Educ.

601
(Educational Statistics)

STATISTICS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to answer the following questions:
1. What is statistics?
2. What are its concerns?
3. What are the types of statistics?
4. What are the types of inferential techniques?
5. When can you use parametric and nonparametric statistics?
6. What is the difference between parametric and nonparametric statistics?
7. what are the levels of measurement scales?
8. what are the symbols used in this course?

INTRODUCTION
What is statistics?
Statistics refers to a field of study in which quantitative data are collected, organized and
presented, analyzed and interpreted.
Statistics is a science. As a science, it deals with the:
 Collection of data
 Presentation of data
 Organization of data
 Analysis of data
 Interpretation of the result

Collection of data – this refers to the collection of data from which the investigator gets
information for his study.

Presentation of data – this refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs or charts so
that the reader will be able to get the clear picture of the various relationship presented to
him.

Organization of data - is the way to arrange the raw data in an understandable order.
Organizing data include classification, frequency distribution table, picture representation,
graphical representation, etc.

Analysis of data – it is the process of extracting relevant information from the given data.

Interpretation of data – it refers to the task of drawing conclusions from analyzed data.
What are the types of statistics?

The field of statistics may be divided into descriptive and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics is only concerned with summarizing values, describe group
characteristics of the data after gathering, classifying, and presenting of data. To do this, it
employs graphs, tables and frequency distributions, percentages, measures of central
tendency and position, and measures of variability. It does not need to generalize or make
conclusions. Whereas, Inferential Statistics is concerned with a higher order or critical
thinking and judgment. And it needs more complex mathematical procedures. It aim is to give
generalization, conclusion or information regarding large groups of data called the
population without necessarily dealing with each and every elements of these groups. It only
uses a small portion of the total set of data or only a representative portion called a sample to
give conclusions of generalizations regarding the entire population. To do this, it uses either
Parametric or nonparametric statistics. Parametric Statistics are inferential techniques
which make the following assumptions regarding the nature of the population from which the
observations or data are drawn:
1. The observations must be independent. This means that in choosing any element from
the population to be included in the sample, it must not affect the chances of other elements
for inclusion.
2. The population must be drawn from normally distributed populations. The crude way
of knowing that the distribution is normal is when the mean, the median, and the mode are all
equal (mean = median = mode). If we are going to draw the curve, we can produce a bell-
shaped curve which has an area of one and is symmetrical with respect to the x-axis.
3. If we analyze two groups of populations, these populations must have the same
variance and we call this as homosceclastic populations.
4. The variable must be measured in the interval or ratio scale, so that we can interpret
the results.

While the Non-Parametric Statistics make fewer and weaker assumptions like:
1. The observations must be independent and the variable has the underlying continuity.
2. The observations are measured in either the nominal or ordinal scales. To have a better
understanding on when to use the parametric and non-parametric statistics, please refer to the
table below:

Inferential Techniques Distribution Measurement

Parametric Statistics Normal Interval or Ratio Scale
Non – Parametric Statistics Unknown or any Distribution Nominal or Ordinal
 Collection, Organization and Presentation of Data

Objectives:
At the end of the session, the participants will be able to:
1. Distinguish a primary data from a secondary data.
2. Experience in understanding simple statistical work like collection, organization and
presentation of data.

Knowledge is power, Information is knowledge, and therefore, Information is power.

The ultimate goal of data collection is information generation. In statistics, history is very
important. We gather data because we would like to know what had happened in the past. We
use history (gather data) to help us decide or formulate a policy. Every bit of data that we
gather we gather from a source or sources in any method or procedure is crucial to a decision
made or to a policy formulated. Therefore, extra care and responsibility are the key words in
data handling; we may call this as data management. Data are measured quantitatively and/or
qualitatively.

Data Collection

The collection of data has three aspects, namely:

1. Importance of collecting data. Once a problem has been identified and defined by the
investigator/researcher, his first task is that of collecting the set of data relevant to the
purpose of his study. This set of data is collection of facts from which the researcher plans
and prepares with utmost care the methods with which he will collect a data. The success
and usefulness of the results of the study will depend much on the accuracy and reliability
of the data. No statistical treatment can make unreliable data correct. In such cases,
unreliable data merely become garbage – a file of waste. If used however, they become
misleading and spurious. In other words, the output depends on the input much in the same
way as in baking a cake. The quality of the cake depends more on the quality of the
ingredients used than in the instruments used as in mixing. Therefore, data gathering
aspect is very important and that this work entails the most effort and time not to mention
the expenses involved in the process.

2. Source of data. Data can be obtained from the principal sources, namely (1) the direct or
primary data, (2) the secondary source. The data which arise from the original
investigations such as observations, interviews, questionnaires, experiments and the like
from which numerical information not available from other sources are referred to as
primary data. Secondary sources, which include books, journals, records, reports, and
other publication, give rise to secondary data.

Generally, sources of data give a more accurate and reliable picture as they contain
detailed definition of terms, explanation and description of methods or procedure used limits
and delimitation, and the like. On the other hand, secondary sources contain vague, general
and at the same times chopped description of phenomena. They are also more likely subjected
to typographical errors.
3. Methods of collecting data. There are many ways of collecting data. The investigator
selects the method or adopts a combination of methods, which he believes will yield the
desired data relevant to the nature, kind and purposes of his study; the time factor; the cost;
and the population to be studied. What is to be considered foremost is the method, which
will yield accurate data in the shortest possible time at the minimal cost.

a. Data may be obtained by counting or measuring. When data are obtained by these
methods, we say that the data have been collected by observation. Examples of these would
include counting the number of births or deaths in a year, the number of members in some
families, number of students who obtained a certain score in a test, number of vehicles
registered as public utilities, number of retired teachers, number of engineers and carpenters
and the like.
Data, which had been furnished by persons in compliance with laws or ordinances
such as those on registration of births, marriage, death, public utility vehicles are also referred
to as data collected by the registration method. On the other hand, data collected by
measurement include those on height, weight, temperature, pressure, time, water and electric
consumption, and the like.

b. The interview or direct method as the term implies refers to obtaining data from
the respondents personally or in a face – to – face contact. To ensure the reliability of the
results, the interviewer or the data enumerator must be polite, kind and courteous to the
respondents; be careful not to bring his personal biases, prejudices or opinions to the
respondents, not argue on any matter with the respondents; be honest and objective in his
recordings of the responses; and bears in mind at all times the purposes, method and
significance of the study are the important part.
As long as the necessary precautions such as those enumerated above are observed
and that an interview guide is prepared carefully for the interviewer’s intelligent use, the data
obtained from interviews are accurate and reliable.

c. The questionnaire or indirect method is a cheaper method in collecting data and

by far the most widely used. A questionnaire consists of a sheet or more with a series of
questions to be answered or items to be checked by the respondents. The questionnaire is
usually accompanied by a cover letter explaining the purposes of the study, requesting for the
respondents’ cooperation and assuring them of the confidentiality of the responses.

Kinds of Data

Data may come into two forms, namely: qualitative and quantitative data. Data are
said to be qualitative if it involves the placing of an observation into one of a number of
descriptive categories in which measurement is not involved. On the other hand, if the
observation involves measurement such as height, weight, ratings and others, the data are said
to be quantitative. Quantitative data may be continuous or discrete set of number. When we
count the number of unemployed graduates, number of Filipinos working abroad, and the
like, we have a discrete set of data. We can say that counting or enumeration of things give
rise to discrete data while measurement results to continuous variables.
Organization of Data

Data collected by the investigator/researcher through any of the methods previously

discussed are referred to as row data. They are merely materials recorded in the tally of
worksheets or in the record book. Looking at these data at a glance would not bring out any
distinct picture as to their significant aspects. It is therefore, essential to arrange these data
into such form so that their salient features are brought into limelight. The following are some
ways of organizing the data collected:

a. Alphabetical arrangement. This kind of arrangement makes any item easy to

locate from among the many collected items.

b. Ranked form. This refers to arranging of the data in a numerical order either
from highest to lowest (descending order) or from lowest to the highest (ascending order). In
this arrangement, we will know who is on the top or on the bottom line.

c. Chronological arrangement. This refers to arrangement of data according to the

order of their occurrence, especially when data were gathered at different times or if the
researcher wants to see the trend of the progress.

Presentation of Data.

An effective presentation of data is necessary in any investigation. Data which have

been collected and organized well but not presented clearly would be of little use. In this
premise, there is really a need to effectively present the data so that the readers will have a
clear picture of various relationships.

There are three different ways of presenting data, namely; textual presentation,
tabular presentation, and graphical presentation.

a. Textual presentation. This presentation of data uses both text and figures to convey
statistical information. This is commonly found in statistical reports in magazines and
newspapers.

b. Tabular presentation. This method of presentation makes use of tables in which

classified data are arranged systematically and orderly by rows and columns with
headings and descriptions. The classification process is putting together similar items
from the mass of data that had been collected. The table presentation is brief, easy to
comprehend, and more convenient to the readers than the textual presentation.
 Example of Tabular Presentation

Table 1. Distribution of population by Age and Sex.

SEX
AGE (yr.) TOTAL
Male Female
1-9
10 - 18
19 - 27
28 – 36
37 and above

c. Graphical Presentation. This method of presenting data makes use of the graphs
which provides the reader with a picture of the significant relationship of the facts
presented. The graph can summarize and show visually what would have been
expressed in so many words in a clear and appealing way. So, busy executives who
have no more time to read can just glance at the graphical presentations of important
data and right there he will know what is happening to the company. The most
common graphs are bar graph and pie graph.

Measurement Scales

It is necessary to give attention to different levels of measurement especially when

contemplating the use of statistics. The measurement scale is an important factor in
determining the appropriate statistical methods to be used in analyzing the data of a particular
research study. It is classified into nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale, and ratio scale.

Nominal scale is the first and the lowest level of measurement. It is merely grouping or
classifying different objects into categories based upon some defined characteristics without
paying attention to order or arrangement. Following the identification of the various
categories, frequencies or the number of objects in each category are counted.

Properties of the nominal data as follows:

1. The data are mutually exclusive; (an object can belong to only one category).
2. The data categories have no logical order or arrangement. There are two ways of
classifying: The one-way classification and the two-way classification.

Example of one-way classification:

1. Classification of students according to college they are officially enrolled.
COLLEGE FREQUENCY
College of Arts and Sciences 50
College of Agriculture 115
College of Education 150
College of Engineering 45
Total 360
 2. Frequency Distribution of responses to a questionnaire.

CATEGORY OF RESPONSES FREQUENCY

Strongly Agree 50
Agree 30
Moderately Agree 20
Disagree 10
Strongly Disagree 10

In the two-way classification, an individual may be classified twice. For example,

the students can be classified as male and female under sex and at the same time, they can be
classified according to their responses to a questionnaire in terms of yes, neutral and no or
whatever their responses.

Example 1.
SEX YES NEUTRAL NO TOTAL
Male 20 10 30 60
Female 45 10 20 75
Total 65 20 50 135

The ordinal scale is the second level of measurement. In here, there is logical
ordering or arrangement of categories aside from categories being mutually exclusive. The
process of measurement is the same as the nominal scale where number of objects are
counted in each category. However, we can discern which is the highest or the lowest. For
example, rank in military organization, we know that the private<
corporal<sergeant<lieutenant etc. or the academic rank of faculty in college such as;
Instructor 1< Instructor 2 < Instructor 3 < Instructor 4 and etc.

Example
Rank Frequency
Private 20
Corporal 15
Sergeant 10
Lieutenant 5

The following are the properties of ordinal data:

1. Data categories are mutually exclusive.
2. Data categories have some logical orders.
3. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics
they possess.

Interval scale is the third higher level of measurement. It possesses all the properties
of the preceding scales with some additional properties. The additional property is the
difference between the various levels of categories on any part of the scale are equal.
 A common variable measured on an interval scale is temperature. The difference
between temperature 65 and 88 is regarded as the different between temperature 13 and 16. In
here zero is just another point on the scale. It does not mean that there is no temperature. In
fact, this is the freezing point of water.

The properties of interval data are as follows:

1. Data categories are mutually exclusive.
2. Data categories have some logical orders.
3. Data categories are scaled according to the amount of the particular characteristics
they possess.
4. Equal difference in the characteristics are represented by equal difference in the
numbers assigned to the categories.
5. The point zero is just another point in the scale.

Ratio scale is the highest level of measurement. All properties of the interval scale
are applicable in the ratio scale plus one additional property which is known as the “true zero
point” which reflects the absence of the characteristics measured.

Example, if the teacher in statistics give a quiz and certain student got zero, it means that
the student got no correct answer (score = 0).

In summary:

 The nominal scale categories without order.

 The ordinal scale categories with order.
 The interval scale categories with order and established an equal unit in the
scale.
 The ratio scale categories with order, established an equal unit in the scale,
and contain a true zero point.
Simple Techniques in Sampling

Objectives:

At the end of the session, the participants should be able to:

1. Differentiate probability sampling from non-probability sampling.

2. Identify the kinds of sampling techniques.
3. Use sampling technique in a given situation.
4. Get right sample size of a given population.

In many fields of investigation, the principal objective is to gather facts of interest.

The basic facts often concern a very large group of units comprising the total units under
investigation known as population. The method of gathering the facts of interest on every
possible to get timely accurate and economical data by the use of census. In which case,
where the census method is applicable, it is often difficult to investigate the population
because the number of unit is too large. However, a method had been developed which
widely used nowadays to get the needed facts most economically and at the opportune time.
This method is known as sampling.

Sampling is the process of selecting a part (called a sample) from a given whole
(referred to as population) with the ultimate goal of making generalization obtained from the
sample. The primary concern of the process is how to select a sample and utilize the
information derived that would allow us to be able to make “useful” generalization about the
unknown characteristics such as timeless (getting the information when we need it), economy
(affordability), and accuracy (how close the generalizations are to the unknown population
characteristics).

Reasons for sampling

The reason for sampling is that the researcher can gain accurate knowledge about a
population by measuring only a portion or sample of it. Besides, it may be impossible or
impractical to include the total number of cases. However, there may be situations where
complete enumeration is possible. Here are some reasons for sampling:

 Economy. Obviously, studying fewer unit require lesser cost.

 Timeliness. With fewer observations in the data set, the time that will be spent
from collection, processing, and interpretation is shorter. Hence, getting results
much quicker.

 Wider scope and coverage. Most of the time one desires several information
from a single unit of the population. With complete enumeration, the number of
data items to be included is limited by the cost and perhaps by time. When
dealing with fewer observations, one can possibly take several measurements and
thus test several concepts at any given time.
  When the process of making observations is more destructive.

Sampling techniques

There are basically two methods or drawings sample from a given population. These are
probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is one where in
every element of the population has a known chance of being included in the sample and the
probability that any specified unit of the population is included in the sample is governed by
this known chance. The likelihood of inclusion is operationalized by the use of randomizing
mechanism (e.g. a device that is used to generate a random number) and the assigned
probability that the unit is specified. In any situation (particularly for finite populations) this
method of sampling requires a listing of the population units and assigning unique label or
identifier (positive integer-usually counting numbers) to each one. Such a listing is referred
to as sampling frame or simply a frame. Ordinary, probability sampling may be more costly
and difficult to carry out (as the possibility of enumerating hard to reach units is a distinct
possibility. However, this procedure allows an objective assessment of accuracy. If done
properly, such assessment may be made using sample data and even without having to make
strong assumptions about how the sample is linked with the population.

• Simple random sampling (SRS). When one wants to be able to generalize as to the
whole population from which the sample is drawn, or if the population is not scattered, this
is, it is more or less homogeneous with respect to the characteristics under investigation and a
good frame is available or can easily be constructed, then simple random sampling may be
used. This is the simplest kind of probability sampling. SRS is considered as the most basic
of all probability sampling techniques. In fact, all other probability sampling techniques can
be considered as modifications of SRS catering of some real situations. One advantage of
this method is the ease in subjecting sample data to further statistical analysis. However,
such procedures may not be practical to implement especially for large population due to the
absence of good quality sampling frame in the possibility that the selected units may be
extremely scattered thus making it doubly difficult to implement.

There are several ways of drawing n by simple random sampling, they are:
a. Lottery sampling this is done by writing on a small piece of paper the names of
each member listed in the sampling frame which is numbered 1 to N. Then mix thoroughly in
a container and pick in units at random Lottery sampling is easy and simple if N is not very
large. But as N increases, Lottery sampling also becomes time consuming tedious.
b. Sampling through the table of random of numbers (TRN). In here, the
selection of n from N is purely by chance and again every member of the population has an
equal chance of being chosen.

There are two ways of using the table of Random Numbers, namely:

a. Direct selection method

-Applicable when there are only few sample units to be selected. The sample unit can be
selected from the table directly.
b. Remainder method
-This method is actually a combination with direct selection. Used when the number
obtained from the table of Random Numbers exceeds the digit in the sampling frame.

• Systematic sampling. This is another type of probability sampling used quite

frequently. It is very convenient if you are going to get sample from the files of
records in the office or from urban areas where household are close with each other.

Here, the population is divided into n groups with k members each. The researcher
should get one representative sample per group. The element in the population are first
assigned a number from 1 to N the sampling interval is then determined by taking the ratio of
N (size of the population) to the sampling size n (say k). Then, a random number is selected
from 1 to k called the random start. The unit assigned is this number is then included in the
sample and the kth unit thereafter.

Suppose a population consists of N = 300 member, numbered from 1 to 300 if you want
further to draw a sample of size 5 (n = 5). To get how many members (k) are there per group,
we have to use the formula.

K= N/n; substituting; K = 300/5 = 60 members each

So, the population N = 300 is divided into n groups (n= 5). Then draw one member
out of 60 members, first we pick any number 1 called a random start which is any number 1<
r <k so that in this case, we have 1<r < 60. So, we may prepare 60 pieces of paper and
number them 1 to 60. Get a pieces for a random start. Suppose no. 10 was drawn. So, the
length element in the sampling frame will automatically become the first unit of the sample.
(n). The members of n are as follows:

Units of the sample

1st = r = 10

2ND = r + k = 10 + = 70

3rd = r + 2k = 10 + 2(60) = 130

4th = r + 3k = 10 + 3(60) = 190

5th = r + 4k = 10 + 4(60) = 250

• Stratified random sampling. In this procedure, the researcher or analysts divides

the population into two or more non-overlapping groupings called strata on the
basis of one or more characteristics. Each stratum then is treated like a different
population, and a simple random sample is drawn from each. These subsamples
are then combined to form the total sample.

The Stratified random sampling may be used when it is known in advance that the
special segment of the population would not have enough persons in the sample if the simple
random sample were drawn.

We allocate n either equally or proportionately to each stratum.

a. For Equal Allocation. This involves taking the same number of units from each
stratum to make up the desired sample size n, hence,

ni = n/L = k

Where: k = number of elements per stratum

n = sample size
L = number of strata

Example 1. If a sample size n = 80 will be taken from the four strata, then:

n = 80
L = 4

Therefore:
ni = n/L=k

ni = 80/4 = 20

Hence, 20 units will be taken from each stratum to constitute the 80 sample elements
needed.

b. Proportionate allocation. Stratified sampling with Proportionate allocation is used to

assure a more representative sample from each category or stratum. When we say
proportionate, it is expected that the more members of the stratum, the more sample units will
be taken.

Suppose we want to get 30 students which is a Proportionate sample from the

students in the four colleges of university z presented below:

COLLEGE Ni wi=Ni/N ni = nw
College of Agriculture 60 60/300 =6/30 30(6/30) = 6
College of art and science 120 120/300 = 12/30 30(12/30) = 12
College of education 80 80/300 =8/30 30(8/30) = 8
College of engineering 40 40/300 = 4/30 30(4/30) = 4
TOTAL 300 1 30

ACTIVITY 1
Answer the following questions:

1. If the students are Stratified according to the college where they belong (college of arts
and, science, college of Agriculture, college of education, college of engineering and college
of veterinary medicine). How many sample students shall we get from each of the colleges?
Show your solution.
Population- N=1000 Formula- K=N/n
Size- n=5 K=1000/5= 200 members each
2. Suppose you would like to allocate Proportionately the sample size of 200 among the
colleges with population given in the table below, how many sampling units would you
allocate per stratum?

COLLEGE Ni wi = Ni/N ni= nwi

college of agriculture 160 160/1000= 16/100 200(16/100)=32
College of art & science 220 220/1000= 22/100 200
College of education 280 280/1000= 28/100
College of veterinary 200 200/1000=20/100
medicine
College of engineering 140 140/1000=14/100
TOTAL 1000 100/100=1

• Cluster sampling. Another type of probability sampling which is used when the
population from which a sample is to be drawn is very big and is distributed over a
large area. This means that the population is the same as it is when individuals are
being sampled, except that it is geographic regions that are being sampled. As the
sampling proceeds the area becomes progressively smaller.

Non - Probability Sampling is a technique wherein the manner of selecting units of

population on some inclusion rules as specified by the sampler. Example, a researcher would
only pick students whose NCEE rating is 75% and above or only students who has no grade
below 80% in all subjects. In this case not all members of the population are given equal
chance to be chosen as members of the sample. As compared to probability sampling, such
scheme is easier to implement. In addition, a sampling frame is not always required and the
operation cost is relatively cheaper. One drawback of this procedure is its inability to provide
objective measurement of accuracy. Inference can only be made by making assumptions
regarding the representativeness of the sample. Because of this drawback, it is not advisable
to subjects the data to further statistical manipulation.

There are three most common non-probability sampling:

a. Purpose sampling. This kind of sampling techniques is based on the criteria or

qualifications given by the researcher. People who will satisfy the criteria will be included.
For example, a researcher on nutrition and dietetics would like to determine the effect of
breast feeding on the nutritional status of the children. So, definitely, children who are breast
fed will be included in the study.

b. Quota sampling. This kind of sampling techniques is quick and cheap method to
operate. Each interviewer is given a definite instruction and quota about the sections of the
population he is to work on, but the final choice of the actual person is left to his own
preference, and is not predetermined by some carefully operated randomization plan.

So, the other section of the population will not be given chance. For example, a
person will just stand on the entrance of a department store and interview everyone who
enters. Then, the people who will come inside the store will not have the chance of being
interviewed.

c. Convenience sampling. This uses some instruments or equipment that provides

convenience like the telephone or cell phone to pick his sample units. If he calls at random
people without telephone will not given a chance at all.

Sample size determination

They are so many ways of determining the sample size. One of which is that of the
formula of slowing (1960 ):

n= N
1+Ne2

Where: n = a sample size, N = population size

e = desired margin of error (percent allowance for non - precision because of the use
of the sample instead of the population).

Always remember, however that the assumption of a normal distribution of the population
should be considered. When the normal approximation of the population is Small or poor,
this sample size formula does not apply.

Gay (1976) offers some minimum acceptable size depending on the type of research as
follows:

a. Descriptive research - 10% of the population. For smaller populations, a minimum

of 20% may be required.

b. Correlational research - 30 subjects

c. Expost facto or casual comparative research - 15 subjects per group.

d. Experimental research- 15 subjects per group. Some authorities believe that 30 per
group should be considered minimum.

ACTIVITY 2
 Research the following topics:

1. T - test
a. t – test for Dependent or Correlated Samples.
b. t – test for Independent Samples

2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

a. One – Way Analysis of Variance
b. Two – Way Classification Analysis of Variance

3. Regression Analysis
a. Simple Linear Regression Analysis
b. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

4. Correlation Analysis

5. Chi – Square test for Two Independent samples

Give example to each sub topics and give also at least 3 examples of Parametric
Statistics and Non – Parametric Statistics.

ACTIVITY 3

Application of concepts and procedures in solving Research and Statistics Problems:

Problem no. 1. Mrs. Dela Cruz conducted a study for her dissertation. She tried to determine
the factors affecting Teaching Competencies of Student Teachers in Western Mindanao.

Factors Computed/Observed Values Probability Values

1. Language proficiency F = 16.56 0.006
2. Socio – Economic Status F = 11.27 0.05
3. GPA in English F = 0.86 0.0001
4. Parents’ Education F = 0.13 0.296
5.Place of Origin F = 1.023 0.358

Questions:
1. Interpret the tabulated results of the Statistical Treatment.
2. What are the factors that significantly influenced the Teaching Competencies of the
Student Teachers? What is the basis of your conclusion?
Problem no. 2. The following is a hypothetical data relating Sex level of involvement in
Community activities of parents in public elementary school.

Male Female
Level of Involvement
F % F %
High 160 61.5 130 52
Low 100 38.5 120 48
Total 260 100 250 100

Chi – Square Observed value = 4.30, Chi – square Critical value = 3.84, df = 1 and
Probability value at alpha level (α) =0.05.

Questions:

a. Identify what kind of table is this? and why?

b. State the independent variables and the dependent variables.
c. State the Inferential problem of the study.
d. State the hypothesis of the study.
e. Analyze and interpret the data using: Inductive reasoning, and Deductive reasoning.
f. Write the Conclusion of the study.

Prepared by

ABDULHALIM H. JAUHARI, ED.D.

Course Professor