring device to continuously monitor glucose levels, eliminating the need
for fingerstick testing. It is worth noting that optical sensors, such as infrared LED and
near-infrared photodiode setups, have also been used for glucose level measurements.

Temperature Monitoring
Traditionally, temperature measurement methods involve using thermometers placed in the
mouth, ear, or rectum, but these methods often cause discomfort for the patient and pose
an elevated risk of infection. However, recent advancements in IoT-based temperature moni-
toring applications have effectively addressed these issues. For instance, authors in [86] have
introduced a 3D-printed wearable device designed to be inserted into the ear. This device
utilizes an infrared sensor to measure temperature from the tympanic membrane, ensuring
accuracy while remaining environment-independent.

Blood Pressure Monitoring

In many diagnostic processes, measuring blood pressure is a compulsory step. However, the
major issue with the traditional method is that it requires one person to record the blood
pressure. Therefore, the integration of IoT into blood pressure monitoring has been a blessing
for both doctors and patients. A wearable cuffless gadget [88], for example, is capable of
measuring both systolic and diastolic pressure, with the results stored in the cloud.

Oxygen Saturation Monitoring

Pulse oximetry, a highly beneficial noninvasive device for measuring oxygen saturation, ad-
dresses the limitations of traditional methods and allows for real-time monitoring. The
integration of IoT-based technology has led to significant advancements in pulse oximetry,
particularly in the healthcare industry. In a study [90], an advanced noninvasive pulse
oximetry system has been proposed, capable of measuring oxygen levels, heart rate, and
pulse parameters while transmitting this data to a central server.

Mood Monitoring
The integration of IoT into the mood monitoring domain offers numerous advantages. IoT
can detect a person’s mental state by analyzing heartbeats through wearable devices. Kaur
et al. [92] have proposed a wearable device capable of tracking a driver’s emotions, including
anger, stress, terror, and sadness. The intelligent system, by analyzing emotion variations,
determines whether the driver has entered a subconscious state and stops the vehicle’s DC
motor accordingly.

Medication Management
Adherence to medication schedules is vital but challenging for elderly individuals with mem-
ory issues. Fortunately, the integration of IoT offers a solution to this problem, and numerous
research efforts have explored using IoT to track patients’ medication compliance. In [94],
a medical box was created to remind individuals to take medications, featuring three trays
for different times of the day. The system also measures vital health parameters (i.e., blood
pressure, temperature, blood oxygen levels, etc.) and facilitates two-way communication
between patients and doctors through a mobile application.

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Wheelchair Management
Wheelchairs are vital tools in the lives of individuals who are physically unable to move
independently, providing both physiological assistance and psychological support. However,
for individuals with brain damage who lack the capability to operate a wheelchair, researchers
have been exploring the addition of navigation and tracking systems, with IoT playing a
crucial role in these wheelchair advancements. An advanced and automated smart wheelchair
was reported in a study [97], which not only monitors movement but also offers features
such as an umbrella, foot mat, head mat, and obstacle detection. These innovations have
significantly improved interaction with the living environment and enhanced the user’s overall
experience.

Rehabilitation System
The application of IoT in this field is versatile and has proven effective in various areas,
including cancer treatment, sports injury recovery, stroke rehabilitation, and addressing
physical disabilities. For instance, an innovative smart walker was introduced in a particular
study [98]. Doctors and caregivers can access the collected data through a mobile application,
facilitating better monitoring and support, as this walker utilizes a multi-modal sensor to
monitor the patient’s walking pattern.

Fitness
Regular physical activity and maintaining a high level of fitness significantly influence the
quality of an individual’s life. Developers have created various applications leveraging the
IoT to facilitate fitness monitoring and promote healthier lifestyles. These approaches in-
clude assessing users’ activity levels and revealing metrics, including the duration of physical
activity and periods of inactivity, by utilizing smartphone accelerometer data. Nowadays,
wearable fitness trackers are readily available in the market and have gained popularity as
convenient devices for monitoring fitness levels, for instance, smart mats to provide insights
into users’ workout routines [100] and fitness assessment and training load monitoring to
optimize athletes’ hydration strategies [101].

Other Notable Applications

The application of IoT in the healthcare industry is incredibly diverse, extending far beyond
the previously mentioned areas. There are numerous domains where IoT has already been
implemented and where its potential benefits are being realized, leading to a significant
increase in the adoption of healthcare IoT (HIoT) technology. For cancer treatment, IoT-
based methods, for example, have emerged as powerful tools. An innovative IoT-based
cancer treatment approach is introduced in a recent study that encompasses various stages,
including chemotherapy and radiotherapy [102]. Additionally, this system securely stores
lab test results on a cloud server, allowing physicians to monitor medication dosages and
enabling remote consultations through a dedicated mobile application. Furthermore, HIoT
has found applications in detecting skin lesions [103], with notable advancements in lung
cancer detection through state-of-the-art ML algorithms and IoT-based systems [104, 105,
106].
IoT has revolutionized the realm of surgical training and medical procedures by creating
next-generation solutions. One such development involves a surgical training framework that

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employs virtual reality to simulate realistic training environments. This framework also en-
ables interaction with surgeons from around the world, fostering collaborative learning and
expertise sharing [107]. Monitoring haemoglobin levels in the blood has become more acces-
sible through portable devices equipped with photoplethysmography sensors, light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), and photodiodes. These devices enable the non-invasive measurement of
haemoglobin levels, enhancing healthcare monitoring and diagnosis [109].
Numerous other HIoT applications are currently in use or under research, underscoring
the ongoing revolutionary impact of IoT in the field of healthcare. It is expected that the IoT
will continue to drive advancements and improvements in healthcare delivery and patient
outcomes.

1.6.3 Smart Agriculture and Environment

Agriculture holds a crucial position in a country’s economic progress. Various factors, in-
cluding soil moisture and environmental variables like carbon dioxide levels, temperature,
and humidity, can significantly impact crop yields. To enhance agricultural outcomes, it
becomes essential to implement robust surveillance systems in the fields. The integration of
the IoT enables efficient achievement of this goal. The following section has explored several
applications in this smart agricultural domain as well as a summary of the related research
work in Table 1.7.
Table 1.7: Relevant studies in smart agriculture and environment domain

Applications Related Works Applications Related Works

Water-saving irrigation [111, 112] Diseases Monitoring [113, 114]
Animal and plant life Intelligent agricultural
[115, 116] [117, 118]
information monitoring machinery
Agricultural product quality Crop growth environment
[119, 120] [121, 122]
safety and traceability monitoring

Water Saving Irrigation

Water scarcity in agriculture is a growing concern, necessitating a dynamic irrigation ap-
proach due to varying crop water requirements. IoT integration revolutionizes traditional
flood irrigation, offering a solution to water shortage problems in crop growth. Yang et al.
[111] have proposed an wireless sensor network based system leveraging neural networks for
water-efficient irrigation. This method enhances irrigation efficiency by minimizing human
intervention and reducing wastage due to excessive drainage.

Crop Growth Environment Monitoring

Various environmental factors, including temperature, humidity, air pressure, carbon dioxide
levels, soil temperature, and soil pH, play a crucial role in crop growth. IoT devices inte-
grated into agricultural systems can sense and analyze these environmental factors, enabling
remote field monitoring and the creation of an optimal farming environment tailored to these
variables. Lin et al. [114] have designed a wireless environmental monitoring system that
harnesses soil energy to enable cost-effective remote monitoring of farmland environments.

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Animal and Plant Life Information Monitoring

Effective agricultural production requires comprehensive monitoring of both plant and animal
information, which is crucial for enhancing production, increasing profitability, and ensuring
high-quality product development.

1. Animal Life Information Monitoring: Monitoring diverse aspects of animal behavior,

including their food consumption, body temperature, activity levels, and health status,
enables the tracking of their physiological and nutritional well-being, ensuring their
healthy development. In [115], the authors have proposed an infrared-based body
temperature measurement system for pigs, allowing the early detection of diseases.

2. Plant Life Information Monitoring: Wireless sensor devices, when connected to plants,
enable remote and continuous monitoring of both external factors (such as diseases,
pests, and leaf color) and internal factors (including chlorophyll content and photosyn-
thetic rate). This technology allows for early disease detection and promotes overall
healthy plant growth. Porto et al. [116] have introduced a citrus traceability system
that assesses environmental conditions for optimal growth, identifying and preventing
plant diseases to ensure robust citrus crop health.

Intelligent Agricultural Machinery

Intelligent machinery autonomously manages a wide range of agricultural operations, such
as cultivation, sowing, transplanting, fertilization, pesticide application, feeding, irrigation,
picking, and harvesting, all executed with precision and efficiency. Moreover, it has the
capability to gather a variety of data about the farm, including soil moisture and water
quality, as well as ambient information like temperature and humidity, which can be ef-
fectively harnessed to implement precision agriculture and enhance breeding practices [123].
IoT technology plays a key role in minimizing manual labor in agriculture by enabling remote
monitoring and standardizing machinery functions through sensors and wireless communi-
cation [123]. Sowjanya et al. have introduced a versatile autonomous robot vehicle in [117]
where the vehicle is equipped with Bluetooth technology for remote control and is capable
of independently executing a range of tasks including farming, seeding, and irrigation.

Agricultural Product Quality Safety and Traceability

IoT significantly improves agricultural product quality, safety, and traceability, particularly
in warehousing, logistics, and distribution, by enabling automatic identification, tracking,
and accurate tallying of products. Various countries have implemented real-time traceabil-
ity systems, such as the American, European, Swedish, Japanese, and Australian systems,
recognizing the crucial need for effective tracking in agriculture. Jiang et al. [119] developed
a comprehensive agricultural product safety traceability platform, facilitating real-time auto-
matic data collection, processing, and display to enhance traceability and reduce associated
tracking costs.

Diseases Monitoring
The integration of IoT for real-time and continuous monitoring offers farmers and relevant
authorities the capability to identify diseases at an early stage and implement preventive

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measures before they escalate. The farm’s environment plays a pivotal role in disease oc-
currence. For example, the framework introduced in [121] integrates various sensor devices
through wireless sensor networks for monitoring various environmental factors.

1.6.4 Smart Home (SH)

In a smart home, various types of sensors are strategically deployed, each with its own
specific function. Smart homes simplify daily tasks for users, proving especially beneficial
for those prone to forgetting routine actions like locking doors or turning off appliances. From
smart door locks to the maintenance of household items like coffee machines, heaters, and
smart bulbs, and even the use of surveillance cameras for enhanced security, smart homes
offer a wide range of possibilities. Furthermore, users can control these devices through
voice commands and remotely monitor their home equipment. Smart homes contribute to
improved energy efficiency by automatically turning off devices not in use and notifying
users of any unusual incidents. MavHome [5], for example, employs prediction algorithms
to perform various tasks in response to user-initiated events. As for energy conservation,
an intelligent home achieves it through the utilization of sensors and the context-aware
capabilities of IoT. Data gathered by these sensors is transmitted to a context aggregator,
which then forwards the data to a context-aware service engine. This engine analyzes the
data and determines appropriate actions. For instance, it may decide to turn off the air
conditioning if the temperature is too cold, shut off the gas supply in case of a detected leak,
or switch off the lights when there are no occupants at home [124].

1.6.5 Smart Manufacturing System (SMS)

With the development and evolution of IoT, industrial IoT, artificial intelligence, and cyber-
physical systems, many countries have opted to transform their manufacturing systems into
smart manufacturing systems. Through the integration of smart technologies, these systems
facilitate a rapid and extensive flow of data within and among manufacturing processes.
Equipped with this data and employing advanced information and communication tech-
nology, smart manufacturing systems possess the capability to swiftly respond to global
demands, efficiently utilise materials, energy, and labour resources, and deliver customised
products on time [125]. What sets the smart manufacturing model apart from other man-
ufacturing paradigms is its vision of the next generation of manufacturing with enhanced
capabilities [126]. These systems adapt to new circumstances by leveraging real-time infor-
mation for intelligent decision-making and by proactively predicting and preventing potential
failures.

1.6.6 Internet of Robotics Things (IoRT)

The Internet of Robotic Things is a concept that combines the principles of IoT and robotics.
IoRT represents an emerging technology that incorporates robots within an IoT ecosystem as
objects, enabling communication, collaboration, and automation. These robots seamlessly
integrate into smart environments, performing a wide range of tasks. These tasks span from

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personal activities within smart homes to applications in the healthcare industry. Further-
more, they extend to professional activities such as monitoring, delivery, and object control
within manufacturing industries or warehouses.

1.6.7 Oil and Gas Industry

The oil and gas industry, facing substantial costs and safety risks, embraces IoT-based remote
monitoring for real-time field equipment oversight and data-driven decision-making. These
solutions allow for the remote monitoring of field equipment, the analysis of field data,
collaborative data-driven decision-making, and the implementation of control commands
to optimize asset performance while mitigating health, safety, and environmental (HSE)
hazards [127]. Furthermore, IoT integration in the oil industry focuses on reducing human
labor, minimizing time wastage, and improving accuracy through automation, as exemplified
by Equinor’s well optimization system in the Bakken oil field [?]. By deploying IoT devices
and ML algorithms in around 50 wells, Equinor achieved a 33% increase in oil production
through optimized well operation and maintenance.

1.6.8 Smart Retail

The adoption of IoT in the retail industry has created a flexible environment that benefits
both customers and sellers. This shift allows the entire retail sector to migrate from offline
to online, enabling customers to independently conduct their shopping through self-service
while facilitating smooth interactions between retailers and their customers. Furthermore,
retailers can employ IoT technologies like RFID to monitor products and deploy sensors to
collect customer data, which they can then utilize for analyzing customer buying behavior
and enhancing business profitability [129, 130]. Additionally, customers have the option to
make payments through online transactions and monitor their orders using online services
[128].

1.6.9 Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

The IIoT holds significant potential, according to numerous market researchers, by serving
as an extension of the IoT specifically customized for the industrial sector and its applica-
tions. It empowers industries and enterprises to enhance and optimize their operations by
leveraging M2M communication, big data analytics, and ML. The scope of IIoT is exten-
sive, encompassing a wide array of connected industrial devices and systems. Connected
electric meters, wastewater systems, flow gauges, pipeline monitors, manufacturing robots,
and various other types of industrial equipment and devices are included in this list [131].
One notable application of IIoT is in the mining industry, where companies like CISCO have
implemented IIoT solutions to improve safety and efficiency in underground mines. These
solutions involve connecting people, tracking the locations of miners and vehicles, monitoring
vehicle statuses, and automating building controls.

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1.6.10 Social Life and Entertainment

Several applications have been developed to monitor and enhance human social activities,
in addition to work or professional activities, as social life and entertainment are integral
parts of a person’s life. Portable devices such as mobile phones and tablets possess sensing
capabilities and communication technologies that facilitate interactions between individuals.
Integrating IoT into an individual’s social life can contribute to emotion detection, com-
munity building, and emotional support. CircleSense [134] is an application that analyzes a
person’s social activities using various sensors to identify their social circle. It also tracks the
person’s location via location sensors and employs Bluetooth technology to identify people
in proximity. Camy, an artificial pet dog, expresses affection and empathy through the use
of effective computing technology. This technology analyzes multiple aspects of a person’s
behavior, such as facial expressions, speech, body gestures, hand movements, and sleep pat-
terns, to identify and appropriately respond to their emotions [135]. A Table 1.8 has been
provided for presenting information about relevant works in the aforementioned domains.

Table 1.8: Relevant works in other applications

Applications Related Works Applications Related Works

Social Life and Smart manufacturing
[134, 135] [125, 126]
Entertainment system
Internet of robotics things [137, 138] Oil and gas [127]
Smart Retail [129, 130] Industrial IoT [132, 133]
Smart home [5, 136]

1.7 Challenges and Future Directions

The remarkable position that IoT now occupies in today’s world was once only a dream a few
years ago. Today, IoT has captivated the entire globe and continues to extend its reach into
various domains. Nonetheless, IoT also grapples with numerous issues and challenges that
pose hurdles to its seamless implementation and expansion. This section offers an in-depth
exploration of the key challenges confronting the IoT.

1.7.1 Broad and Open Research Challenges

Broad and open research challenges refer to complex and critical challenges in the IoT
system that do not have any straightforward or predefined solutions. These challenges require
extensive research and exploration in order to propose efficient solutions. They are “broad”
in the sense that they encompass a wide range of related issues and considerations, and
they are “open” because they may not have clear-cut or definitive answers, leaving room for
ongoing research, experimentation, and discovery. This subsection provides a comprehensive
listing of challenges in the IoT domain.

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Building Intelligent Environments based on IoT Paradigm

Creating a smart environment requires a vast number of devices, sensors, and complementary
technologies to facilitate their interconnectivity. Managing this large volume of objects
constitutes the initial challenge in the realm of IoT and intelligent environments. Moreover,
the substantial task of collecting, storing, and conducting efficient analyses on enormous
amounts of data remains a significant concern and creates collision issues within the IoT
framework [139]. Handling massive amounts of devices and data in the IoT requires. One
approach is to employ decentralized systems instead of centralized ones, reducing the volume
of data sent to the cloud for processing. Techniques like data filtering, compression, and load
balancing can further minimize the size of the data. Utilizing IoT technologies with robust
device management and maintenance capabilities is also beneficial. Additionally, leveraging
big data technologies like Hadoop and Spark can efficiently handle the substantial IoT data
volumes. This holistic approach ensures readiness for the expanding IoT landscape.

Privacy and Security Challenges of IoT Applications

The heterogeneity of IoT devices and the diversity of various IoT applications result in
various security and privacy issues. People are primarily concerned about potential privacy
invasions and security threats when using these technological devices. More information is
provided below.

1. Security: Different layers of the IoT are vulnerable to various kinds of attacks based
on the technologies and protocols used in these layers. According to [140], IoT layers
including perception layer, network layer, and application layer face various security
attacks. As the major role of the perception layer is to collect data, the security
challenges in this layer focus on falsifying the data and destroying perception devices.
Attacks including Node Capture Attacks, Malicious code Injection Attacks, False Data
Injection Attacks, Replay Attacks, Cryptanalysis Attacks and Side Channel Attacks,
Eavesdropping and Interference, and Sleep Deprivation Attacks are faced by this layer
[140].
Since the basic function of network layer is to transmit collected data, particularly
using wireless technologies, security challenges in this layer revolve around the avail-
ability of network resources and the wireless network. Challenges at the Network
Layer encompass Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks, Spoofing Attacks, Sinkhole Attacks,
Wormhole Attacks, Man-in-the-Middle Attacks, Routing Information Attacks, Sybil
Attacks, and Unauthorized Access [140]. Application layer, which focuses on providing
user-requested services, challenges primarily revolve around software attacks, including
phishing attacks, malicious viruses/worms, malicious scripts [140].
It is imperative to propose secure, robust, and reliable authentication schemes to detect
and defend unauthorized access [141]. Virus detection techniques and script detection
techniques such as honeypot techniques, static code analysis, and dynamic action de-
tection must be implemented to defend against worms, viruses, and malicious scripts
bridging firewalls. Furthermore, introducing secured routing protocols is essential to
ensure secure routing.

2. Privacy: IoT devices continuously generate vast amounts of real-time data, which

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undergoes three main stages: (1) Data Collection, (2) Data Aggregation , and (3) Data
Mining and Analytics. While these processes enhance our lives by providing various
services, they also raise concerns about data privacy in the IoT. Privacy breaches in
IoT can have serious repercussions for both the IoT network and its users, including
financial losses, property damage, and even risks to human safety and security [140,
142].
For instance, consider the smart grid, where adversaries can readily seize control of the
smart metres, allowing them to access or manipulate the collected data. This could
potentially compromise the confidentiality and privacy of energy consumption data. By
using this altered data, utility providers may make inaccurate assessments of energy
supply and demand within the grid, resulting in erroneous energy dispatch decisions.
This, in turn, could lead to imbalances in energy supply and demand, potentially
causing widespread power outages. In the healthcare industry, if an adversary manages
to acquire a patient’s health data, they could manipulate medication prescriptions
or medical records, leading to significant health risks and potential insurance fraud.
Therefore, it is imperative to deploy privacy preservation schemes to prevent data
leakage and ensure that private data remains inaccessible to adversaries [140, 143].
There are three main groups for categorizing privacy-preserving mechanisms in the con-
text of IoT data processing: (i) privacy preservation during data collection, (ii) privacy
preservation during data aggregation, and (iii) privacy preservation during data mining
and analytics. While various techniques, such as encryption and key management, can
be applied to protect privacy in data collection, mining, and analytics, the majority of
efforts in IoT privacy preservation have focused on data aggregation. Data aggregation
involves processing relevant data in multiple locations, making it challenging to ensure
privacy using traditional encryption methods. As a result, researchers have developed
several privacy-preserving mechanisms specifically for data aggregation, which can be
categorized as follows:

(a) Anonymity-based privacy preservation, which employs techniques like K-anonymity,

L-diversity, and T-closeness to protect the privacy of identification information
during data aggregation.
(b) Encryption-based privacy preservation, which prevents adversaries from eaves-
dropping on data during aggregation by utilizing encryption techniques such
as homomorphic encryption, commitment mechanisms, secret sharing, and zero-
knowledge proofs [144, 145].
(c) Perturbation-based privacy preservation, where techniques such as data customiza-
tion, data sharing, and random noise injection perturb raw data to ensure privacy
during aggregation.

Among these, perturbation-based privacy-preserving schemes are popular in IoT due

to their direct operation on raw data. However, many of these perturbation-based
privacy-preserving schemes sacrifice data utility to achieve privacy. This reduction in
data utility can hinder the support of services requested by IoT applications. Therefore,
a significant challenge in the field of data privacy preservation in the IoT is designing

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schemes that strike a balance between privacy and data utility, making it a crucial
area for future research [21, 140]. In summary, safeguarding data privacy in the IoT is
crucial to preventing these adverse outcomes and maintaining the security and integrity
of both individuals and the IoT ecosystem.

Compatibility
Interconnecting devices from various vendors in an IoT network can pose monitoring and
management challenges. Different industries currently rely on a multitude of standards to
support their applications. Given the vast amounts of data, diverse device types, and the
presence of various entities, utilising standard interfaces becomes crucial. This importance
is amplified, especially for applications that need to accommodate both cross-organisational
collaborations and a wide array of system limitations. Addressing these issues requires all
industries to adhere to specific standards, but achieving such universal compliance can be a
daunting and impractical task.

Scalability
In the future, heterogeneous devices are expected to continuously join the ever-expanding
IoT network. As a result, as the number of devices increases, ensuring smooth connectivity,
effective data management, and overall system performance on a small scale becomes increas-
ingly challenging. Therefore, the scalability of IoT poses an ongoing challenge for the future
of this technology. To effectively address scalability challenges, it is essential to construct
a scalable architecture, utilizing technologies like modular components, load balancers, and
distributed systems.

Energy Efficiency
Small smart devices that comprise IoT systems often have limited battery power, which is
not easily replaceable. This limitation can lead to a global energy crisis and high power
consumption, as well as constraints on memory and processing capabilities. Consequently,
routing processes and compute-intensive applications may not run efficiently on these de-
vices. While some routing protocols do support low-power communication, they are still
in the early stages of development, and the constrained energy of smart devices may not
be sufficient to fully utilize these WSN routing protocols. To tackle these challenges ef-
fectively, it’s essential to emphasize the creation of low-power hardware and the adoption
of energy-efficient protocols like MQTT-SN or CoAP rather than relying on more power-
intensive alternatives such as HTTP. Additionally, harnessing over-the-air (OTA) firmware
updates can ensure devices remain optimized and bug-free, thus diminishing the necessity
for physical maintenance visits. Duty cycling, as another viable approach, aids in curbing
power consumption significantly.

Mobility Management
Mobility management in the IoT refers to the ability to handle devices that move within the
network seamlessly. It is a crucial aspect because many IoT devices are not stationary and
need to communicate as they change locations. The presence of mobile devices in IoT setups
can lead to challenges in how routing protocols and IoT networks work efficiently. The cur-

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rent methods used for devices that move, like in sensor networks, mobile adhoc networks, and
vehicular networks, can’t effectively handle the various problems related to routing because
these sensors have limited processing power and energy resources. To address these chal-
lenges, IoT systems employ various mobility management techniques and protocols, aiming
to provide reliable and seamless communication for mobile devices in the IoT ecosystem.

Cost of Maintenance and Services

The IoT network consists of a vast number of devices, utilizing various costly communication
technologies. This inevitably leads to increased maintenance and service costs for these
numerous devices and connections. Hence, a significant challenge lies in addressing this
issue by designing devices and sensors that demand minimal maintenance.

Internet Disconnection Problem

The disruption of internet connectivity, which is central to IoT operations, results in inferior
performance from IoT applications and a decline in service quality. Furthermore, restric-
tions on the number of devices that can concurrently interact with the base station limit
user access to these services. This issue is especially problematic in remote or unreliable
network settings, where sustaining a consistent internet connection proves challenging. Con-
sequently, addressing the problem of internet disconnections in IoT is imperative to maintain
the reliability and efficiency of IoT systems.

Processing, Analysis and Management of Data

The procedure for processing, analysing, and managing data is tremendously challenging
because of the heterogeneous nature of IoT devices and the large scale of data generation.
Currently, most systems utilize the centralized cloud-based systems for performing compu-
tationally intensive tasks and delivering data. However, an ongoing concern revolves around
the limitations of traditional cloud architectures when it comes to efficiently handling the
vast amounts of data generated and utilized by IoT-enabled devices. Additionally, these
architectures struggle to support the associated computational demands while also meeting
precise timing constraints. To address this challenge, most systems are currently relying on
existing solutions like mobile cloud computing and fog computing, both of which utilize edge
processing [146].

Other Challenges
In addition to the previously mentioned challenges, IoT technology faces several other issues.
The widespread adoption of IoT devices and technology, coupled with our increasingly reliant
lifestyles, has led to users becoming highly dependent on IoT applications. This reliance is
particularly critical in healthcare, where patients heavily depend on healthcare applications.
Moreover, IoT devices can sometimes unexpectedly interfere with human activities, result-
ing in unanticipated and autonomous behaviors. The IoT network introduces ambiguity,
making it challenging to distinguish between physical and virtual devices and even humans
due to the ease of transformation between these categories. Quality and traffic control have
become more complex due to the miniaturization and huge number of IoT devices. Manag-
ing unique identifications for each IoT device is also a growing concern. Furthermore, the
IoT goes beyond geographical boundaries, with applications like healthcare offering services

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internationally. Nations face challenges due to the global reach of IoT, as data generated
within their borders can be collected and transmitted to service providers located anywhere
in the world, giving rise to concerns regarding data privacy and jurisdiction. Addressing these
multifaceted challenges will require careful consideration and international collaboration to
ensure the effective and secure implementation of IoT technology.

1.7.2 Ethical Considerations

The term “ethical issue” pertains to a situation or quandary characterized by a clash of
moral principles, values, or ethical norms [147]. The realm of IoT confronts these ethical
quandaries, necessitating individuals or organizations to make challenging choices amidst
conflicting interests. These decisions frequently revolve around determining what is ethically
correct or incorrect. Figure 1.6 illustrates prevalent ethical dilemmas within the IoT domain.

Information
privacy
considerations

Information
rectification Information
and availability collection

Integrity of
Managing data
information

Figure 1.6: Ethical Issues in IoT

Adapted from [148], the following outlines the five main categories that divide the ethical
concerns related to IoT. The aim of putting forth these issues is to safeguard privacy rights
by regulating how organizations manage information generated by IoT devices. These ethical
standards, designed to establish guidelines for organizations, should also prompt individual
concerns regarding privacy, as they serve as legal safeguards to protect individuals.

1. Information privacy considerations: Organizations must handle the produced data

with both openness and transparency. Except in specific cases, they should offer choices
to individuals, allowing them not to disclose their identity or to use a pseudonym.

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2. Information collection: Organizations can gather requested data by implementing more

stringent criteria for acquiring ‘sensitive’ information. Conversely, they should specify
their approach to handling unsolicited information. In both situations, organizations
are required to delineate the circumstances surrounding the collection of this informa-
tion and provide prior notification to relevant parties.

3. Managing data: Organizations should specify the situations in which they might utilize
or share the information they have gathered. Under specific conditions, an organization
can employ personal data for direct marketing purposes. Nonetheless, they have the
option of disclosing it internationally, but before doing so, they must set the safeguards
that will be used to protect this information.

4. Integrity of information: Entities should gather and share precise, current, and com-
prehensive information. Reasonable precautions must be in place to prevent misuse,
interference, loss, and unauthorized access, changes, or disclosure.

5. Information rectification and availability: When requesting access to their informa-

tion, entities should clearly state their responsibilities for allowing access and making
corrections to the information they possess. This involves the obligation to grant ac-
cess and make necessary modifications, except in cases where a particular exception is
applicable.

1.7.3 Legal and Regulatory Issues

After identifying the challenges and ethical concerns, there is a need to consider the legal
aspects concerning the effectiveness of current laws in safeguarding users within this context.
The significance of this concern arises from the increasing blurring of the boundary between
the physical and virtual realms in IoT. The ensuing questions, depicted in Fig. 1.7, serve as
examples of the issues that require discussion, as referenced in [147].
Considering the challenges mentioned in Section 1.7, it is evident that IoT faces several
obstacles, including financial constraints, security vulnerabilities, and data privacy concerns,
which can have life-threatening implications, especially in healthcare data breaches. To
address these challenges effectively, a proactive approach involving extensive research is
crucial. This research should focus on identifying IoT’s specific issues, followed by the
implementation of robust technical solutions. Effective execution of this process will not
only ensure a secure IoT system but also encourage user trust in enrolling themselves within
the IoT network.
To mitigate ethical concerns, raising user awareness is essential, along with the integration
of self-adaptive security policies and dynamically modifiable policies during IoT application
development. The introduction of new laws and standards is also necessary, integrating
existing regulations like HIPPA, FIPPS, the Electronic Communication Privacy Act, and
others to comprehensively address security, privacy, and legal issues. Additionally, addressing
technical challenges involves the introduction of adaptable and new standards as well as
the implementation of standard address identification. Some examples of these technical
solutions include advanced encryption techniques, electronic signatures, the integration of

37
Springer Studies in Computational Intelligence

What are the consequences

in the event of an Internet
connection failure?
How can one address the issue
Who bears the responsibility or
of individuals who lack access 01 liability for maintaining the
to smart devices or the skills
security of IoT devices, routers,
to operate them? (Digital 10 02 and connections to the cloud?
divide)

Can one be certain that

What occurs when the unauthorized access to a
user decides to withdraw 09 03 home's internal network will
their participation? not occur due to hacking within
Legal and IoT services on the cloud side?
Regulatory
Are there situations in Issues What are the consequences
which it is inappropriate 08 04 when an IoT service provider
for IoT devices to gather encounters a period of
data? unavailability for essential
life-support devices?

To whom does the data 07

gathered by IoT devices 05 What are the consequences of an
belong? IoT device operating without the
06 explicit consent of its owner or
functioning in unintended manners,
What occurs if the vendor of an such as erroneously placing orders
IoT product ceases operations and or engaging in excessive vacuuming
discontinued product support? during unconventional hours?

Figure 1.7: Legal and Regulatory Issues of IoT

standard protocols, and regulations to limit third-party data usage. This holistic approach
aims to overcome the multifaceted challenges that the IoT faces.

1.8 Conclusions
The IoT has rapidly become an integral part of the 21st century, enhancing daily decision-
making and ushering in innovative consumer services like pay-as-you-use. The seamless
integration of smart devices and automation technologies has revolutionized every aspect
of our lives. However, amidst this technological marvel, we must acknowledge significant
concerns related to security, privacy, intellectual property rights, safety, and trust. These
concerns continue to demand further investigation. This chapter has provided a compre-
hensive overview of IoT for newcomers seeking to explore this domain and gain a thorough
understanding to make future contributions.The chapter covers fundamental IoT concepts,
historical development, architectures, advantages, and technology taxonomy. It explores
diverse applications in domains such as smart cities and healthcare while addressing chal-
lenges and providing possible future directions. This discussion serves as a solid foundation
for researchers interested in developing practical IoT projects or pioneering new theoretical
approaches within the IoT field, equipping them with a deep understanding of various as-
pects of IoT. This, in turn, provides a good ground for researchers who are interested in
designing realistic IoT projects or developing novel theoretical approaches in the IoT field
Ananna et al. Revised on January 12, 2023

by acquiring deep knowledge in different IoT aspects.

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