ETHICS (ADDITIONAL NOTES)

Other kinds of voluntariness

1. Positive and Negative Voluntariness

 Positive Voluntariness - referred to as “act of commission”

 Negative Voluntariness – referred to as “act of omission”

2. Actual, Virtual, Habitual and Interpretative Voluntariness

 Actual Voluntariness – present in the human act willed here and now.
 Virtual Voluntariness – the intention that has been made previously has a power or virtue that endures
even if forgotten.
 Habitual Voluntariness – human act done in harmony with but not as a result of a formerly elicited actual
intention.
 Interpretative Voluntariness – in the judgment of prudence and common sense voluntariness would be
present.

ACTIONS AND EMOTIONS

Emotions – that is to say feelings and intuitions – play a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make.
Most people do not realize how much their emotions direct their moral choices. But experts think it is impossible
to make any important moral judgments without emotions.

Inner-directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people to act ethically.

Outer-directed negative emotions, on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. For example, people often direct
anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted unethically. This discourages others from behaving the same
way.

Positive emotions like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they see another acting with
compassion or kindness, can prompt people to help others.

Emotions evoked by suffering, such as sympathy and empathy, often lead people to act ethically toward others.
Indeed, empathy is the central moral emotion that most commonly motivates prosocial activity such as altruism,
cooperation, and generosity.

So, while we may believe that our moral decisions are influenced most by our philosophy or religious values, in
truth our emotions play a significant role in our ethical decision-making.

One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moraldecisions is to follow the seven-step moral reasoning
model. These steps can serve as a guide in making choices of moral import.
1. STOP AND THINK – Before making any decisions, it is best to take a moment to think about the situation itself,
our place in it, and other surrounding factors which merit consideration, such as the people involved and the
potential effects of your decisions on them. This involves a step-back from the situation to make sure that you do
not act out of impulse.
2. CLARIFY GOALS – It is also necessary to clarify your shortterm and long-terms aims. One often decides on the
basis of what he/she wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat of the moment, short-term wants eclipse long
term- goals. Thus, you must determine if you are willing to sacrifice more important life goals to achieve your
short-term goals. If you, for example, are seeking retribution for harm caused by another person, you have to think
about the long-term consequence of revenge on your character in the long-run.
3. DETERMINE FACTS – Make sure you gather enough information before you make a choice. An intelligent choice
is one that is supported by verified facts. You must first make sure that what you know is enough to merit action.
Without verifying facts, you may regret your choice in the future once various aspects of the situation come to
light. Never make a choice on the basis of hearsay. Make sure your sources are credible and have integrity.
4. DEVELOP OPTIONS – Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to come up with alternative options
to exhaust all possible courses of action. Most of the time, the pressure of a situation may make you feel you have
less options that you think. Clear your mind and try to think of other creative ways of clarifying your motives and
implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.
5. CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES – Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the unethical choices bearing in
mind both your motives and potential consequences of your action. Think of long-term consequences and act in
accordance with the principles of justice and fairness. Consequences are historical realities that bear upon lives of
others. A decision turns something in your mind into reality. Make sure you do not regret the decision you have
conferred reality upon.
6. CHOOSE – Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try consulting others who may have knowledge or
experience of your situation. Find people with a virtuous character and compare your reasoning with your moral
analysis. Once you make up your mind, summon the will to do the right thing even if it is hard and seemingly
counterintuitive.
7. MONITOR AND MODIFY – Monitor what happens after your decision and have enough humility to modify your
action or behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way of admitting that you might have not thought out a
decision well enough. As you become more aware of the consequences of your actions, especially on the lives of
others, summon the strength and determination to make changes to rectify any shortcomings. Do not hesitate to
revise your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.
REFINEMENT OF EMOTIONS
• Ethics deals with emotions affecting behavior, it calls for refinement of emotions – it means that man is expected
to act not only of his mind and body but with his heart and soul.
•Filipinos refer to it as “kagandahan ng loob”, where it includes moral values as mapagmahal, maunawain, may
pakiramdam, etc.
IMPUTABILITY OF HUMAN ACT
Means that the person performing the act is liable for such an act because he assumes full responsibility and
accountability for his decisions.
THE ENDS OF HUMAN ACTS

End of the Act – natural termination of an activity.

End of the Doer – called the motive, the personal purpose intended by the person performing the act. -Either:

1. Proximate End or Remote End

 Proximate End - The purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish immediately by his actions.
Example: Satisfaction of Hunger
 Remote End - The purpose which the doer wishes to accomplish in a series of acts.
Example: Promotion of Health

2. Ultimate End - The purpose which is desired for its own sake and not because of something else.
The concept of End coincides with that of good. Aristotle says that “good” means either as:
1. Good as an end in itself
2. Good as a mean to another end
Kinds of Good
1. Essential and Accidental

 Essential Good – those that fit the natural needs of man

 Accidental Good – those that fit the wants of an individual

2. Real and Apparent

 Real Good – something which has an intrinsic value; called Value

Ex. Good acts and habits, work and leisure
  Apparent Good – actually an evil thing but is viewed as good under certain aspects.
Ex. Diseases, sadness, etc.

3. Perfect and Imperfect Good

 Perfect Good – has the fullness of qualities enabling it to fully satisfy human desire.
 Imperfect Good – possesses only certain qualities so that all does not fully satisfy human desire.

4. Perfective and Non-perfective Good

 Perfective Good – that which contributes to the integral perfection of a person.

Example Education, food, exercise
 Non-Perfective Good – those that contributes to the external appearance/convenience of a person.
Example Clothes, wealth, political power

The Greatest Good - in the language of Philosophers is SUMMUM BONUM. For Aristotle, the greatest good is
Happiness, the ultimate purpose of life.
As a Psychological State – Happiness is the feeling of contentment arising from the possession of God.
As a State of Being – It is the perfection arising from the possession of the good.