COM 221 Basic Computer Networking

COURSE DETAILS
Department/ Computer Science/ ND II
Programme:
Course: Basic Course Code: COM
Contact Hours: 4 hours/week
Computer Networking 221

Year Two: Semester II Theoretical: 2 hours/week

Practical: 2 hours /week
Goal
This course is designed to equip students with the practical knowledge in computer networking

General Objectives
On completion of this course the student should be able to:
 Understand the basic Concepts of Computer Networking
 Know the Hardware Components of Computer Networks and their Functions
 Understand Network Planning and Design
 Know the Different Types of Network Connections
 Understand the Open System Interconnection (ISO) Model and the TCP/IP Model
 Understand IP Address on Networks using IPv4 and IPv6
 Understand Wireless Network Access

ASSESSMENT

Type of Assessment Purpose and Nature of Assessment (COM 414) Weighting (%)

Final Examination (written) to assess knowledge and

Examination 60
understanding

Test At least 2 progress tests for feed-back. 20

Practical At least 5 home works to be assessed by the teacher 20

Total 100
 *****************WEEK ONE******************

COMPUTER NETWORK

1.1.1 What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information and resources.
A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems. You can establish
a network connection using either cable or wireless media.

A computer network is a set of devices connected through links. A node can be computer, printer,
or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links connecting the nodes are
known as communication channels.

Computer Network uses distributed processing in which task is divided among several computers.
Instead, a single computer handles an entire task, each separate computer handles a subset.

Figure 1: Computer Networks

1.1.2 Characteristics of a Computer Network

 Share resources from one computer to another.

 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)
connected over the network.
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let
other computers of the network use the machines available over the network.

1.1.3 Uses of Computer Network

 Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers,
and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location
of the resource and user.
 Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server
is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the system
 administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored in the server
remotely.
 Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email
system which the employees use for daily communication.
 E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business
over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e.,
they are doing their business over the internet.

1.1.4 Advantages of Computer Networking

Here are the fundamental benefits/pros of using Computer Networking:

 Helps you to connect with multiple computers together to send and receive information
when accessing the network.
 Helps you to share printers, scanners, and email.
 Helps you to share information at very fast speed
 Electronic communication is more efficient and less expensive than without the network.

1.1.5 Disadvantages of Computer Networking

Here are drawbacks/ cons of using computer networks:

 Investment for hardware and software can be costly for initial set-up
 If you don’t take proper security precautions like file encryption, firewalls then your data
will be at risk.
 Some components of the network design may not last for many years, and it will become
useless or malfunction and need to be replaced.
 Requires time for constant administration
 Frequent server failure and issues of regular cable faults

1.2 TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized as servers or workstations. Servers are
generally not used by humans directly, but rather run continuously to provide "services" to the
other computers (and their human users) on the network. Services provided can include printing
and faxing, software hosting, file storage and sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval,
complete access control (security) for the network's resources, and many others. Workstations are
called such because they typically do have a human user which interacts with the network through
them. Workstations were traditionally considered a desktop, consisting of a computer, keyboard,
display, and mouse, or a laptop, with integrated keyboard, display, and touchpad. With the advent
of the tablet computer, and the touch screen devices such as iPad and iPhone, our definition of
workstation is quickly evolving to include those devices, because of their ability to interact with
the network and utilize network services. Servers tend to be more powerful than workstations,
although configurations are guided by needs. For example, a group of servers might be located in
a secure area, away from humans, and only accessed through the network. In such cases, it would
be common for the servers to operate without a dedicated display or keyboard. However, the size
and speed of the server's processor(s), hard drive, and main memory might add dramatically to the
cost of the system. On the other hand, a workstation might not need as much storage or working
memory, but might require an expensive display to accommodate the needs of its user. Every
computer on a network should be appropriately configured for its use. Following are the popular
types of Computer Network:

Figure 2: Types of Computer Networks

Some of the most popular computer network types are:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)

1.2.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which are connected
in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building. It is a widely useful network
for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN
network is to connect computers and a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will
be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less than 5000
interconnected devices across several buildings. Local area networks, generally called LANs, are
privately-owned networks. They provide a useful way of sharing resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among other
connected computers in a network. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps (but now
much higher speeds can be achieved) but newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps speed.

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LANs are private owned-network, can be extended up to a few kilometers.
 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and ethernet.
  It connects computers within a single office, building, block or campus, i.e. they work in
a relatively small geographical area.

LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:

1. Their transmission technology

2. Their size
3. Their topology

Figure 3: Local Area Network (LAN)

Two types of LAN

There are two types of Local Area Network – client/server LANs and peer-to-peer LANs. A client
or server LAN consists of a number of computers connected to a central server. All network
devices like printers or hard disks are managed via the server. Each computer connects to the server
via either an Ethernet cable or a wireless signal. The presence of a central server means client
LANs are capable of handling heavy workloads.

Peer-to-peer LANs do not have a central server, instead each computer in the network shares in
the running of the network itself. The computers are all connected to the internet via the same
router – this is how the majority of household LANs are set up.

Why build a LAN at home?

There are a number of reasons why you might want to build a LAN at home, which we'll get into
now. The advantages are pretty much the same as they are in business, where LANs are used all
the time.

 Shared network devices – Connecting your computers all up to one network means each of
those devices has access to the same network devices, such as printers, scanners and hard disks
 Shared internet connection – A LAN in your home or office requires only one internet
connection, as long as there is enough bandwidth to go around. If your current connection isn't
good enough, check out these great broadband deals
 Shared software – If you've ever bought office software, whether it's for design, accounting or
anything else, you'll know it doesn't come cheap. So being able to buy one software licence and
share it across multiple devices can bring significant savings
 Security – Using a LAN means you have control over where your data is stored, bringing
obvious security benefits
 Easy transfer of data – Computers on a LAN can easily send and receive data and messages
between each other
 Privacy – LANs are private networks and are not controlled by outside regulatory bodies

Advantages of LAN

1. Resource Sharing: LAN provides resource sharing such as computer resources like
printers, scanners, modems, DVD-ROM drives, and hard disks can be shared within the
connected devices. This reduces cost and hardware purchases.
2. Software Applications Sharing: In a Local Area Network, it is easy to use the same
software in a number of computers connected to a network instead of purchasing the
separately licensed software for each client a network.
3. Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be shared with the other
computer connected to the network.
4. Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be stored on a hard disk of the
central/server computer. This help users to use any computer in a network to access the
required data.
5. Data Security: Since data is stored on the server computer, it will be easy to manage data
at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
6. Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users. In school labs and internet Cafes, single internet
connection is used to provide internet to all connected computers.

Disadvantages of LAN

1. High Setup Cost: The initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high because
there is special software required to make a server. Also, communication devices like
an Ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
2. Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator can see and check personal data files of each
and every LAN user. Moreover, he can view the computer and internet history of the LAN
user.
3. Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an office or
campus if a server hard disk is not properly secured by the LAN administrator.
4. LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because there
are problems such as software installations, program faults or hardware failures or cable
disturbances in Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is required to maintain these
issues.
5. Covers Limited Area: LANs are restricted in size they cover a small area like a single
office, single building or a group of nearby buildings.
1.2.2 Personal Area Network
PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It generally consists
of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be used for establishing
communication among these personal devices for connecting to a digital network and the internet.

Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a single
user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

1.2.3 Wide Area Network

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is spread across a
large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection of a LAN which connects
with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an
organization.

Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access to the latest
files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.
Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices situated at
longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and network
administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of different
technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired and
wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

Figure 27: Wide Area Network (WAN)

1.2.4 Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a LAN, which is mostly
limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of configuration, this type of network
allows you to cover an area from several miles to tens of miles.
 Figure 28: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both directions
concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

1.2.5 Other Types of Computer Networks

Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important types of
networks:
  WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)
 Storage Area Network
 System Area Network
 Home Area Network
 POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
 Enterprise private network
 Campus Area Network
 Virtual Area Network

Let’s see all these different types of networks in detail:

1) WLAN
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices using wireless
communication within a limited area like home, school, or office building. It gives users an ability
to move around within a local coverage area which may be connected to the network. Today most
modern day’s WLAN systems are based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level data storage.
It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical jukeboxes, and tape libraries.

3) System-Area Network
System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in server-to-
server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on a SAN network
operate as a single system at quite high speed.

4) Passive Optical Local Area Network

POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured cabling. It allows
you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and network apps. POLAN allows you
to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical signal from a single-mode optical
fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple signals.

5) Home Area Network (HAN):

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to form a local
area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States, about 15 million homes
have more than one computer. These types of network connections help computer owners to
interconnect with multiple computers. This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and
other peripherals.

6) Enterprise Private Network :

Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer resources.
7) Campus Area Network (CAN):
A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific geographical
area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of campus buildings to connect
all the academic departments.

8) Virtual Private Network:

A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or users together.
The VPN network uses “virtual” connections routed through the internet from the enterprise’s
private network or a third-party VPN service to the remote site. It is a free or paid service that
keeps your web browsing secure and private over public WiFi hotspots.

*****************WEEK TWO***************

2.1 How to Set Up a LAN Network

It is not a simple project to set up a LAN network (seen in the below image), especially for a
beginners in telecom field. Thus it is advisable to make a comprehensive plan before making the
next move. Network components like cable router, Ethernet cables, Ethernet switch and Network
interfaces are the basics of a LAN network. Computers are connected to a switch with Ethernet
cables. Make sure cable lengths do not exceed 100 meters, or about 300 feet. Each device are
supposed to have a unique IP address. Besides that, you must first identify which services you
need to provide locally on the LAN. The next part will move on to give you some detailed
instruction about setting up a LAN network.

Figure: Common Example of LAN

4.7 Six Instructions to Set Up LAN Network

Step 1. Identify the local services that you want available on the network. Identify network-attached
printers, network disk drives, any server that will share printers or disks. Identify how many devices
will have to connect to the network. Each device, server or workstation will require a unique
address.

Step 2. Do not run cables in air ducts unless they are fire rated. A wired LAN will always get better
performance and be more secure than a wireless LAN. Wherever possible, run a cable to servers,
printers, IP phones or work locations. Run a cable to any area where you are likely to work and use
standard Ethernet cables. The accessories like fiber optic wall plates, fiber patch cables, optical
connectors are small but indispensable for a high performance LAN network just as seen in the
below image.

Step 3. Use a switch or router with wireless capacity gives you more flexibility. The simple secure
way to connect to the Internet is to use a cable router. Many types and models are available. If the
model you choose does not have enough ports to connect all of your computers, then you will need
to purchase a switch as well. Also a wireless router is needed in a modern LAN network.

Step 4. Configure the LAN ports of your cable router. Most cable routers will act as a Dynamic
Host Configuration Server, or DHCP server. This means that the router will give addresses to
workstations automatically. Be certain that the address pool has enough addresses for all of the
workstations. Make certain that there are enough addresses outside of the range for any hosts that
need static addresses. For example, a network address with a mask of 255.255.255.0 has a total of
254 hosts. If the dynamic pool has 200 addresses available, that means the remaining 54 addresses
are available to give printers or servers static addresses.

Step 5. Connect the wires for the network. Workstations and servers can be connected with standard
Ethernet cables. Connect the switch to the cable router LAN ports by using the up-link or straight
port on the switch. If the switch does not have an up-link port, connect any standard port of the
switch to a LAN port on the cable router with an Ethernet crossover cable. Ethernet crossover cables
can be purchased at any electronics store.
Step 6. Test the services and Internet connectivity. The actual performance of LAN network
depends upon numerous factors including the cable specification, the quality of the installation and
the connected devices. For this reason it is not sufficient to assume an installation will perform at
the desired speed; its actual performance should be checked. It is advisable to test each of the
workstations to ensure they can connect to the Internet and test any local servers and printers. Print
test pages on the shared printers. Tests read and write permissions on shared file servers by copying
files to the servers and copying files from the server to a workstation.
2.2 Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers
are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

2.2.1 Peer-To-Peer network

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can
lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system . Therefore,
it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.

2.2.2 Client/Server Network

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission.
The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client
2.
Advantages of Client/Server network:
o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but
the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

*****************WEEK THREE***************

3.1 Network Devices

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
Computer Network: An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are
connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or media. Computer
networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in the communication between
two different devices; these are known as Network devices and include things such as routers,
switches, hubs, and bridges.

For a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred to as a NETWORK. A
network can be of many types, like a telephone network, television network, computer network,
or even a people network. Similarly, a COMPUTER NETWORK is also a kind of setup, where
it connects two or more devices to share a range of services and information in the form of e-
mails and messages, databases, documents, websites, audios and videos, Telephone calls, and
video conferences, etc among them.

Figure 6. Networking Devices

3.2 Computer Networking Devices Explained With Function
This section explains the functions of the most common and essential networking devices such as
Hubs, Switches, Routers, Bridges, Modems, NICs, Proxies, and Gateways.
3.2.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)
NIC stands on the top of the list of network devices. Networking cannot be done without this
device. It is also known as a network adapter card, Ethernet card, or LAN card. A NIC allows a
networking device to communicate with other networking devices.

A NIC converts data packets between two different data transmission technologies. A PC uses
parallel data transmission technology to transmit data between its internal parts whereas the media
that provides connectivity between different PCs uses serial data transmission technology. A NIC
converts a parallel data stream into the serial data stream and a serial data stream into the parallel
data stream.

The following image shows how a NIC works.

Figure 7. How NIC Works

Typically, all modern PCs have integrated NICs. If additional NICs are required, they can be
installed as add-on devices.

For desktop or server systems, they are available as adapters that can be plugged into an available
slot on the motherboard. For laptops or other smaller-sized devices, they are available in PCMCIA
(International Association of Personal Computer Memory Cards) card form that can be inserted
into a PCMCIA slot.

Types of NICs
There are two types of NICs: media-specific and network design specific

Media Specific: - A media-specific NIC supports a particular type of media. For example, to
connect a coaxial cable, you need a NIC that has the BNC port whereas to connect an Ethernet
cable, you need a NIC that has the RJ-45 port.

Network Design Specific: - A network design-specific NIC supports a specific network topology.
For example, FDDI, Token Ring, and Ethernet have their distinctive type of NIC cards. They
cannot use other types of NIC cards.

The following image shows some common types of NICs.

 Figure 8. NIC Types
3.2.2 Hub
A hub is a centralized device that connects multiple devices in a single LAN network. When a hub
receives a data signal from a connected device on one of its ports, except for that port, it forwards
those signals from the remaining ports to all other connected devices. Typically, a hub has one or
more uplink ports that are used to connect it to another hub.

There are two types of the Hub.

Passive Hub: - A passive hub forwards data signals as it receives them. It does not change data
signals in any manner.

Active Hub: - An active hub also forwards data signals. But, before forwarding them, it amplifies
them. Due to this added feature, an active Hub is also called a repeater.

The following image shows an active hub and a passive hub.

 Figure 9. Different Hubs
Hubs are no longer used in computer networks.

3.2.3 MAU and Patch panel

An MAU and a patch panel look like a hub, but they are different. An MAU (Multi-Access Unit)
is a replacement for a hub for a token ring network. Differences between Hub and MAU are the
following.

 Hub is used for Ethernet network while MAU is used for Token Ring network.
 Hub logically forms the star topology while MAU logically forms the ring topology.

Figure 10. Multi Access Unit

A patch panel is used to organize the UTP cables systematically. It doesn't interfere with the data
signals.

The following image shows a patch panel.

 Figure 11. Patch panel

3.2.4 Bridge
A bridge is used to divide a large network into smaller segments. The basic functions of a bridge
are the following: -

 Breaking a large network into smaller segments.

 Connecting different media types such as UTP and fiber optic.
 Connecting different network architectures such as Ethernet and the Token ring.

The following image shows an example of a bridge.

Figure 12. Bridge Demonstration

A bridge can connect two different types of media or network architecture, but it cannot connect
two different types of network layer protocols such as TCP/IP or IPX. It requires the same network-
layer protocols across all segments.
There are three types of bridge:-

Local Bridge: - The Bridge directly connects two LAN segments. In Ethernet implementations,
this is known as a transparent bridge. In the Token Ring network, this is called a source-routed
bridge.

Remote Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge over the WAN link.

Wireless Bridge: - This Bridge connects with another Bridge without using wires. It uses radio
signals for connectivity.

Figure 13. Types of Bridge Demonstration

In networking models such as the OSI layers model and TCP/IP model, the functionalities of
Bridges are defined in the physical layer and data link layer.
Just like a Hub, a Bridge is also no longer used in the computer network. Bridges have been
replaced by switches.

3.2.5 Switch
Just like a hub and a bridge, a switch is also used to connect multiple devices in a LAN segment.
A switch is the upgraded version of the bridge. Besides providing all the functionalities of a bridge,
it also offers several additional features. The biggest advantage of a switch is that it makes
switching decisions in hardware by using application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).

Unlike the generic processors that we use in our PC, ASICs are specialized processors built only
to perform particular tasks. Usually, the ASICs in switches have a single task and that is switching
the frames as fast as they can. An ASIC occupied switch performs this task blazingly fast. For
example, an entry-level 2960 Catalyst Switch can process 2.7 million frames per second.

Figure 14. Some Kind of Switch

3.2.6 Modem
In simple language, a modem is a device that is used to connect to the Internet. Technically, it is
the device that enables digital data to be transmitted over telecommunication lines. A Telco
company uses entirely different data transmission technology from the technology that a PC uses
for data transmission. A modem understands both technologies. When it receives signals from the
PC, it converts them into the format that the Telco Company understands. When it receives signals
from the Telco Company, it converts them into a format that the PC understands. It enables
communication between the PC (Known as the DTE device) and the Telecom company's office
(Known as the DCE device).

Figure 15. Modem Set Up

The following image shows some common types of modems.

Figure 16. Modem Set Up

3.2.7 Gateway
Gateway is used to forward packets that originate from a local host or a local network and are
intended for remote networks. If a data packet does not get its destination address in the local
network then it takes the help of the gateway device to find the destination address in the remote
network. The gateway device knows the path to the remote destination address. If necessary, it
also encapsulates the packet so that it can travel through other networks to reach its destination
address. The following image shows a gateway device.
 Figure 17. Gateway

Examples of the Gateway

Email Gateway:- An email gateway translates SMTP e-mails in standard X.400 format before
forwarding.

GSNW Gateway:- A GSNW gateway allows Windows clients to access resources from the
NetWare server.

PAD Gateway:- A PAD gateway provides connectivity between a LAN network and an X.25
network.

3.2.9 Router
A router connects different network segments. It switches data packets between networks that are
either located in different logical segments or constructed with different network-layer protocols.
When a router receives a data packet on any of its interfaces, it checks the destination address of
that packet, and based on that destination address, forwards that data packet to the interface that is
associated with the destination address. To forward data packets to their destination, the router
keeps a record of the connected network. These records are maintained in a database table known
as the routing table. Routing tables can be created statically or dynamically. The following image
shows two routers.

Figure 18. Router

The main functions of routers are the following: -

 To connect different network segments.

 To connect different network protocols such as IP and IPX.
 To connect several smaller networks into a large network.
 To break a large network into smaller networks.
 To connect two different media types such as UTP and Fiber optical.
 To connect two different network architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet.
 To connect LAN network with Telco company's office.
 To access DSL services.

3.2.10 Proxy
A proxy is used to hide the internal network from the outside world. It may be a dedicated device
or maybe an application software. Once it is configured, all communication goes through it. Since
external devices cannot directly access internal equipment, they cannot tamper with internal
equipment. The following image shows an example of a proxy.

Figure 19. Proxy Server

2.2.11 Transceiver
A transceiver is a small device that can send and receive both types of signals: analog and digital.
Usually, it is inbuilt in the network interface card. But, it is also available as a separate device. It
detects the type of signal from the network wire and converts the signal accordingly.

Figure 20. Transceivers

Let's take an example. A transceiver is attached to the device that transmits signals in digital form.
Now suppose, this device is connected with the network wire that uses the analog form for data
transmission. In this case, the transceiver converts digital signals into analog signals before placing
them on the network wire. The following image shows some transceivers.

*****************WEEK FOUR***************

4.1 Private WAN Infrastructures

In this topic, private WAN infrastructures are discussed including leased lines, dialup access,
ISDN, Frame Relay, ATM, MPLS, and Ethernet WANs, and VSAT.

4.1.1 Leased Lines

When permanent dedicated connections are required, a point-to-point link is used to provide a pre-
established WAN communications path from the customer premises to the provider network.
Point-to-point lines are usually leased from a service provider and are called leased lines.

Leased lines have existed since the early 1950s, and for this reason are referred to by different
names, such as leased circuits, serial link, serial line, point-to-point link, and T1/E1 or T3/E3 lines.
The term leased line refers to the fact that the organization pays a monthly lease fee to a service
provider to use the line. Leased lines are available in different capacities and are generally priced
based on the bandwidth required and the distance between the two connected points.

In North America, service providers use the T-carrier system to define the digital transmission
capability of a serial copper media link, while Europe uses the E-carrier system.

Figure 21

For instance, a T1 link supports 1.544 Mbps, an E1 supports 2.048 Mbps, a T3 supports 43.7 Mbps,
and an E3 connection supports 34.368 Mbps. Optical Carrier (OC) transmission rates are used to
define the digital transmitting capacity of a fiber-optic network.

The advantages of leased lines includes:

 Simplicity: Point-to-point communication links require minimal expertise to install and

maintain.
  Quality: Point-to-point communication links usually offer high service quality, if they
have adequate bandwidth. The dedicated capacity removes latency or jitter between the
endpoints.
 Availability: Constant availability is essential for some applications, such as e-commerce.
Point-to-point communication links provide permanent, dedicated capacity, which is
required for VoIP or Video over IP.

The disadvantages of leased lines include

 Cost: Point-to-point links are generally the most expensive type of WAN access. The cost
of leased line solutions can become significant when they are used to connect many sites
over increasing distances. In addition, each endpoint requires an interface on the router,
which increases equipment costs.
 Limited flexibility: WAN traffic is often variable, and leased lines have a fixed capacity,
so that the bandwidth of the line seldom matches the need exactly. Any change to the leased
line generally requires a site visit by ISP personnel to adjust capacity.

T1—T1 circuits were originally used in telephony networks, with the intent of one voice
conversation being carried in a single channel (that is, a single DS0). A T1 circuit is composed
of 24 DS0s, which is called a Digital Signal 1 (DS1). The bandwidth of a T1 circuit is 1.544
Mbps.

T1 circuits are popular in North America and Japan.

E1—An E1 circuit contains 32 channels, in contrast to the 24 channels on a T1 circuit. Only

30 of those 32 channels, however, can transmit data (or voice or video). Specifically, the first
of those 32 channels is reserved for framing and synchronization, and the seventeenth channel
is used for signaling (that is, setting up, maintaining, and tearing down a call).

Because an E1 circuit has more DS0s than a T1, it has a higher bandwidth capacity.
Specifically, an E1 has a bandwidth capacity of 2.048 Mbps.

Unlike a T1 circuit, an E1 circuit does not group frames together in an SF or ESF. Instead, an
E1 circuit groups 16 frames together in a multiframe.

E1 circuits are popular outside North America and Japan.

T3—In the same T-carrier family of standards as a T1, a T3 circuit offers an increased
bandwidth capacity. Although a T1 circuit combines 24 DS0s into a single physical connection
to offer 1.544 Mbps of bandwidth, a T3 circuit combines 672 DS0s into a single physical
 connection, which is called a Digital Signal 3 (DS3). A T3 circuit has a bandwidth capacity of
44.7 Mbps.

E3—Just as a T3 circuit provides more bandwidth than a T1 circuit, an E3 circuit’s available

bandwidth of 34.4 Mbps is significantly more than the 2.048 Mbps of bandwidth offered by an
E1 circuit. A common misconception is that the bandwidth of an E3 is greater than the
bandwidth of a T3 because an E1’s bandwidth is greater than a T1’s bandwidth. However, that
is not the case—a T3 has a greater bandwidth (that is, 44.7 Mbps) than an E3 (that is, 34.4
Mbps).

CSU/DSU—Although far less popular than they once were, analog modems allowed a phone
line to come into a home or business and terminate on analog modems, which provided data
connections for devices such as PCs. These analog modems supported a single data
conversation per modem.

However, digital circuits (for example, T1, E1, T3, or E3 circuits) usually have multiple data
conversations multiplexed together on a single physical connection. Therefore CSU/DSU, a
digital modem, is needed, as opposed to an analog modem. This digital modem must be able
to distinguish between data arriving on various DS0s.

A CSU/DSU circuit can terminate an incoming digital circuit from a service provider and send
properly formatted bits to a router. A CSU/DSU uses clocking (often provided by the service
provider) to determine when one bit stops and another starts. Therefore, the circuit coming
from a service provider and terminating on a CSU/DSU is a synchronous circuit (in which the
synchronization is made possible by clocking).

4.1.2 Dialup

Dialup WAN access may be required when no other WAN technology is available. For example,
a remote location could use a modem and analog dialed telephone lines to provide low-capacity
and dedicated switched connections. Dialup access is suitable when intermittent, low-volume data
transfers are needed.

Traditional telephony uses a copper cable for the local loop to connect the telephone handset in
the subscriber premises to the CO. The signal on the local loop during a call is a continuously
varying electronic signal that is a translation of the subscriber voice into an analog signal.

Traditional local loops can transport binary computer data through the voice telephone network
using a modem. The modem modulates the binary data into an analog signal at the source and
demodulates the analog signal to binary data at the destination. The physical characteristics of the
local loop and its connection to the PSTN limit the rate of the signal to less than 56 Kbps.

For small businesses, these relatively low-speed dialup connections are adequate for the exchange
of sales figures, prices, routine reports, and email. Using automatic dialup at night or on weekends
for large file transfers and data backup can take advantage of lower off-peak tariffs (toll charges).
Tariffs are based on the distance between the endpoints, time of day, and the duration of the call.

The advantages of modem and analog lines are simplicity, availability, and low implementation
cost. The disadvantages are the low data rates and a relatively long connection time. The dedicated
circuit has little delay or jitter for point-to-point traffic, but voice or video traffic does not operate
adequately at these low bit rates.

Figure 22: Sample Dialup Topology

4.1.3 ISDN

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a circuit-switching technology that enables the local
loop of a Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to carry digital signals, resulting in higher-
capacity switched connections.

ISDN changes the internal connections of the PSTN from carrying analog signals to time-division
multiplexed (TDM) digital signals. TDM allows two or more signals, or bit streams, to be
transferred as subchannels in one communication channel. The signals appear to transfer
simultaneously; but physically, the signals are taking turns on the channel. The Figure
below displays a sample ISDN topology. The ISDN connection may require a terminal adapter
(TA), which is a device used to connect ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI) connections to a router.

ISDN turns the local loop into a TDM digital connection. This change enables the local loop to
carry digital signals that result in higher-capacity switched connections. The connection uses 64-
Kbps bearer channels (B) for carrying voice or data and a signaling delta channel (D) for call setup
and other purposes.
 Figure 22: Sample ISDN Topology

There are two types of ISDN interfaces:

 Basic Rate Interface (BRI): ISDN BRI is intended for the home and small enterprise and
provides two 64-Kbps B channels and one 16-Kbps D channel. The BRI D channel is
designed for control and often underused, because it has only two B channels to control.

 Primary Rate Interface (PRI): ISDN is also available for larger installations. In North
America, PRI delivers 23 B channels with 64 Kbps and 1 D channel with 64 Kbps for a
total bit rate of up to 1.544 Mbps. This includes some additional overhead for
synchronization. In Europe, Australia, and other parts of the world, ISDN PRI provides 30
B channels and 1 D channel, for a total bit rate of up to 2.048 Mbps, including
synchronization overhead.

BRI has a call setup time that is less than a second, and the 64-Kbps B channel provides greater
capacity than an analog modem link. If greater capacity is required, a second B channel can be
activated to provide a total of 128 Kbps. Although inadequate for video, this permits several
simultaneous voice conversations in addition to data traffic.

Another common application of ISDN is to provide additional capacity as needed on a leased line
connection. The leased line is sized to carry average traffic loads while ISDN is added during peak
demand periods. ISDN is also used as a backup if the leased line fails. ISDN tariffs are based on a
per-B-channel basis and are similar to those of analog voice connections.

With PRI ISDN, multiple B channels can be connected between two endpoints. This allows for
videoconferencing and high-bandwidth data connections with no latency or jitter. However,
multiple connections can be very expensive over long distances.

4.1.4 Frame Relay

Frame Relay is a simple Layer 2 non broadcast multiaccess (NBMA) WAN technology used to
interconnect enterprise LANs. A single router interface can be used to connect to multiple sites
using Permanent Virtual Circuits. PVCs are used to carry both voice and data traffic between a
source and destination, and support data rates up to 4 Mbps, with some providers offering even
higher rates.

An edge router only requires a single interface, even when multiple virtual circuits (VCs) are used.
The short-leased line to the Frame Relay network edge allows cost-effective connections between
widely scattered LANs.

Frame Relay creates PVCs, which are uniquely identified by a data-link connection identifier
(DLCI). The PVCs and DLCIs ensure bidirectional communication from one DTE device to
another.

For instance, in the example in figure below R1 will use DLCI 102 to reach R2, while R2 will use
DLCI 201 to reach R1.

Figure 25: Sample Frame Relay Topology

4.1.5 ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) technology is capable of transferring voice, video, and data
through private and public networks. It is built on a cell-based architecture rather than on a frame-
based architecture. ATM cells are always a fixed length of 53 bytes. The ATM cell contains a 5-
byte ATM header followed by 48 bytes of ATM payload. Small fixed-length cells are well-suited
for carrying voice and video traffic because this traffic is intolerant of delay. Video and voice
traffic do not have to wait for larger data packets to be transmitted.

The 53-byte ATM cell is less efficient than the bigger frames and packets of Frame Relay.
Furthermore, the ATM cell has at least 5 bytes of overhead for each 48-byte payload. When the
cell is carrying segmented network layer packets, the overhead is higher because the ATM switch
must be able to reassemble the packets at the destination. A typical ATM line needs almost 20
percent greater bandwidth than Frame Relay to carry the same volume of network layer data. ATM
was designed to be extremely scalable and to support link speeds of T1/E1 to OC-12 (622 Mbps)
and faster.

ATM offers both PVCs and SVCs, although PVCs are more common with WANs. As with other
shared technologies, ATM allows multiple VCs on a single leased-line connection to the network
edge. In the example in figure below, the ATM switch transmits four different traffic flows
consisting of video, VoIP, web, and email.

Figure 26: Sample ATM Topology

4.1.6 Ethernet WAN

Ethernet was originally developed to be a LAN access technology. At that time however, it really
was not suitable as a WAN access technology because the maximum cable length supported was
only up to a kilometer. However, newer Ethernet standards using fiber-optic cables have made
Ethernet a reasonable WAN access option. For instance, the IEEE 1000BASE-LX standard
supports fiber-optic cable lengths of 5 km, while the IEEE 1000BASE-ZX standard supports up to
70 km cable lengths.
Service providers now offer Ethernet WAN service using fiber-optic cabling. The Ethernet WAN
service can go by many names, including Metropolitan Ethernet (MetroE), Ethernet over MPLS
(EoMPLS), and Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS). The figure below displays a sample
Ethernet WAN topology.

Figure 27: Sample Ethernet WAN Topology

Benefits of Ethernet WAN include

 Reduced expenses and administration: Ethernet WAN provides a switched, high-

bandwidth Layer 2 network capable of managing data, voice, and video all on the same
infrastructure. This characteristic increases bandwidth and eliminates expensive
conversions to other WAN technologies. The technology enables businesses to
inexpensively connect numerous sites, in a metropolitan area, to each other and to the
Internet.
 Easy integration with existing networks: Ethernet WAN connects easily to existing
Ethernet LANs, reducing installation costs and time.
 Enhanced business productivity: Ethernet WAN enables businesses to take advantage of
productivity-enhancing IP applications that are difficult to implement on TDM or Frame
Relay networks, such as hosted IP communications, VoIP, and streaming and broadcast
video.

4.1.7 MPLS

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a multiprotocol high-performance WAN technology

that directs data from one router to the next based on short path labels rather than IP network
addresses.

MPLS has several defining characteristics. It is multiprotocol, meaning it has the ability to carry
any payload including IPv4, IPv6, Ethernet, ATM, DSL, and Frame Relay traffic. It uses labels
that tell a router what to do with a packet. The labels identify paths between distant routers rather
than endpoints, and while MPLS actually routes IPv4 and IPv6 packets, everything else is
switched.

MPLS is a service provider technology. Leased lines deliver bits between sites, and Frame Relay
and Ethernet WAN deliver frames between sites. However, MPLS can deliver any type of packet
between sites. MPLS can encapsulate packets of various network protocols. It supports a wide
range of WAN technologies, including T-carrier / E-carrier links, Carrier Ethernet, ATM, Frame
Relay, and DSL. The sample topology in figure below illustrates how MPLS is used.

Figure 28: Sample MPLS Topology

Notice that the different sites can connect to the MPLS cloud using different access technologies.
In the figure, CE refers to the customer edge, PE is the provider edge router, which adds and
removes labels, while P is an internal provider router, which switches MPLS labeled packets.

4.1.8 VSAT

All private WAN technologies discussed so far used either copper or fiber-optic media. What if an
organization needs connectivity in a remote location where there are no service providers that offer
WAN service?

Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a solution that creates a private WAN using satellite
communications. A VSAT is a small satellite dish similar to those used for home Internet and TV.
VSATs create a private WAN while providing connectivity to remote locations.

Specifically, a router connects to a satellite dish that is pointed to a service provider’s satellite in
a geosynchronous orbit in space. The signals must travel approximately 35,786 km (22,236 miles)
to the satellite and back.

The example in figure below displays a VSAT dish on the roofs of the buildings communicating
with a satellite dish thousands of kilometers away in space.
 Figure 29: Sample VSAT Topology

4.2 Public WAN Infrastructure

In this topic, public WAN infrastructures are discussed, including DSL, cable, wireless, 3G/4G
cellular, as well as the need to secure data using site-to-site VPNs and remote-access VPNs.

4.2.1 DSL

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology is an always-on connection technology that uses
existing twisted-pair telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data, and provides IP services to
subscribers. A DSL modem converts an Ethernet signal from the user device to a DSL signal,
which is transmitted to the central office.

Multiple DSL subscriber lines are multiplexed into a single high-capacity link using a DSL access
multiplexer (DSLAM) at the provider location. DSLAMs incorporate TDM technology to
aggregate many subscriber lines into a single medium, generally a T3 (DS3) connection. Current
DSL technologies use sophisticated coding and modulation techniques to achieve fast data rates.

There is a wide variety of DSL types, standards, and emerging standards. DSL is now a popular
choice for enterprise IT departments to support home workers. Generally, a subscriber cannot
choose to connect to an enterprise network directly, but must first connect to an ISP, and then an
IP connection is made through the Internet to the enterprise. Security risks are incurred in this
process, but can be mediated with security measures. The topology in figure below displays a
sample DSL WAN connection.
 Figure 30: Sample DSL Topology

4.2.2 Cable

Coaxial cable is widely used in urban areas to distribute television signals. Network access is
available from many cable television providers. This allows for greater bandwidth than the
conventional telephone local loop.

Cable modems provide an always-on connection and a simple installation. A subscriber connects
a computer or LAN router to the cable modem, which translates the digital signals into the
broadband frequencies used for transmitting on a cable television network. The local cable TV
office, which is called the cable headend, contains the computer system and databases needed to
provide Internet access. The most important component located at the headend is the cable modem
termination system (CMTS), which sends and receives digital cable modem signals on a cable
network and is necessary for providing Internet services to cable subscribers.

Cable modem subscribers must use the ISP associated with the service provider. All the local
subscribers share the same cable bandwidth. As more users join the service, available bandwidth
may be below the expected rate. The topology in figure below displays a sample cable WAN
connection.

Figure 31: Sample Cable Topology

4.2.3 Wireless

Wireless technology uses the unlicensed radio spectrum to send and receive data. The unlicensed
spectrum is accessible to anyone who has a wireless router and wireless technology in the device
they are using. Until recently, one limitation of wireless access has been the need to be within the
local transmission range (typically less than 100 feet) of a wireless router or a wireless modem that
has a wired connection to the Internet. The following new developments in broadband wireless
technology are changing this situation:

 Municipal Wi-Fi: Many cities have begun setting up municipal wireless networks. Some
of these networks provide high-speed Internet access for free or for substantially less than
the price of other broadband services. Others are for city use only, allowing police and fire
departments and other city employees to do certain aspects of their jobs remotely. To
connect to a municipal Wi-Fi, a subscriber typically needs a wireless modem, which
provides a stronger radio and directional antenna than conventional wireless adapters. Most
service providers provide the necessary equipment for free or for a fee, much like they do
with DSL or cable modems.
 WiMAX: Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a new
technology that is just beginning to come into use. It is described in the IEEE standard
802.16. WiMAX provides high-speed broadband service with wireless access and provides
broad coverage like a cell phone network rather than through small Wi-Fi hotspots.
WiMAX operates in a similar way to Wi-Fi, but at higher speeds, over greater distances,
and for a greater number of users. It uses a network of WiMAX towers that are similar to
cell phone towers. To access a WiMAX network, subscribers must subscribe to an ISP with
a WiMAX tower within 30 miles of their location. They also need some type of WiMAX
receiver and a special encryption code to get access to the base station.
 Satellite Internet: Typically used by rural users where cable and DSL are not available. A
VSAT provides two-way (upload and download) data communications. The upload speed
is about one-tenth of the 500 Kbps download speed. Cable and DSL have higher download
speeds, but satellite systems are about 10 times faster than an analog modem. To access
satellite Internet services, subscribers need a satellite dish, two modems (uplink and
downlink), and coaxial cables between the dish and the modem. The figure below displays
an example of a WiMAX network.

Figure 32: Sample Wireless Topology

4.2.4 3G/4G Cellular

Increasingly, cellular service is another wireless WAN technology being used to connect users and
remote locations where no other WAN access technology is available. Many users with
smartphones and tablets can use cellular data to email, surf the Web, download apps, and watch
videos.

Phones, tablet computers, laptops, and even some routers can communicate through to the Internet
using cellular technology. As shown in figure below, these devices use radio waves to
communicate through a nearby mobile phone tower.

Figure 33: Sample Cellular Topology

The device has a small radio antenna, and the provider has a much larger antenna sitting at the top
of a tower somewhere within miles of the phone.

Common cellular industry terms include

 3G/4G Wireless: Abbreviation for third-generation and fourth-generation cellular access.

These technologies support wireless Internet access.
 Long Term Evolution (LTE): Refers to a newer and faster technology and is considered
to be part of fourth generation (4G) technology.

4.2.5 VPN Technology

Security risks are incurred when a teleworker or a remote office worker uses broadband services
to access the corporate WAN over the Internet. To address security concerns, broadband services
provide capabilities for using Virtual Private Network (VPN) connections to a VPN server, which
is typically located at the corporate site.

A VPN is an encrypted connection between private networks over a public network, such as the
Internet. Instead of using a dedicated Layer 2 connection, such as a leased line, a VPN uses virtual
connections called VPN tunnels, which are routed through the Internet from the private network
of the company to the remote site or employee host.

Benefits of VPN include the following:

  Cost savings: VPNs enable organizations to use the global Internet to connect remote
offices and remote users to the main corporate site, thus eliminating expensive dedicated
WAN links and modem banks.
 Security: VPNs provide the highest level of security by using advanced encryption and
authentication protocols that protect data from unauthorized access.
 Scalability: Because VPNs use the Internet infrastructure within ISPs and devices, it is
easy to add new users. Corporations are able to add large amounts of capacity without
adding significant infrastructure.
 Compatibility with broadband technology: VPN technology is supported by broadband
service providers such as DSL and cable, so mobile workers and telecommuters can take
advantage of their home high-speed Internet service to access their corporate networks.
Business-grade high-speed broadband connections can also provide a cost-effective
solution for connecting remote offices.

There are two types of VPN access:

 Site-to-site VPNs: Site-to-site VPNs connect entire networks to each other; for example,
they can connect a branch office network to a company headquarters network, as shown
in the figure below. Each site is equipped with a VPN gateway, such as a router, firewall,
VPN concentrator, or security appliance. In the figure, a remote branch office uses a site-
to-site-VPN to connect with the corporate head office.

Figure 34: Sample Site-to-Site VPN Topology

 Remote-access VPNs: Remote-access VPNs enable individual hosts, such as

telecommuters, mobile users, and extranet consumers, to access a company network
securely over the Internet. Each host (Teleworker 1 and Teleworker 2) typically has VPN
client software loaded or uses a web-based client, as shown in figure below.
 Figure 35: Sample Remote-Access VPN Topology

*****************WEEK FIVE***************

5.1 What is network design?

Network design is the practice of planning and designing a communications network.

Network design starts with identifying business and technical requirements and continues until
just before the network implementation stage (when you actually do the work to deploy and
configure what was designed). Network design includes things like network analysis, IP
addressing, hardware selection, and implementation planning.

In simple networks, like those found in most homes and small offices, network design is a
straightforward process. In large enterprise networks, the network design process is often very
complex and involves multiple stakeholders.

5.1.1 Understanding PPDIOO & other network lifecycle models

Before we dive into how to design a network, let’s take a moment to review network lifecycle
models. In the context of network design, a network lifecycle model helps explain where and how
network design fits into the broader lifespan of your network’s components and overall structure.

One of the most popular network lifecycle models is Cisco’s PPDIOO (Prepare, Plan, Design,
Implement, Operate and Optimize) model:

 Prepare. This is where you define high-level requirements and strategy. For example, your
deliverables from this phase may include requirements documentation and current state
surveys.
  Plan. This stage deals with specific network requirements based on information gathered
in the planning stages.
 Design. During the design stage, the information gathered from the previous two stages is
used to create a detailed network design.
 Implement. This is where the work gets done to configure and deploy the network
infrastructure. There is often testing to validate the design in this phase.
 Operate. This is the portion of the lifecycle where the network is in production use. During
this stage, monitoring is an important part of validating that the network is working as
designed and being able to quickly address issues when it isn’t.
 Optimize. At some point in most networks’ lifecycle, tweaks and optimizations are
needed. This is the stage where those changes are identified. For major changes, the cycle
begins again to plan and implement them.

Other network lifecycle models include Cisco’s PBM (plan, build, manage) and
the NDLC (network development life cycle). Regardless of which model you choose, the general
steps as information gathering, design, implementation, and improvement and cyclical nature are
the same. The important takeaway is understanding any network lifecycle and where network
design fits in.

5.2 Designing a network step by step

Now that we understand the basics of a network lifecycle model, let’s take a step-by-step look at
the process of designing a network infrastructure. While the specifics of your network design will
vary based on size and complexity, this general framework can help you make the right decisions.

1. Identify the requirements

Before you begin any network design project, begin by gathering information and developing clear
business and technical requirements. Without clearly defined targets, the rest of the design falls
apart.

Business requirements help define what you need to do. That means things like:

 Support a new office

 Improve end-user experience
 Cut costs
 Comply with a new regulation
 Improve business continuity

Once you’ve detailed the business requirements, it’s time to move on to the technical/functional
requirements. Example requirements include:

 Bandwidth
 Security requirements
 Specific protocols the project must implement
 RTO/RPO (recovery time objective/recovery point objective) numbers
 Uptime SLAs (service level agreements)
When you create your requirements, don’t overlook constraints. For example, business
requirements will have a budget constraint. Technical requirements may have constraints such as
the need to continue supporting legacy apps.

2. Assess the current state of the network

Chances are, in most networks you’re not starting with a clean slate. Sometimes that’s a good thing
that makes life easier, other times it can complicate a project. For example, if all the structured
cabling is already in place, that’s one less thing to worry about. However, if all that’s in place is
Cat5 cable and you need Cat6A to support 10GBaseT, the existing cabling now becomes an issue
to deal with.

Whatever the state of the network is, it’s important you know early in the design process. You
need to assess the network’s current state before you make any specific design recommendations.
At the end of this step, you should understand the network layout, performance, data flows,
applications & services on the network, network security, and physical and logical layout.

3. Design your network topology

Once you know your requirements and understand the current state of your network, you can begin
blocking out the functional components of your network. During this step, you’ll need to consider
both the physical and logical aspects of your network.

When it comes to physical network design you’ll need to address things like:

 Running copper and fiber cabling

 Number of switch ports required
 WiFi access point positioning
 Rack layout
 Cooling and power

Logical network design deals with things like:

 IP addressing/subnetting
 VLANs
 Data flows
 Network topology

At the end of this step, you should be able to create a static map of the physical and logical
network you’re designing.

Before we move on to the next step, let’s take a look at two key network design concepts:
hierarchical network layers and top-down vs bottom-up design.

Hierarchical network design: What are core, distribution, and access layers?
A traditional hierarchical network design is based on the idea of three basic network layers. Each
layer handles a separate portion of the dataflows on a network. Those layers are:
  Core layer. This is the layer that routes traffic between different geographical sites. In
other words, it’s the network backbone. The core layer is where high-throughput,
expensive core routers shine.
 Distribution layer. The distribution layer sits between the core and access layers. It acts
as a boundary and implements network policies to restrict or allow data flows between
different subnets within the network. Less expensive routers and L3 switches are the
common workhorses of the distribution layer.
 Access layer. The access layer is the layer for endpoint devices like user PCs, printers, and
VoIP phones. Smaller “access switches” are responsible for switching packets and routing
traffic at this layer.

In some cases, you may not need all three of these layers. For example, many networks bypass the
distribution layer altogether.

Top-down vs bottom-up design

Top-down and bottom-up are two approaches to network design based on the OSI model. With a
top-down approach, you start designing your network at the application layer and work your way
down the model finishing with the physical layer. The bottom-up design is exactly the opposite.

Top-down is generally considered a better approach when you start with business requirements
and work your way down. However, top-down is also often more time-consuming. Bottom-up
network design starts with the physical aspect of the network and works upwards.

As a result, bottom-up can be quicker but can often lead to missed requirements or compromises
on desired outcomes, as designing a network from the bottom up locks you into certain outcomes
before you get to the application layer where users get work done.

4. Choose the hardware and software

This step entails identifying the hardware and software you’ll use. In some cases, this will happen
in parallel with step 3. In others, some of the hardware or software may be specified early in the
project. As a rule, selecting the specific hardware and software you’ll use after you know what the
network needs to do gives you the most flexibility.

During this stage, you’ll choose specific cables, racks, network devices, servers, applications,
cloud services, etc. to make your design a reality. For custom parts or large orders, keep in mind
potential supply-chain issues. If you can’t get your structured cabling or access switches in time,
you can slow down project completion.

5. Plan for implementation and beyond

With your network design and hardware/software selections ready, you can now plan for the
implementation and beyond. This step entails creating a plan to deploy, configure, and test the
network. In some cases (usually larger networks) this step may include small-scale test
deployments to validate the design works before scaling out.
Tight project management and keeping stakeholders informed are key parts of getting your plan
right. A network deployment has a lot of moving parts and your plan should account for project
milestones, change management, and key deliverables. Additionally, if the network will be
managed by a different team than those doing the implementation, you’ll need a transition plan. If
you’re responsible for network management going forward, developing a plan for how you’ll
monitor and maintain the network is important as well.

5.3 Top 5 network design best practices

Now that we have a framework to follow, let’s take a look at some network design best practices
for making better decisions throughout the process.

1. Integrate security early on

There is a reason the idea of “shifting security left” has become so popular in the DevOps world:
it works. By making security a priority from the beginning of the project, you’re less likely to have
gaps in your security posture. You’re also more likely to improve your overall network
performance because security won’t be inefficiently shoehorned in after most decisions have been
made.

Treat security requirements with just as much priority as performance requirements and spec them
into a project early on. Ideally, we should all have a “security is everyone’s responsibility” mindset,
but in practice that isn’t always the case. It’s usually a great idea to have a security-focused
stakeholder(s) involved in the project end-to-end.

2. Know when to use top-down vs bottom-up

In most cases where you’re starting from scratch, top-down design is the “better” choice. By
designing top-down, you focus on the business requirements and maximize your chances of getting
it right.

However, there are many network design projects where the resource and time investment in going
top-down just doesn’t make sense. For example, if you’re already familiar with an organization’s
overall business requirements and simply need to expand a network or increase bandwidth,
bottom-up can be much more efficient.

3. Standardize everything
If it can be standardized, standardize it. It will make troubleshooting, patching, maintenance, and
asset management drastically easier in the long run.

Here are some examples of things you can and should standardize:

 Hostnames (e.g. printer5.office2.lan3)

 Hardware models
 IP address schemes
 Cable colors (e.g. one color for VoIP, one for data, etc)
 Security policies
4. Plan for growth
Network bandwidth consumption today isn’t going to be the same a year from now. You have to
consider how much you expect bandwidth consumption to increase over the lifecycle of the
network, and design with that expectation in mind.

One answer is obvious: just build in additional bandwidth based on your expectations. However,
making sure the network is flexible and modular enough to easily accommodate expansion is
arguably more important. After all, you can’t know for certain what your requirements will be in
the future, but you can design with the idea you may need to extend the network in mind.

5. Create and maintain network documentation

Missing, stale, or incomplete network documentation is a major source of tech debt, wasted time,
and added frustration. Do your future self or your friendly neighborhood network administrator a
favor and make sure your network design and implementation deliverables include layer 1-3
network maps. Then, once they’re created, be sure to maintain them going forward.

5.4 Considerations for designing computer networks

Copper vs fiber, logical topologies, IP addressing, VLANs, bandwidth, and WiFi coverage are
some of the most obvious considerations when you’re designing a network. However, that’s far
from an exhaustive list. There is a lot that goes into designing a network, and it can be easy to
overlook things. Here are some key considerations to keep in mind for your next project.

5.4.1 Regulatory requirements

When you’re designing a network, you need to account for legal regulations that impact both the
physical and logical design of your network. For example, local building codes may impact how
you run structured cabling. Similarly, the National Electrical Code in the US has requirements
relevant to the electrical power your network devices will require. From a logical perspective,
regulations like HIPAA, PCI DSS, and GDPR can impact both data in transit and data at rest.

During the network design process, you’ll need to keep these requirements in mind to build a
compliant network.

5.4.2 Network resilience and redundancy

Because of the importance of network availability to business operations, enterprise networks need
some level of fault tolerance. To make that happen, N+1, 2N, or 2N+1 redundancy (or even higher)
is often part of modern network design.

Of course, resilience and redundancy come with a budgetary cost. Your network design will need
to balance resilience and redundancy against the expense. Reliably achieving five-nines (99.999%
uptime) is great if you can do it, but it ain’t cheap!
A good way to frame this tradeoff is: considering your cost of downtime (i.e. how many dollars
per minute/hour will you lose if the network goes down) and balancing that against your exposure
to downtime with your current redundancy plan.

5.4.3 Cloud vs. on-prem

It’s no longer a given that on-premises are the best place to run a given workload. Once you have
your business and technical requirements, you should carefully consider whether or not a cloud
network makes sense as a solution. We won’t rehash the entire cloud vs on-prem debate here, but
make sure you don’t lock yourself into an on-premises solution when the cloud may be a better fit
(or vice versa!).

5.4.4 Cooling and power

It can be easy to overlook the cooling and power requirements of a network. Don’t make this
mistake! If you can’t meet your power requirements, you’ll never get your deployment off the
ground. If you don’t account for all the heat dissipation of your new network equipment, devices
can overheat and prematurely fail. Here are a few points to consider about power and cooling:

 Make sure your electrical panels and electrical outlets can accommodate your new
equipment.
 Make sure to account for power-over-Ethernet (PoE) loads when sizing UPS (battery
backups) and other power equipment.
 Make sure your server room cooling can handle the additional heat generated by your new
network gear or plan to invest in supplemental cooling.

There’s no one size fits all network design. With the right approach, however, you can create a
design that matches your business requirements. Of course, as network lifecycle models like
PPDIOO demonstrate, it doesn’t stop after the design stage!

*****************WEEK SIX***************

6.1 Network Topology

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

6.2 Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers, servers
connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one host is
connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.
If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate devices.
But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they are connected
directly.

6.3 Bus Topology

In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus topology may
have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology either
uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is one of
the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other devices. But
failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and
as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line. The features
of Bus topology are as follows
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to
the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the network.
All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.
 o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is
maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the
problems that occur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the
collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data.
Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".

6.3.1 Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without passing
through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

6.3.2 Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.
6.4 Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. The features of Ring topology are as follows:
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

6.4.1 Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
6.4.2 Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent
on the single host computer.

6.4.3 Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

6.5 Star Topology

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a point-
to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub. The
hub device can be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway
As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all
other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub.Star
topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration
is simple. The features of Star topology are as follows:
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server
are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
6.5.1 Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as
compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers of
cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports
on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one
of the most popular Star topology networks.

6.5.2 Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.

6.6 Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in use
presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus
topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a
network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where
computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator
between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point
of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus topology,
if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even though it is not the single point of
failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the network into
unreachable segment. The features of Tree topology are as follows:
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms
a parent-child hierarchy.

6.6.1 Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide
broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
6.6.2 Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

6.7 Mesh Topology

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has hosts in
point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-point
connection to few hosts only.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.

The features of Mesh topology are as follows:

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected

with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
 o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:

Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

6.7.1 Advantages of Mesh topology:

o Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.
o Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
o Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

6.7.2 Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of
the network.

6.8 Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid topology.
Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may
contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by
means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology networks.
Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology. The features are as follows:
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology
and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology
in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid
topology.

6.8.1 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements
of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

6.8.2 Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
 o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

6.8.8 Daisy Chain

This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are
connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are
connected then it represents Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the
network into two segments. Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.

*********************WEEK SEVEN**********************

7.1 Transmission Media

For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from one device to other
over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for transfer of data. These
transmission media may be of two types:
 Guided: In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that has a fixed
path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.
 Unguided: In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form of
electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.
Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of bandwidth, speed,
delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc. Let’s discuss some of the most
commonly used media in detail.

7.2 Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good
performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in telephone lines. However, if two or
more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each other’s signals. To reduce this
electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape like a DNA
molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce interference between
nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each pair.
Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables that are
the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.
7.2.1 Advantages of twisted pair cable
Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due to the
many advantages that they offer −

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
 Least expensive for short distances
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged
7.2.2 Disadvantages of twisted pair cable
With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too −

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

 High error rate for distances greater than 100m
 Very thin and hence breaks easily
 Not suitable for broadband connections

7.3 Shielding twisted pair cable

To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires are shielded in the
following three ways −

 Each twisted pair is shielded.

 Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.
 Each twisted pair and then all the pairs are shielded.
Such twisted pairs are called shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. The wires that are not shielded
but simply bundled together in a protective sheath are called unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
cables. These cables can have maximum length of 100 metres.
Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP cables are used as the
last mile network connection in homes and offices.

7.4 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that transmitted
signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of these layers,
starting from the innermost −
  Stiff copper wire as core
 Insulating material surrounding the core
 Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator
 Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.

7.4.1 Advantages of Coaxial Cables

These are the advantages of coaxial cables:
 Excellent noise immunity
 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km cable
 Can be used for both analog and digital signals
 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
 Easy to install and maintain
7.4.2 Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables
These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −

 Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

 Not compatible with twisted pair cables

7.5 Optical Fibre

Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical fibre. Light
Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source, which is read by
a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled
together in a protective covering. Each fibre is made up of these three layers, starting with the
innermost layer −
 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index than
the core
  Protective outer covering called buffer
Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as refractive index of
the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is reflected back due to total
internal reflection.

Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet communication and even
cable TV connections because transmitted data can travel very long distances without
weakening. Single node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of 2 kms and
bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of
100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.
7.5.1 Advantages of Optical Fibre
Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers −

 High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

7.5.2 Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not be a viable option
for every one due to these disadvantages:

 Optical fibre cables are expensive

  Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining optical
fibre cables
 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex
transmission

7.6 Infrared
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication like TV remote,
wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc. Infrared signals can propagate within a
room but cannot penetrate walls. However, due to such short range, it is considered to be one of
the most secure transmission modes.

7.7 Radio Wave

Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave transmission. We all are
familiar with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs. Radio stations transmit radio
waves using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our devices.
Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals. These radio
frequencies can also be used for direct voice communication within the allocated range. This
range is usually 10 miles.

7.7.1 Advantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Inexpensive mode of information exchange

 No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
 Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap
7.7.2 Disadvantages of Radio Wave
These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −

 Insecure communication medium

 Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.
 ***********************WEEK EIGHT**********************

8.1 Network Cable Connectors Types and Specifications

There are several types of network cables. Each type of network cable uses specific types of
connectors to connect to another network cable or network interface card. To join two network
cables or to connect a network cable to a NIC, you need appropriate connectors. In the following
section, we will discuss some most common and popular network media connectors.

8.2 Barrel connectors

Barrel connectors are used to join two cables. Barrel connectors are female connectors on both
sides. They allow you to extend the length of a cable. If you have two small cables, you can make
a long cable by joining them through the barrel connector. Barrel connectors that are used to
connect coaxial cables are known as BNC barrel connectors. The following image shows BNC
barrel connectors.

Barrel connectors that are used to connect STP or UTP cables are known as Ethernet LAN
jointers or couplers. The following image shows Ethernet LAN jointers or couplers.
Barrel connectors do not amplify the signals. It means, after joining, the total cable length must
not exceed the maximum supporting length of the cable. For example, a standard UTP cable
supports a maximum distance of 100 meters. You can join two UTP cables if their sum is not more
than 100. For example, you can join the following cables.

Cable 1 (45 meters) + cable 2 (30 meters) = joint cable (75 meters = 45 meters + 30 meters)

The length of the joint cable is less than 100 meters.

But you can't join the following cables.

Cable 1 (65 meters) + cable 2 (45 meters) = joint cable (110 meters = 65 meters + 45 meters)

The length of the joint cable is more than 100 meters.

8.3 F connectors
An F connector is used to attach a coaxial cable to a device. F connectors are mostly used to install
home appliances such as dish TV, cable internet, CCTV camera, etc. The following image shows
F connectors.

8.4 Terminator connectors

When a device places signals on the coaxial cable, the signals travel along the end of the cable. If
another device is connected to the other end of the cable, the device will receive the signal. But if
the other end of the cable is open, the signals will bounce and return in the same direction they
came from. To stop signals from bouncing back, all endpoints must be terminated. A terminator
connector is used to terminate the endpoint of a coaxial cable. The following image shows
terminator connectors.
8.5 T type connectors
A T connector creates a connection point on the coaxial cable. The connection point is used to
connect a device to the cable.

The following image shows T-type connectors.

8.6 RJ-11 Connectors

RJ-11 connectors have the capacity for six small pins. However, in many cases, only two or four
pins are used. For example, a standard telephone connection uses only two pins, and a DSL modem
connection uses four pins. They have a small plastic flange on top of the connector to ensure a
secure connection.

The following image shows RJ-11 connectors.

8.7 RJ-45 connectors

RJ-45 connectors look likes RJ-11 connectors, but they are different. They have 8 pins. They are
also bigger in size than RJ-11. RJ-45 connectors are mostly used in computer networks. They are
used with STP and UTP cables. Some old Ethernet implementations use only four of the eight
pins. Modern Ethernet implementation uses all 8 pins to achieve the fastest data transfer speed.
The following image shows RJ-45 connectors.

8.8 DB-9 (RS-232) connectors

A DB-9 or RS-232 connector connects a device over a serial port. It has 9 pins. It is available in
both male and female connectors. It is used for asynchronous serial communication. The other side
of the cable can be connected to any popular connector type. For example, you can connect one
side of the cable with a DB-9 connector and the other side of the cable with another DB-9 connector
or with an RJ-45 connector or with a USB connector.

The following image shows DB-9 connectors.

One of the most popular uses of a DB-9 connector is to connect the serial port on a computer with
an external modem.
8.9 Universal serial bus (USB) connectors
USB connectors are the most popular. They support 127 devices in the series. All modern
computers have USB ports. Most devices that you can connect to the system have USB ports.
Some examples of devices that support or have USB ports are mice, printers, network cards, digital
cameras, keyboards, scanners, mobile phones, and flash drives.

If the device has a USB port, you can use a cable that has a USB connector on both ends to connect
the device to the computer. If the device does not have a USB port, you can still connect the device
to the USB port. For that, you can use a cable that has a USB connector on one side and the
corresponding connector on the other.
8.10 Fiber cable connectors
A variety of connectors are used to connect fiber cables. Some popular connectors are ST, SC, LC,
and MTRJ. Let's discuss these connectors.

8.10.1 SC connectors
SC connectors are also known as subscriber connectors, standard connectors, or square
connectors. An SC connector connects to a terminating device by pushing the connector into the
terminating device, and it can be removed by pulling the connector from the terminating device. It
uses a push-pull connector similar to audio and video plugs and sockets.

8.10.2 Straight tip (ST) connectors

Straight tip (ST) connectors are also known as bayonet connectors. They have a long tip
extending from the connector. They are commonly used with MMF cables. They use a half-twist
bayonet type of lock. An ST connector connects to a terminating device by pushing the connector
into the terminating equipment and then twisting the connector housing to lock it in place.

8.10.3 LC connectors
LC connectors are known as Lucent Connectors. For a secure connection, they have a flange on
top, similar to an RJ-45 connector. An LC connector connects to a terminating device by pushing
the connector into the terminating device, and it can be removed by pressing the tab on the
connector and pulling it out of the terminating device.
8.10.4 MTRJ connectors
An MTRJ connector connects to a terminating device by pushing the connector into the
terminating device, and it can be removed by pulling the connector from the terminating device. It
includes two fiber strands: a transmit strand and a receive strand in a single connector.

************************WEEK NINE***********************

9.1 Client/Server Network

In client-server network relationships, certain computers act as servers and others act as clients.
A server is simply a computer that provides the network resources and provides service to other
computers when they request it. A client is the computer running a program that requests the
service from a server. Local area network (LAN) is based on client server network relationship.
A client-server network is one on which all available network resources such as files, directories,
applications and shared devices, are centrally managed and hosted and then are accessed by the
client.
Client server networks are defined by the presence of servers on a network that provide security
and administration of the network. In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that
provides functionality for called clients which are other programs or devices. This architecture is
called the client–server model. A single overall computation is distributed across multiple
processes or devices. Servers can provide various functionalities called services. These services
include sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client.
Multiple clients can be served by a single server, and a single client can use multiple servers. A
client process may run on the same device. It can also connect over a network to a server to run
on a different device. Example of servers may include database servers, mail servers, print servers,
file servers, web servers, application servers, and game servers.
Most frequently client–server systems are implemented by the request–response model., i.e., a
client sends a request to the server. In this model server performs some action and sends a response
back to the client, typically with a result or acknowledgement. Designating a computer as server-
class hardware means that it is specialized for running servers on it. This implies that it is more
powerful and reliable than standard personal computers. But large computing clusters may be
composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components.

9.2 Advantages
The advantages of client server network are as follows:

 It is very secure.
 Gives better performance.
 It has centralized backup.
 It is very reliable.

9.3 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of client server network are as follows −

 It requires professional administration.

 It is more hardware and software intensive.
 It requires expensive dedicated software.

9.4 Types of Servers

The different types of servers are given below −
File server − These servers provide the services for storing, retrieving and moving the data. A
user can read, write, exchange and manage the files with the help of file servers.
Printer server − The printer server is used for controlling and managing printing on the network.
It also offers the fax service to the network users.
Application server − The expensive software and additional computing power can be shared by
the computers in a network with the help of application servers.
Message server − It is used to co-ordinate the interaction between users, documents and
applications. The data can be used in the form of audio, video, binary, text or graphics.
Database server − It is a type of application server.

9.5 Types of Servers and their applications:

1. Catalog server –
These servers maintains an index or table of contents of information that can be found
across a large distributed network. Distributed network may include computers, users,
files shared on file servers, and web apps. Examples of catalog servers are Directory
servers and name servers. There clients are any computer program that needs to find
something on the network. Example can be a Domain member attempting to log in, an
email client looking for an email address, or a user looking for a file
2. Communications server –
These servers maintains an environment needed for one communication endpoint to find
other endpoints and then communicates with them. These servers may or may not include
a directory of communication endpoints and a presence detection service, depending on
the openness and security parameters of the network. There clients are communication
endpoints.
3. Computing server –
These servers share vast amounts of computing resources which include CPU and
random-access memory over a network. Any computer program that needs more CPU
power and RAM than a personal computer can probably afford can use these types of
servers. The client must be a networked computer to implement the client–server model
which is necessity.
 4. Database server –
These servers maintains and shares any form of database over a network. A database is a
organized collections of data with predefined properties that may be displayed in a table.
Clients of these servers are spreadsheets, accounting software, asset management
software or virtually any computer program that consumes well-organized data,
especially in large volumes.
5. Fax server –
These severs share one or more fax machines over a network which eliminates the hassle
of physical access. Any fax sender or recipient are the clients of these servers.
6. File server –
Shares files and folders, storage space to hold files and folders, or both, over a network
Networked computers are the intended clients, even though local programs can be clients
7. Game server –
These servers enables several computers or gaming devices to play multiplayer games.
Personal computers or gaming consoles are their clients.
8. Mail server –
These servers makes email communication possible in the same way as a post office
makes snail mail communication possible. Clients of these servers are senders and
recipients of email
9. Print server –
These severs share one or more printers over a network which eliminates the hassle of
physical access. Their clients are computers in need of printing something.
10. Proxy server –
This server acts as an intermediary between a client and a server accepting incoming
traffic from the client and sending it to the server. Reasons to use a proxy server includes
content control and filtering, improving traffic performance, preventing unauthorized
network access or simply routing the traffic over a large and complex network. There
clients are any networked computer.
11. Web server
These servers hosts web pages. A web server is responsible for making the World Wide
Web possible. Each website has one or more web servers. There clients are computers
with a web browser.
*************************WEEK TEN*************************

10.1 Layers of OSI Model

The main objective of a computer network is to be able to transfer the data from sender to receiver.
This task can be done by breaking it into small sub tasks, each of which are
well defined. Each subtask will have its own process or processes to do and will take specific
inputs and give specific outputs to the subtask before or after it. In more technical terms we can
call these sub tasks as layers. In general, every task or job can be done by dividing it into sub task
or layers. Consider the example of sending a letter where the sender is in City A and receiver is in
city B.

The process of sending letter is shown below:

Figure 21. Scenario for Sending a Letter

In the Figure we have a sender, a receiver, and a carrier that transports the letter. There is a
hierarchy of tasks.

At the Sellder Site

Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
 Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the
sender and receiver addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
 Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
 Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.

On the Way
 The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post office,
the letter may actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by
truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of these.

At the Receiver Site

 Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
  Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
 Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.

Hierarchy
According to our analysis, there are three different activities at the sender site and another three
activities at the receiver site. The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the receiver
is done by the carrier. Something that is not obvious immediately is that the tasks must be done in
the order given in the hierarchy. At the sender site, the letter must be written and dropped in the
mailbox before being picked up by the letter carrier and delivered to the post office. At the receiver
site, the letter must be dropped in the recipient mailbox before being picked up and read by the
recipient.

Services
Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it. The sender at
the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer. The middle layer uses the services of the
lower layer. The lower layer uses the services of the carrier. The layered model that dominated
data communications and networking literature before 1990 was the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the ultimate
standard for data communications, but this did not happen. The TCPIIP protocol suite became the
dominant commercial architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the Internet; the
OSI model was never fully implemented.

10.2 The OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the
data from one person to another across the globe.

The ISO Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers
all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model
is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems without requiring changes
to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model
for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network. An
understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a solid basis for exploring data
communications
Peer-to-Peer Processes
At the physical layer, communication is direct: In the Figure device A sends a stream
of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication
must move down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the
layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from
the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
At layer I the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device.
At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving
and removing the data meant for it. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then passes
the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so
on.

Figure 22. Hardware and Software Components of OSI

Figure 23. OSI Model

A message sent from Device A to Device B passes has to pass through all layers at A from top to
bottom then all layers at B from bottom to top as shown in the figure below. At Device A, the
message is sent from the top layer i.e Application Layer A then all the layers till it reaches its
physical layer and then it is transmitted through the transmission medium. At Device B, the
message received by the physical layer passes through all its other layers and moves upwards till
it reaches its Application Layer. The message travels from device A to device B, it may
pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first
three layers of the OSI model as shown below.

10.2.1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
5. Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

10.2.2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2)

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function
of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address. Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.
The functions of the data Link layer are:
1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit
a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special
bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a
given time.
6. Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame. Also, Data Link layer is handled by the NIC
(Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines. The Switch & Bridge are Data
Link Layer devices.

10.2.3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by the network layer. The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
3. Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking
devices such as routers.

10.2.4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery
of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful
data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and
also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example,
when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because
this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.
• At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received
to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segment produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process.

The services provided by the transport layer:

1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination/disconnection

In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for
much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable
than connectionless Service.
3. Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments. Transport layer is operated by the Operating
System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making system
calls. Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

10.2.5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication
and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
4. All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP
model as “Application Layer”. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network
application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

SCENARIO:
Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed,
encrypted (if any secure data) and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Figure 24. Sender and Receiver Scenario

10.2.6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network. The
functions of the presentation layer are:

1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

2. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

10.2.7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Ex: Application –
Browsers, Skype Messenger etc. Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are:

1. Network Virtual Terminal
2. FTAM-File transfer access and management
3. Mail Services
4. Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in the Internet because of its late
invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.
 ********************WEEK ELEVEN***********************

11.1 Pros and cons of the OSI model

The OSI model has a number of advantages, including the following:

 It's considered a standard model in computer networking.

 The model supports connectionless, as well as connection-oriented, services. Users can take
advantage of connectionless services when they need faster data transmissions over the internet
and the connection-oriented model when they're looking for reliability.
 It has the flexibility to adapt to many protocols.
 The model is more adaptable and secure than having all services bundled in one layer.

The disadvantages of the OSI model include the following:

 It doesn't define any particular protocol.

 The session layer, which is used for session management, and the presentation layer, which
deals with user interaction, aren't as useful as other layers in the OSI model.
 Some services are duplicated at various layers, such as the transport and data-link layers.
 Layers can't work in parallel; each layer must wait to receive data from the previous layer.

11.2 What is TCP/IP Model?

TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected to the internet and
how you can transmit data between them. It helps you to create a virtual network when multiple
computer networks are connected together.

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. It is specifically designed as
a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork.

11.3 Characteristics of the OSI Model

Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:

 A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are needed.
 The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally standardized
protocols.
 The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not be put in the
same layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so that architecture doesn’t
become very complicated.
  In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform primitive
functions. Every level should able to provide services to the next higher layer.
 Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.

11.4 Characteristics TCP/IP Model

Here are the essential characteristics of the TCP/IP protocol:

 Support for a flexible architecture

 Adding more systems to a network is easy.
 In TCP/IP, the network remains intact until the source and destination machines were
functioning properly.
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
 TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence should put back
into order.
 TCP allows you to implement flow control, so the sender never overpowers a receiver
with data.

11.5Difference between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Organization) Research Project Agency Network).
OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing
interfaces, services, and protocols. points between services, interfaces, and protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.
In the OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-
connection-oriented. oriented and connectionless.
In the OSI model, the data link layer and physical In TCP, physical and data link are both combined
are separate layers. as a single host-to-network layer.
Session and presentation layers are a part of the There is no session and presentation layer in the
OSI model. TCP model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. The minimum header size is 20 bytes.

11.6 Advantages of the OSI Model

Here are the major benefits/pros of using the OSI model:
  It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, and other hardware
 Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces
 Facilitates modular engineering
 Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
 Helps you to accelerate the evolution
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology changes.
 Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as connectionless service.
 It is a standard model in computer networking.
 Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
 It offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols.

11.7 Advantages of TCP/IP

Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:

 It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of computers.

 It operates independently of the operating system.
 It supports many routing-protocols.
 It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
 TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
 It can be operated independently.
 Supports several routing protocols.
 It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

11.8 Disadvantages of OSI Model

Here are some cons/ drawbacks of using OSI Model:

 Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.

 You can only use it as a reference model.
 It doesn’t define any specific protocol.
 In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many layers such as the
transport and data link layers
 Layers can’t work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from the previous
layer.

11.9 Disadvantages of TCP/IP

Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:

 TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

 The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).
 In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
 It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.
11.10 OSI model vs. TCP/IP model
The OSI reference model describes the functions of a telecommunication or networking system,
while TCP/IP is a suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the
internet. TCP/IP and OSI are the most broadly used networking models for communication. The
OSI and TCP/IP models have similarities and differences. The main similarity is in their
construction, as both use layers, although the OSI model consists of seven layers, while TCP/IP
consists of just four layers.

Another similarity is that the upper layer for each model is the application layer, which performs
the same tasks in each model but may vary according to the information each receives. The
functions performed in each model are also similar because each uses a network and transport
layer to operate. The OSI and TCP/IP model are mostly used to transmit data packets, although
they each use different means and paths to reach their destinations.

Additional similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:

 Both are logical models.

 Both define standards for networking.
 They each divide the network communication process in layers.
 Both provide frameworks for creating and implementing networking standards and devices.
 They enable one manufacturer to make devices and network components that can coexist and
work with the devices and components made by other manufacturers.
 Both divide complex functions into simpler components.

Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP models include the following:

 OSI uses three layers -- application, presentation and session to define the functionality of
upper layers, while TCP/IP uses only the application layer.
 OSI uses two separate layers -- physical and data-link -- to define the functionality of the
bottom layers, while TCP/IP uses only the link layer.
 OSI uses the network layer to define the routing standards and protocols, while TCP/IP uses
the internet layer.
********************WEEK TWELVE***********************

12.1 Network Addressing

Layer 3 network addressing is one of the major tasks of Network Layer. Network Addresses are
always logical i.e. these are software based addresses which can be changed by appropriate
configurations.
A network address always points to host / node / server or it can represent a whole network.
Network address is always configured on network interface card and is generally mapped by
system with the MAC address (hardware address or layer-2 address) of the machine for Layer-2
communication.
There are different kinds of network addresses in existence:
 IP
 IPX
 AppleTalk
We are discussing IP here as it is the only one we use in practice these days.

IP addressing provides mechanism to differentiate between hosts and network. Because IP

addresses are assigned in hierarchical manner, a host always resides under a specific network. The
host which needs to communicate outside its subnet, needs to know destination network address,
where the packet/data is to be sent.
Hosts in different subnet need a mechanism to locate each other. This task can be done by DNS.
DNS is a server which provides Layer-3 address of remote host mapped with its domain name or
FQDN. When a host acquires the Layer-3 Address (IP Address) of the remote host, it forwards all
its packet to its gateway. A gateway is a router equipped with all the information which leads to
route packets to the destination host.
Routers take help of routing tables, which has the following information:
 Method to reach the network
Routers upon receiving a forwarding request, forwards packet to its next hop (adjacent router)
towards the destination.
The next router on the path follows the same thing and eventually the data packet reaches its
destination.
Network address can be of one of the following:
 Unicast (destined to one host)
 Multicast (destined to group)
 Broadcast (destined to all)
 Anycast (destined to nearest one)
A router never forwards broadcast traffic by default. Multicast traffic uses special treatment as it
is most a video stream or audio with highest priority. Anycast is just similar to unicast, except that
the packets are delivered to the nearest destination when multiple destinations are available.

12.2 IPv4 - Addressing

IPv4 supports three different types of addressing modes. −
12.2.1 Unicast Addressing Mode
In this mode, data is sent only to one destined host. The Destination Address field contains 32- bit
IP address of the destination host. Here the client sends data to the targeted server −

12.2.2 Broadcast Addressing Mode

In this mode, the packet is addressed to all the hosts in a network segment. The Destination Address
field contains a special broadcast address, i.e. 255.255.255.255. When a host sees this packet on
the network, it is bound to process it. Here the client sends a packet, which is entertained by all the
Servers −
12.2.3 Multicast Addressing Mode
This mode is a mix of the previous two modes, i.e. the packet sent is neither destined to a single
host nor all the hosts on the segment. In this packet, the Destination Address contains a special
address which starts with 224.x.x.x and can be entertained by more than one host.

Here a server sends packets which are entertained by more than one servers. Every network has
one IP address reserved for the Network Number which represents the network and one IP address
reserved for the Broadcast Address, which represents all the hosts in that network.

12.3 Hierarchical Addressing Scheme

IPv4 uses hierarchical addressing scheme. An IP address, which is 32-bits in length, is divided into
two or three parts as depicted −

A single IP address can contain information about the network and its sub-network and ultimately
the host. This scheme enables the IP Address to be hierarchical where a network can have many
sub-networks which in turn can have many hosts.
12.3.1 Subnet Mask
The 32-bit IP address contains information about the host and its network. It is very necessary to
distinguish both. For this, routers use Subnet Mask, which is as long as the size of the network
address in the IP address. Subnet Mask is also 32 bits long. If the IP address in binary is ANDed
with its Subnet Mask, the result yields the Network address. For example, say the IP Address is
192.168.1.152 and the Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.0 then −
This way the Subnet Mask helps extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP Address. It can
be identified now that 192.168.1.0 is the Network number and 192.168.1.152 is the host on that
network.
12.3.2 Binary Representation
The positional value method is the simplest form of converting binary from decimal value. IP
address is 32 bit value which is divided into 4 octets. A binary octet contains 8 bits and the value
of each bit can be determined by the position of bit value '1' in the octet.

Positional value of bits is determined by 2 raised to power (position – 1), that is the value of a bit
1 at position 6 is 2^(6-1) that is 2^5 that is 32. The total value of the octet is determined by adding
up the positional value of bits. The value of 11000000 is 128+64 = 192. Some examples are shown
in the table below −
12.4 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)
Internet Protocol is one of the major protocols in the TCP/IP protocols suite. This protocol works
at the network layer of the OSI model and at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model. Thus this
protocol has the responsibility of identifying hosts based upon their logical addresses and to route
data among them over the underlying network.
IP provides a mechanism to uniquely identify hosts by an IP addressing scheme. IP uses best effort
delivery, i.e. it does not guarantee that packets would be delivered to the destined host, but it will
do its best to reach the destination. Internet Protocol version 4 uses 32-bit logical address.

12.5 IPv4 - Packet Structure

Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data Segments from layer-4 (Transport) and
divides it into packets. IP packet encapsulates data unit received from above layer and add to its
own header information.

The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload. IP header contains all the necessary information
to deliver the packet at the other end.

IP header includes many relevant information including Version Number, which, in this context,
is 4. Other details are as follows −
 Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).
  IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
 DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
 ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the congestion seen
in the route.
 Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).
 Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments
contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
 Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle, these
‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is always set to ‘0’.
 Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original IP
Packet.
 Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL value
set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross. At each hop, its
value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero, the packet is discarded.
 Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this packet
belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of ICMP is 1, TCP is
6 and UDP is 17.
 Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header which is
then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
 Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
 Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.
 Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5. These
options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time Stamp, etc.

12.6 IP packet
IP (Internet Protocol) is a network layer protocol that has to do with routing. It is used to make
sure packets arrive at the correct destination. Packets are sometimes defined by the protocol they
are using. A packet with an IP header can be referred to as an "IP packet." An IP header contains
important information about where a packet is from (its source IP address), where it is going
(destination IP address), how large the packet is, and how long network routers should continue to
forward the packet before dropping it. It may also indicate whether or not the packet can be
fragmented, and include information about reassembling fragmented packets.

"Datagram" is a segment of data sent over a packet-switched network. A datagram contains enough
information to be routed from its source to its destination. By this definition, an IP packet is one
example of a datagram. Essentially, datagram is an alternative term for "packet."

12.7 IP Address
An IP address is a numerical label assigned to the devices connected to a computer network that
uses the IP for communication. IP address act as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular
network. It also helps you to develop a virtual connection between a destination and a source. The
IP address is also called IP number or internet address. It helps you to specify the technical format
of the addressing and packets scheme. Most networks combine TCP with IP. An IP address
consists of four numbers, each number contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separates
each number or set of digits.
IP Address is divided into two parts:

 Prefix: The prefix part of IP address identifies the physical network to which the computer
is attached. . Prefix is also known as a network address.
 Suffix: The suffix part identifies the individual computer on the network. The suffix is also
called the host address.

12.7.1 How does IP address work?

IP address works in an IP network like a postal address. For example, a postal address combines
two addresses, address, or your area your house address. The address or your area is a group
address of all houses that belong to a specific area. The house address is the unique address of your
homes in that area. Here, your area is represented by a PIN code number. In this example, the
network address comprises all hosts which belong to a specific network. The host address is the
unique address of a particular host in that network.

12.7.2 What is IP header?

IP Header is meta information at the beginning of an IP packet. It displays information such as
the IP version, the packet’s length, the source, and the destination. IPV4 header format is 20 to 60
bytes in length. It contains information need for routing and delivery. It consists of 13 fields such
as Version, Header length, total distance, identification, flags, checksum, source IP address,
destination IP address. It provides essential data need to transmit the data. LE

IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used for packet-switched networks. It operates on a best effort
delivery model, in which neither delivery is guaranteed, nor proper sequencing or avoidance of
duplicate delivery is assured. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the
Internet Protocol and a widely used protocol in data communication over different kinds of
networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used in packet-switched layer networks, such as
Ethernet. It provides a logical connection between network devices by providing identification
for each device. There are many ways to configure IPv4 with all kinds of devices – including
manual and automatic configurations – depending on the network type.
IPv4 is defined and specified in IETF publication RFC 791. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses for
Ethernet communication in five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Classes A, B and C have a different
bit length for addressing the network host. Class D addresses are reserved for military purposes,
while class E addresses are reserved for future use.
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 byte) addressing, which gives 2 32 addresses. IPv4 addresses are written in
the dot-decimal notation, which comprises of four octets of the address expressed individually
in decimal and separated by periods, for instance, 192.168.1.5.
12.8 IP Header Classes:
Max
Address Subnet Example Leading
Class number of Application
Range masking IP bits
networks
Used for large
IP Class A 1 to 126 255.0.0.0 1.1.1.1 8 128
number of hosts.
Used for medium
IP Class B 128 to 191 255.255.0.0 128.1.1.1 16 16384
size network.
Used for local
IP Class C 192 to 223 255.255.255.0 192.1.11. 24 2097157
area network.
Reserve for multi-
IP Class D 224 to 239 NA NA NA NA
tasking.
This class is
reserved for
IP Class E 240 to 254 NA NA NA NA research and
Development
Purposes.

12.9 Features of IPv4

Following are the features of IPv4:

 Connectionless Protocol
 Allow creating a simple virtual communication layer over diversified devices
 It requires less memory, and ease of remembering addresses
 Already supported protocol by millions of devices
 Offers video libraries and conferences

********************WEEK THIRTEEN***********************

13. 1 IPv6
IP v6 was developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the problem of IP v4
exhaustion. IP v6 is a 128-bits address having an address space of 2^128, which is way bigger than
IPv4. In IPv6 we use Colon-Hexa representation. There are 8 groups and each group represents 2
Bytes.

13.2 What Is IPv6 and How Does It Matter?

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) is a network layer protocol which allows communication and
data transfers to take place over the network. IPv6 came into existence in 1998 and was created
out of the concern that demand for IPv4 addresses would exceed availability. IPv6 protocol, which
is 128-bits, consists of eight numbered strings, each containing four characters, separated by colon.
This gives us an unbelievable amount of unique IP addresses. Despite these, IPv6 protocol also
simplifies address assignment (for computers) and provides additional security features. It greatly
solves network bottleneck caused by the soaring amount of Internet-connected devices.

13.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of IPv6 Protocol

IPv6 protocol is all about future-proofing, with which every current household could have trillions
of connected devices, each with their own individual IP addresses, and there would still be plenty
of IPv6 addresses to spare, without the need for NAT. Here are the pros and cons of IPv6.

Pros of IPv6 Ptotocol

 Increased Capacity: of address space—resources are efficiently allocated to accommodate

additional web addresses.
 Efficient Routing: allows for easy aggregation of prefixes assigned to IP networks.
 Efficient Data Flow: enables large data packets to be sent simultaneously helping to
conserve bandwidth.
 Security: is improved due in part to improved authentication methods built into network
firewalls.

Cons of IPv6 Ptotocol

 Conversion: IPv4 is still widely used and the world is slow to convert to IPv6, the process
of making the switch to IPv6 from IPv4 is slow and tedious.
 Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly to each other, in
the very rare circumstance that they would need to.
 Readability: Understanding IPv6 subnetting can be difficult on its own, let alone trying to
remember/memorize your IPv6 address.

13.4 IPv6 Basic Header

An IPv6 basic header is fixed as 40 bytes long and has eight fields. Each IPv6 packet must have
an IPv6 basic header that provides basic packet forwarding information, and which all devices
parse on the forwarding path.
Unlike the IPv4 packet header, the IPv6 packet header does not carry IHL, identifier, flag, fragment
offset, header checksum, option, or padding fields, but it carries the flow label field. This facilitates
IPv6 packet processing and improves processing efficiency. To support various options without
changing the existing packet format, the Extension Header information field is added to the IPv6
packet header, improving flexibility. The following paragraphs describe IPv6 extension headers.

13.5 Features of IPv6

Here are the features of IPv6:

 Hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure

 Stateful and Stateless configuration
 Support for quality of service (QoS)
 An ideal protocol for neighboring node interaction

IPv4 vs IPv6

13.6 Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses

IPv4 & IPv6 are both IP addresses that are binary numbers. Comparing IPv6 vs IPv4, IPv4 is 32
bit binary number while IPv6 is 128 bit binary number address. IPv4 address are separated by
periods while IPv6 address are separated by colons. Both are used to identify machines connected
to a network. In principle, they are the same, but they are different in how they work. Below are
the main differences between IPv4 and IPv6:

Basis for
IPv4 IPv6
differences
Size of IP address IPv4 is a 32-Bit IP Address. IPv6 is 128 Bit IP Address.
IPv6 is an alphanumeric address whose
Addressing IPv4 is a numeric address, and its
binary bits are separated by a colon (:). It
method binary bits are separated by a dot (.)
also contains hexadecimal.
Number of header
12 8
fields
Length of header
20 40
filed
Checksum Has checksum fields Does not have checksum fields
Example 12.244.233.165 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:7879
Type of Addresses Unicast, broadcast, and multicast. Unicast, multicast, and anycast.
Basis for
IPv4 IPv6
differences
IPv4 offers five different classes of lPv6 allows storing an unlimited number of
Number of classes
IP Address. Class A to E. IP Address.
You have to configure a newly
In IPv6, the configuration is optional,
Configuration installed system before it can
depending upon on functions needed.
communicate with other systems.
IPv4 support VLSM (Variable
VLSM support IPv6 does not offer support for VLSM.
Length Subnet mask).
Fragmentation is done by sending
Fragmentation Fragmentation is done by the sender.
and forwarding routes.
Security is dependent on IPSec(Internet Protocol Security) is built
Security applications – IPv4 was not into the IPv6 protocol, usable with
designed with security in mind. a proper key infrastructure.
Packet size 576 bytes required,
Packet size 1208 bytes required without fragmentation
fragmentation optional
Packet Allows from routers and sending
Sending hosts only
fragmentation host
Does not identify packet flow for
Packet head contains Flow Label field that
Packet header QoS handling which includes
specifies packet flow for QoS handling
checksum options.
IPv4 and IPv6 cannot communicate with other but can exist together on the same network. This is
known as Dual Stack.

13.7 IPv4 - Subnetting

Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which bounds that IP class to have
prefixed number of Networks and prefixed number of Hosts per network. Classful IP addressing
does not provide any flexibility of having less number of Hosts per Network or more Networks
per IP Class.
CIDR or Classless Inter Domain Routing provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part
of the IP address and using them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using subnetting, one
single Class A IP address can be used to have smaller sub-networks which provides better network
management capabilities.
Class A Subnets
In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three octets are used to be
assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To make more subnet in Class A, bits from
Host part are borrowed and the subnet mask is changed accordingly.
For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from host bits of second octet and
added to Network address, it creates two Subnets (21=2) with (223-2) 8388606 Hosts per Subnet.
The Subnet mask is changed accordingly to reflect subnetting. Given below is a list of all possible
combination of Class A subnets −
In case of subnetting too, the very first and last IP address of every subnet is used for Subnet
Number and Subnet Broadcast IP address respectively. Because these two IP addresses cannot be
assigned to hosts, sub-netting cannot be implemented by using more than 30 bits as Network Bits,
which provides less than two hosts per subnet.
Class B Subnets
By default, using Classful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing (214) 16384
Networks and (216-2) 65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subnetted the same way as Class
A addresses, by borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is given all possible combination of Class
B subnetting −
Class C Subnets
Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size network because it can only have
254 hosts in a network. Given below is a list of all possible combination of subnetted Class B IP
address −

13.8 IPv4 - VLSM

Internet Service Providers may face a situation where they need to allocate IP subnets of different
sizes as per the requirement of customer. One customer may ask Class C subnet of 3 IP addresses
and another may ask for 10 IPs. For an ISP, it is not feasible to divide the IP addresses into fixed
size subnets, rather he may want to subnet the subnets in such a way which results in minimum
wastage of IP addresses.
For example, an administrator have 192.168.1.0/24 network. The suffix /24 (pronounced as "slash
24") tells the number of bits used for network address. In this example, the administrator has three
different departments with different number of hosts. Sales department has 100 computers,
Purchase department has 50 computers, Accounts has 25 computers and Management has 5
computers. In CIDR, the subnets are of fixed size. Using the same methodology the administrator
cannot fulfill all the requirements of the network.
The following procedure shows how VLSM can be used in order to allocate department-wise IP
addresses as mentioned in the example.
Step - 1
Make a list of Subnets possible.
Step - 2
Sort the requirements of IPs in descending order (Highest to Lowest).

 Sales 100
 Purchase 50
 Accounts 25
 Management 5
Step - 3
Allocate the highest range of IPs to the highest requirement, so let's assign 192.168.1.0 /25
(255.255.255.128) to the Sales department. This IP subnet with Network number 192.168.1.0 has
126 valid Host IP addresses which satisfy the requirement of the Sales department. The subnet
mask used for this subnet has 10000000 as the last octet.
Step - 4
Allocate the next highest range, so let's assign 192.168.1.128 /26 (255.255.255.192) to the
Purchase department. This IP subnet with Network number 192.168.1.128 has 62 valid Host IP
Addresses which can be easily assigned to all the PCs of the Purchase department. The subnet
mask used has 11000000 in the last octet.
Step - 5
Allocate the next highest range, i.e. Accounts. The requirement of 25 IPs can be fulfilled with
192.168.1.192 /27 (255.255.255.224) IP subnet, which contains 30 valid host IPs. The network
number of Accounts department will be 192.168.1.192. The last octet of subnet mask is 11100000.
Step - 6
Allocate the next highest range to Management. The Management department contains only 5
computers. The subnet 192.168.1.224 /29 with the Mask 255.255.255.248 has exactly 6 valid host
IP addresses. So this can be assigned to Management. The last octet of the subnet mask will contain
11111000.
By using VLSM, the administrator can subnet the IP subnet in such a way that least number of IP
addresses are wasted. Even after assigning IPs to every department, the administrator, in this
example, is still left with plenty of IP addresses which was not possible if he has used CIDR.

13.9 Functional Testing

Functional Testing is a popular type of testing that verifies different functions of a software
application that operates in conformance with requirements specification. It is majorly based on
the black box testing technique, and it does not focus on the source code of the application. The
different functionalities of a system are tested by providing appropriate inputs, verifying the
outputs and then comparing the actual results with the expected outcomes.

This testing majorly involves User Interface, APIs, databases, security controls, client/server
application functionality of an application under test. Functional Testing is performed either
manually or can be automated.

13.9.1 Why choose Functional Testing?

The major objective of Functional Testing is to check the functionalities of a software system. It
majorly focuses on the following areas:

 Main Functions: This testing checks the main functions of an application.

 Usability: It involves the basic usability testing of the system. It checks either a user can
navigate freely through screens without any issues.
 Accessibility: It focuses on the system accessibility for the user.
 Error logs: Functional testing is used to check different error conditions. It also checks
either error messages are displayed properly or not.

13.9.2 How to perform Functional Testing?

There must be something to verify the acceptable behavior of an application. Functional Testing
is a document that defines what is permitted by the user, and what is not. Sometimes, it entails the
actual business scenarios to be validated. Functional testing is usually performed in two common
steps:

 When testing is done based on functional requirements, it contains all the functional
specifications that form the basis of tests to be conducted.
 When testing is done based on scenarios, it contains information about the system of
how the business perspective will perceive it.

Testing and quality are major parts of the SDLC process, and we should be aware of all type of
testing even if we are not directly involved with the testing regularly. The scope of testing is wider
like an ocean, and a team of quality testers is required to give the right direction to an application.
13.10 Different Types of Functional Testing
Functional Testing can be divided into multiple categories based on the scenario, and most popular
ones are discussed below.

1). Unit Testing

Unit testing is performed by a developer to check different units of code that are either related or
non-related to achieve a particular functionality. The process starts with writing unit test cases that
would call methods in each unit and validate them when the required parameters are passed and
returns the value as expected. Code coverage is an important functionality of unit testing where
test cases should cover the following:

2). Sanity Testing

Testing that makes sure that all major components of a software application are working perfectly
is termed as sanity testing. It is usually performed after a smoke test.

3). Smoke testing

Testing that is done once and the complete build is released to ensure the stability is called the
smoke testing. The other name for smoke testing is to build verification testing.

4). Regression testing

The regression testing is done to make sure that new code, enhancements, and bug fixes will not
break the existing functionality of an application. For this purpose, you should write the test cases
to check the functional ability of an application and make sure that it is stable.

5). Integration Testing

When we integrate multiple modules that are working great independently but not able to
coordinate well when integrated together, this validation is termed as the integration testing. The
integration testing is useful when you want to check all modules together how they communicate
with each other. If there are any issues, they can be resolved immediately.

6). Beta/Usability testing

When the product is exposed to customers in a production like an environment, and they test the
product on different parameters in terms of usability, it is called the Beta testing. It is common
these days if you need genuine feedback for the product. It is similar to the User Acceptance testing
in most of the parameters.

You may understand different types of functional testing with the help of this flow chart.

7). System Testing

System testing is done on the whole system to make sure it is working as expected when all
components are integrated and tested.

8). End to End Testing

It is performed to verify the functionality of a product when you are done with the system testing.
It focuses on functional and non-functional requirements.

********************WEEK FORTEEN***********************

14.1 Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the standard Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is
a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so
that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS server will resolve a
name https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer
on which this website is hosted.
14.2 Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not
available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each organization has its own Intranet network
and members/employees of that organization can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the computers
in that Intranet.
Similarities between Internet and Intranet
 Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.
 Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in the internet.
However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.
 In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over
the internet.
Differences between Internet and Intranet
 Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.
 Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population, whereas
Intranet is restricted.
 Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.
The Internet is a global network of networks where computers communicate with each other via
Internet Protocol. Intranets, on the other hand, are private networks. Go through this article to find
out the other major differences between the Internet and an Intranet.

14.3 What is Internet?

The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. As the Internet is a globally connected
network, so it can have multiple more users as compare to the number of users on Intranet.
Although the phrases "Internet" and "World Wide Web" are sometimes used interchangeably,
they are not synonymous; the Internet refers to the worldwide communication system comprising
hardware and infrastructure. The web, on the other hand, is one of the Internet's services.
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below −
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET) which was developed by United States Department of Defense. The
basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of
government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries
and thus became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW,
browsers, scripting languages, etc., the Internet provided a medium to publish and access
information over the web.
Advantages of Internet
 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are
various apps available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication. One
can find various social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo, Google+, Flickr,
etc.
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various
topics such as Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information,
Information Technology, Products, etc. can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Internet allows us to use many services like Internet Banking, Online Shopping, Online
Ticket Booking, Online Bill Payment, Data Sharing, and E-mail among others.
 Internet provides the concept of electronic commerce that allows the business deals to be
conducted on electronic systems.
Disadvantages of Internet
 There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address, credit card
number. Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One should
use credit cards only through authenticated sites.
 Another disadvantage is Spamming which corresponds to the unwanted e-mails in bulk.
 Various types of dangerous computer virus can easily be spread through the systems that
are connected to the Internet. Such virus attacks may cause your system to crash or your
important data may get deleted.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads to
misconception among many people.

14.4 What is Intranet?

An intranet is a secure private company network that uses the Internet Protocol to share data and
application resources (IP). Intranets, which refer to an organization’s internal website or portion
of its IT infrastructure, can house several private websites and are an essential tool for internal
communication and cooperation.
A firm's Intranet is built on Internet concepts and technology, but it is only for internal use. The
term "Intranet" can refer to anything that is web-based but intended for personal use, but it most
commonly refers to a company's shared online apps. Companies frequently keep internal contact
information, calendars, and other documents on their intranets, for example.
14.5 Difference between Internet and Intranet
The following table compares and contrasts the major differences between Internet and Intranet.

Key Internet Intranet

The Internet is the global system of An Intranet is a private network that is

interconnected computer networks contained within an enterprise. It may
Definition that use the Internet protocol suite to consist of many interlinked local area
link devices worldwide. networks and also use leased lines in
the wide area network.

Internet is the globally connected Intranet has limited network range, so

network, so it can have a huge users on Intranet are also limited and
Users
number of users as compared to the less as compared than that on Internet.
number of users on an Intranet.

The total visitor traffic is Because intranets have a small

exceptionally high due to a large number of users, visitor traffic is
Traffic number of users and a public limited compared to the Internet. The
network. It's practically impossible to traffic on an intranet can be counted.
count.

As Internet is exposed to global Intranets, in contrast, are much more

network and has wider range as secure due to their limited network
compare to that of Intranet, so the size.
Security
possibility of cyber-attacks and other
security threats is more in case of
Internet.

Type of Internet is a type of public network. Intranet is a type of private network.

network

Users can access a huge variety of On an Intranet, users can have access
Data data on the Internet. Anyone with a to only limited data. Only members of
accessibility network connection can have access the organization with login credentials
to the Internet. can have access to an Intranet.
 Key Internet Intranet

The scope of information available On the other hand, an Intranet

on the Internet is vast, encompassing contains restricted information about
Scope
practically every topic, category, and any group or organization, such as the
field. company's databases.

14.6 Internet Connectivity

Internet Service Providers (ISP)
Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company offering access to internet. They offer various
services:
 Internet Access
 Domain name registration
 Dial-up access
 Leased line access
ISP Types
ISPs can broadly be classified into six categories as shown in the following diagram:

Access providers
They provide access to internet through telephone lines, cable wi-fi or fiber optics.
Mailbox Provider
Such providers offer mailbox hosting services.
Hosting ISPs
Hosting ISPs offers e-mail, and other web hosting services such as virtual machines, clouds etc.
Virtual ISPs
Such ISPs offer internet access via other ISP services.
Free ISPs
Free ISPs do not charge for internet services.

14.7 Connection Types

There exist several ways to connect to the internet. Following are these connection types available:
1. Dial-up Connection
2. ISDN
3. DSL
4. Cable TV Internet connections
5. Satellite Internet connections
6. Wireless Internet Connections
Dial-up Connection
Dial-up connection uses telephone line to connect PC to the internet. It requires a modem to setup
dial-up connection. This modem works as an interface between PC and the telephone line.
There is also a communication program that instructs the modem to make a call to specific number
provided by an ISP.
Dial-up connection uses either of the following protocols:
1. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
2. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
The following diagram shows the accessing internet using modem:

ISDN
ISDN is acronym of Integrated Services Digital Network. It establishes the connection using the
phone lines which carry digital signals instead of analog signals.
There are two techniques to deliver ISDN services:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
Key points:
 The BRI ISDN consists of three distinct channels on a single ISDN line: t1o 64kbps B
(Bearer) channel and one 16kbps D (Delta or Data) channels.
 The PRI ISDN consists of 23 B channels and one D channels with both have operating
capacity of 64kbps individually making a total transmission rate of 1.54Mbps.
The following diagram shows accessing internet using ISDN connection:

DSL
DSL is acronym of Digital Subscriber Line. It is a form of broadband connection as it provides
connection over ordinary telephone lines. Following are the several versions of DSL technique
available today:
1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
2. Symmetric DSL (SDSL)
3. High bit-rate DSL (HDSL)
4. Rate adaptive DSL (RDSL)
5. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL)
6. ISDN DSL (IDSL)
All of the above mentioned technologies differ in their upload and download speed, bit transfer
rate and level of service. The following diagram shows that how we can connect to internet using
DSL technology:
Cable TV Internet Connection
Cable TV Internet connection is provided through Cable TV lines. It uses coaxial cable which is
capable of transferring data at much higher speed than common telephone line.
Key Points:
 A cable modem is used to access this service, provided by the cable operator.
 The Cable modem comprises of two connections: one for internet service and other for
Cable TV signals.
 Since Cable TV internet connections share a set amount of bandwidth with a group of
customers, therefore, data transfer rate also depends on number of customers using the
internet at the same time.
The following diagram shows that how internet is accessed using Cable TV connection:

Satellite Internet Connection

Satellite Internet connection offers high speed connection to the internet. There are two types of
satellite internet connection: one way connection or two way connection.
In one way connection, we can only download data but if we want to upload, we need a dialup
access through ISP over telephone line.
In two way connection, we can download and upload the data by the satellite. It does not require
any dialup connection.
The following diagram shows how internet is accessed using satellite internet connection:
Wireless Internet Connection
Wireless Internet Connection makes use of radio frequency bands to connect to the internet and
offers a very high speed. The wireless internet connection can be obtained by either WiFi or
Bluetooth.
Key Points:
 Wi Fi wireless technology is based on IEEE 802.11 standards which allow the electronic
device to connect to the internet.
 Bluetooth wireless technology makes use of short-wavelength radio waves and helps to
create personal area network (PAN).

********************WEEK FIFTEEN***********************

15.1 What are wireless networks?

Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code implemented the wireless
network. Now-a-days, the modern digital systems use wireless systems of the same idea as Morse
code as implemented but with better performance.

15.2 Categories of Wireless Networks

Wireless Networks are divided into three categories as explained below:
15.2.1 System Interconnection
It is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-range radio. Some
companies together design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various
components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer etc, without wires.
In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit
is normally the master. The other devices like mouse, keyboard, printer etc are slaves.
15.2.2 Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with the help of
these it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs usage is increasing in small offices,
colleges, Homes where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There is a standard for
wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11.
15.2.3 Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of low-bandwidth wireless WAN.
This system has already gone through three generation, as explained below −
 The first generation was analog and used for voice only.
 The second generation was digital and used for voice only.
 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
15.3 Access Point
Access Point (AP) is the central node in 802.11 wireless implementations. It is the interface
between wired and wireless network, that all the wireless clients associate to and exchange data
with. For a home environment, most often you have a router, a switch, and an AP embedded in
one box, making it really usable for this purpose.

Base Transceiver Station

Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is the equivalent of an Access Point from 802.11 world, but used
by mobile operators to provide a signal coverage, ex. 3G, GSM etc...
Wireless Controller (WLC)
In corporate wireless implementation, the number of Access Points is often counted in hundreds
or thousands of units. It would not be administratively possible to manage all the AP's and their
configuration (channel assignments, optimal output power, roaming configuration, creation of
SSID on each and every AP, etc.) separately.

This is the situation, where the concept of wireless controller comes into play. It is the
"Mastermind" behind all the wireless network operation. This centralized server which has the IP
connectivity to all the AP's on the network making it easy to manage all of them globally from the
single management platform, push configuration templates, monitor users from all the AP's in real
time and so on.

Service Set Identifier (SSID)

SSID directly identifies the wireless WLAN itself. In order to connect to Wireless LAN, the
wireless client needs to send the same exact SSID in the association frame as the SSID name,
preconfigured on the AP. So the question now arises how to find out which SSIDs are present in
your environment? That is easy as all the operating systems come with a built-in wireless client
that scans wireless spectrum for the wireless networks to join (as shows below). I am sure you
have done this process several times in your daily routine.
But, how those devices know that specific wireless network is named in that particular way just
by listening to radio magnetic waves? It is because one of the fields in a beacon frame (that APs
transmit all the time in very short time intervals) contains a name of the SSID always in clear text,
which is the whole theory about this.

SSID can have a length of up to 32 alphanumeric characters and uniquely identifies a particular
WLAN broadcasted by the AP. In case, when the AP has multiple SSIDs defined, it will then send
a separate beacon frame for each SSID.
Cell
A cell is basically a geographical region covered by the AP's or BTS's antenna (transmitter). In the
following image, a cell is marked with a yellow line.

Most often, an AP has much more output power, when compared it with the capabilities of the
antenna built-in into the client device. The fact that, the client can receive frames transmitted from
the AP, does not mean that a 2-way communication can be established. The above picture perfectly
shows that situation. - In both situations, a client can hear AP's frames, but only in the second
situation, the 2-way communication can be established.
The outcome from this short example is that, when designing the wireless cell sizes, one has to
take into account, what is the average output transmitting power of the antennas that clients will
use.
Channel
Wireless Networks may be configured to support multiple 802.11 standards. Some of them operate
on the 2.4GHz band (example are: 802.11b/g/n) and other ones on the 5GHz band (example:
802.11a/n/ac).
Depending on the band, there is a predefined set of sub-bands defined for each channel. In
environments with multiple APs placed in the same physical area, the smart channel assignment
is used in order to avoid collisions (collisions of the frames transmitted on exactly the same
frequency from multiple sources at the same time).
Let's have a look at the theoretical design of the 802.11b network with 3 cells, adjacent to each
other as shown in the above picture. Design on the left is composed of 3 non-overlapping channels
- it means that frames sent by APs and its clients in particular cell, will not interfere with
communication in other cells. On the right, we have a completely opposite situation, all the frames
flying around on the same channel leads to collisions and degrade the wireless performance
significantly.
Antennas
Antennas are used to "translate" information flowing as an electrical signal inside the cable and
into the electromagnetic field, which is used to transmit the frame over a wireless medium.

Every wireless device (either AP or any type of wireless client device) has an antenna that includes
a transmitter and the receiver module. It can be external and visible to everyone around or built-
in, as most of the laptops or smartphones nowadays have.
For wireless security testing or penetration tests of the wireless networks, external antenna is one
of the most important tools. You should get one of them, if you want to go into this field! One of
the biggest advantages of external antennas (comparing to most of the internal antennas you might
meet built-in to the equipment), is that they can be configured in a so-called "monitor mode" - this
is definitely something you need! It allows you to sniff the wireless traffic from your PC
using wireshark or other well-known tools like Kismet.

15.4 Multiple Access

Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum.

15.5 Multiple Access Techniques

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send information
simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving information from the
base station to the mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell communicates
with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to increase the
capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with a
sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following −

 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be
classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth are called
as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel but allocates
a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users in time on
a single channel.
Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received
signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small fraction of
the signal bandwidth.

15.5.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of FDMA are as
follows.

 FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the
network.
 If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
 FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
 Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
 The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and
continuously in FDMA.
15.5.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of FDMA.
The features of TDMA include the following.

 TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes use of
non-overlapping time slots.
  Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff
process is simpler.
 TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not
required.
 TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per
frame to different users.
 Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning
time slot based on priority.
15.5.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several
transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as follows.

 In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by
separate frequency.
 CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
 While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code can
communicate with each other.
 CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
 The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
15.5.4 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is MIMO
(multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and satellite
communication. It has the following features.

 All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
 SDMA is completely free from interference.
 A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same frequency.
 The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA, can
track a moving user.
 Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
15.5.5 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth
whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −

 Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)

 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual users are
varied in a pseudo random fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is broken into
uniform sized bursts which is then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is multiplied
by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user is given his own code word which is orthogonal to
the codes of other users and in order to detect the user, the receiver must know the code word used
by the transmitter. The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another type of
spread spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is rarely mentioned. Since many users
can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, spread
spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a multiple user environment.

15.6 Network security

Network security is protection of the access to files and directories in a computer network against
hacking, misuse, and unauthorized change to the system.
Network security is the security provided to a network from unauthorized access and risks. It is
the duty of network administrators to adopt preventive measures to protect their networks from
potential security threats.
Computer networks that are involved in regular transactions and communication within the
government, individuals, or business require security. The most common and simple way of
protecting a network resource is by assigning it a unique name and a corresponding password.
15.6.1 Importance of network security
The importance of network security is explained below:
 Confidentiality − Confidentiality is probably the common aspect of information security.
We need to protect our confidential information through network security. An organization
needs to guard against those malicious actions that endanger the confidentiality of its
information.
 Integrity − Information’s needs to be changed constantly. To keep changes secure we need
network security.
 Availability − The third-party component of information security is called availability. The
information created and stored by an organization needs to be available for the authorized
entities. If it is not available, then there is no use of it. The unavailability of information is
harmful for an organization as is the lack of confidentiality or integrity.

15.7 Types of Network Security Devices

Active Devices
These security devices block the surplus traffic. Firewalls, antivirus scanning devices, and content
filtering devices are the examples of such devices.
Passive Devices
These devices identify and report on unwanted traffic, for example, intrusion detection appliances.
Preventative Devices
These devices scan the networks and identify potential security problems. For example,
penetration testing devices and vulnerability assessment appliances.
Unified Threat Management (UTM)
These devices serve as all-in-one security devices. Examples include firewalls, content filtering,
web caching, etc.
15.7.1 Firewalls
A firewall is a network security system that manages and regulates the network traffic based on
some protocols. A firewall establishes a barrier between a trusted internal network and the internet.
Firewalls exist both as software that run on a hardware and as hardware appliances. Firewalls that
are hardware-based also provide other functions like acting as a DHCP server for that network.
Most personal computers use software-based firewalls to secure data from threats from the
internet. Many routers that pass data between networks contain firewall components and
conversely, many firewalls can perform basic routing functions.
Firewalls are commonly used in private networks or intranets to prevent unauthorized access from
the internet. Every message entering or leaving the intranet goes through the firewall to be
examined for security measures.
An ideal firewall configuration consists of both hardware and software based devices. A firewall
also helps in providing remote access to a private network through secure authentication
certificates and logins.
Hardware and Software Firewalls
Hardware firewalls are standalone products. These are also found in broadband routers. Most
hardware firewalls provide a minimum of four network ports to connect other computers. For
larger networks − e.g., for business purpose − business networking firewall solutions are available.
Software firewalls are installed on your computers. A software firewall protects your computer
from internet threats.
15.7.2 Antivirus
An antivirus is a tool that is used to detect and remove malicious software. It was originally
designed to detect and remove viruses from computers.
Modern antivirus software provide protection not only from virus, but also from worms, Trojan-
horses, adwares, spywares, keyloggers, etc. Some products also provide protection from malicious
URLs, spam, phishing attacks, botnets, DDoS attacks, etc.
15.7.3 Content Filtering
Content filtering devices screen unpleasant and offensive emails or webpages. These are used as a
part of firewalls in corporations as well as in personal computers. These devices generate the
message "Access Denied" when someone tries to access any unauthorized web page or email.
Content is usually screened for pornographic content and also for violence- or hate-oriented
content. Organizations also exclude shopping and job related contents.
Content filtering can be divided into the following categories −

 Web filtering
 Screening of Web sites or pages
 E-mail filtering
 Screening of e-mail for spam
 Other objectionable content
15.7.4 Intrusion Detection Systems
Intrusion Detection Systems, also known as Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems, are the
appliances that monitor malicious activities in a network, log information about such activities,
take steps to stop them, and finally report them.
Intrusion detection systems help in sending an alarm against any malicious activity in the network,
drop the packets, and reset the connection to save the IP address from any blockage. Intrusion
detection systems can also perform the following actions −

 Correct Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) errors

 Prevent TCP sequencing issues
 Clean up unwanted transport and network layer options

15.8 Wi-Fi - IEEE Standards

The 802.11 standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines an over-the-
air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 familyt:
 802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1 - or 2-Mbps transmission in the
2.4-GHz band using either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS).
 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as fast as
54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.
 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless
LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2,
and 1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b
specification uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the original
 802.11 standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to hard-
wired Ethernet connections.
 802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.
Here is the technical comparison between the three major WiFi standards.

Feature WiFi (802.11b) WiFi (802.11a/g)

PrimaryApplication Wireless LAN Wireless LAN

Frequency Band 2.4 GHz ISM 2.4 GHz ISM (g)

5 GHz U-NII (a)

Channel Bandwidth 25 MHz 20 MHz

Half/Full Duplex Half Half

Radio Technology Direct Sequence OFDM

Spread Spectrum (64-channels)

Bandwidth <=0.44 bps/Hz ≤=2.7 bps/Hz

Efficiency

Modulation QPSK BPSK, QPSK, 16-, 64-QAM

FEC None Convolutional Code

Encryption Optional- RC4m (AES in Optional- RC4(AES in 802.11i)

802.11i)

Mobility In development In development

Mesh Vendor Proprietary Vendor Proprietary

Access Protocol CSMA/CA CSMA/CA

15.9 Wi-Fi - Security
Security has been one of the major deficiencies in WiFi, though better encryption systems are now
becoming available. Encryption is optional in WiFi, and three different techniques have been
defined. These techniques are given here −
15.9.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
An RC4-based 40-or 104-bit encryption with a static key.
15.9.2 WiFi Protected Access (WPA)
This is a new standard from the WiFi Alliance that uses the 40 or 104-bit WEP key, but it changes
the key on each packet. That changing key functionality is called the Temporal Key Integrity
Protocol (TKIP).
15.9.3 IEEE 802.11i/WPA2
The IEEE is finalized the 802.11i standard, which is based on a far more robust encryption
technique called the Advanced Encryption Standard. The WiFi Alliance designate products that
comply with the 802.11i standard as WPA2.
However, implementing 802.11i requires a hardware upgrade.

THANK YOU WISH YOU ALL THE BEST