“INTRODUCTION OF SP”

Prepared By
Prof. Anand N. Gharu
(Assistant Professor)
METIOE Computer Dept.

CLASS : TE COMPUTER 2019

SUBJECT : SPOS (SEM-I) 01 JULY 2021
.UNIT :I
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 SYLLABUS :-
Introduction to Systems Programming, Need of Systems
Programming, Software Hierarchy, Types of software:
system software and application software, Machine structure.
Evolution of components of Systems Programming: Text
Editors, Assembler, Macros, Compiler, Interpreter, Loader,
Linker, Debugger, Device Drivers, Operating System.
Elements of Assembly Language Programming: Assembly
Language statements, Benefits of Assembly Language, A
simple Assembly scheme, Pass Structure of Assembler.
Design of two pass Assembler: Processing of declaration
statements, Assembler Directives and imperative statements,
Advanced Assembler Directives, Intermediate code forms,
PassMR.
I and
ANANDPass
GHARU II of two pass Assembler.
 CONTENTS :-
1. Introduction to Systems Programming
- Need of Systems Programming
- Software Hierarchy
- Types of software: system software and application
software.
2. Evolution of components of Systems Programming:
- Text Editors
- Assembler
- Macros
- Compiler
- Interpreter
MR. ANAND GHARU
 CONTENTS :-
2. Evolution of components of Systems Programming: -
- Loader
- Linker
- Debugger
- Device Driver
- Operating System.
3. Elements of Assembly Language Programming:
- Machine structure
- Assembly Language statements, Benefits of Assembly
Language
- A simple Assembly scheme, Pass Structure of
Assembler.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 CONTENTS :-
4. Design of two pass Assembler:
- Processing of declaration statements
- Assembler Directives and imperative statements
- Advanced Assembler Directives
- Intermediate code forms
- Pass I and Pass II of two pass Assembler.

MR. ANAND GHARU

CONTENTS :-
Sample videos :
1. Preprocessor :
https://youtu.be/JZkPEl8JjZo?list=PLhb7SOmGNUc6Fg7zmBOOS3y
N2AG0JiREp

2. Compiler execution stages :

https://youtu.be/cJDRShqtTbk?list=PLhb7SOmGNUc6Fg7zmBOOS3y
N2AG0JiREp

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Introduction
Computer : A programmable device that can store, retrieve,
and process data.(Combination of H/w & S/w )

Hardware : things which we can touch.

Software : things which we cannt touch.(Can only see)

Programming: A programming language is a set of
commands, instructions, and other syntax use to create a
software program.

Data : Information in a form a computer can use

Information : Any knowledge that can be communicated
 Introduction
Computer program : Data type specifications and instructions
for carrying out operations that are used by a computer to solve a
problem.

Machine language : The language, made up of binarycoded

instructions, that is used directly by the computer

Assembly language : A low-level programming language

in which a mnemonic is used to represent each of the
machine language instructions for a particular computer
 Introduction
Source code : Program or set of instructions written in a
high-level programming language

Object code : A machine language version of source

code.

Target code : program output in Machine code (binary

form)

,
 Introduction
Preprocessor :
a preprocessor is a program that processes its input data to
produce output that is used as input to another program.

Editor : A text editor is a type of computer program that edits

plain text. Such programs are sometimes known as "notepad"
software

Compiler : A program that translates a program written in a high-

level language into machine code

Assembler : A program that translates an assembly language

program into machine code
 Introduction
Loader:-
• A loader is a program used by an operating system to load
programs from a
secondary to main memory so as to be executed.

Linker :
a linker is a computer program that takes one or more object files
generated by a compiler and combines them into one, executable
program

Debugger :
Debugger is program which is used to test program or execute
program in single step execution.
 Introduction
• What is System?
– System is the collection of various components

• Ex:- College is a system.

• College is a system because it consist of
various components like various departments,
classrooms, faculties and students.

• What is Programming?
– Art of designing and implementing the programs.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Introduction
• What is System Programming?
– Systems programming involves the development of
the individual pieces of software that allow the
entire system to function as a single unit.

– Systems programming involves many layers such

as the operating system (OS), firmware, and the
development environment.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Introduction
• In college system, what is program?
• A LECTURE can be a program. Because it has
input and output.

• Input-> The information that teacher is

delivering.
• Output-> The knowledge student has been
received.

So system programming is an art of designing

and implementing system Programs.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Need of System Programming
• System programs provide an environment where
programs can be developed and executed.
• In the simplest sense, system programs also
provide a bridge between the user interface and
system calls.
• In reality, they are much more complex. For
example, a compiler is a complex system program.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Need of System Programming
• The system program serves as a part of the
operating system. It traditionally lies between the
user interface and the system calls.
• The user view of the system is actually defined by
system programs and not system calls because that
is what they interact with and system programs are
closer to the user interface.
MR. ANAND GHARU
Need of System Programming

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Need of System Programming
• In the above image, system programs as well as
application programs form a bridge between
the user interface and the system calls. So,
from the user view the operating system
observed is actually the system programs and
not the system calls

MR. ANAND GHARU

Need of System Programming

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Software Hierarchy
A software hierarchy is the combination of product, version,
and release (or feature) that represents an item of software in a
database or knowledge base. The product is the root of the
hierarchy.

• Software
1. System Software
· Operating System
· System Support
· System Development

2. Application Software
· General Purpose
MR. ANAND GHARU
Software Hierarchy

MR. ANAND GHARU

 What is Software ?
• Software is collection of many programs

• Two types of software

–System software: These programs assist
general user application programs
• Ex:- Operating System , Assembler etc.

– Application software
• These are the software developed for the specific
goal.
• Ex. Media Player, Adobe Reader etc
MR. ANAND GHARU
System software Vs Application software

MR. ANAND GHARU

System software Vs Application software
Sr.
System Software Application Software
No
System software is used for operating Application software is used by user to
1.
computer hardware. perform specific task.

System softwares are installed on the

Application softwares are installed
2. computer when operating system is
according to user’s requirements.
installed.
In general, the user does not interact with
In general, the user interacts with
3. system software because it works in the
application sofwares.
background.
System software can run independently. It Application software can’t run
4. provides platform for running application independently. They can’t run without the
softwares. presence of system software.
Some examples of application softwares
Some examples of system softwares are
5. are word processor, web browser, media
compiler, assembler, debugger, driver, etc.
MR. ANANDplayer, GHARU etc.
System software Vs Application software
Sr.
System Software Application Software
No

1. It is general purpose software It is specific purpose software

2. Written in low level language Written in High level language

3. Small in size Large in size

4. Complex to design and implement Easy to design and implement

Some examples of application softwares

Some examples of system softwares are
5. are word processor, web browser, media
compiler, assembler, debugger, driver, etc.
MR. ANANDplayer, GHARU etc.
System Programming Components
- Text Editors
- Assembler
- Macros
- Compiler
- Interpreter
- Loader
- Linker
- Debugger
- Device Driver
- Operating System.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Text Editors
• Editor is a computer program that allows a user to
create and revise a document..

• A text editor is a type of program used for editing plain

text files.

• With the help of text editor you can write your

program(e.g. C Program or Java Program).

• Text editor’s example is Notepad.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Types of Text Editors
1. Line editor : This code editor edits the file line by
line. You cannot work on a stream of lines using the
line editor. Example of a line editor is teleprinter.

2. Stream editor : In this type of editors, the file is

treated as continuous flow or sequence of characters
instead of line numbers, which means here you can
type paragraphs.

Ex : Sed editor in UNIX

MR. ANAND GHARU
 Types of Text Editors
3. Screen editors : In this type of editors, the user is able
to see the cursor on the screen and can make a copy, cut,
paste operation easily. It is very easy to use mouse pointer.

Ex : vi, emacs, Notepad

4. Word Processor : Overcoming the limitations of screen

editors, it allows one to use some format to insert images,
files, videos, use font, size, style features. It majorly
focuses on Natural language.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Loaders
• A loader is a program that takes object code as
input and prepares them for execution.
• It initiates the execution.
• Functions:
1. Allocation
2. Linking
3. Relocation
MR. ANAND GHARU
4. Loading
 Functions of Loader
1. Allocation : Loader allocates space for programs in main
memory
2. Linking- which combines two or more separate object
programs (by Linker)
3. Relocation - which modifies the object program so that it
can be loaded at an address different from the location
originally specified - (Linking Loader) and data into main
memory
4. Loading - which allocates memory location and brings the
MR. ANAND GHARU
object program into memory for execution - (Loader)
GENERAL LOADING SCHEME

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General Loading Scheme
RELOCATION

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RELOCATION

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RELOCATION

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 Assembler
• Assembler is a translator which translates
assembly language program into machine
language.

MR. ANAND GHARU

Microprocessor

MR. ANAND GHARU

•
Macro & Macroprocessor
Macro allows a sequence of source language code to be defined once and
then referred many times.
• “ A macro is a sequence of instructions, assigned by a name and could
be used anywhere in the program ”
• In NASM, macros are defined with %macro and %endmacro directives.
• The macro begins with the %macro directive and ends with the
%endmacro directive.
• Syntax:

%macro macro_name number_of_params

<macro body>
%endmacro
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Macro & Macroprocessor
• A macro processor takes a source with macro definition and macro calls
and replaces each macro call with its body.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Macro & Macroprocessor
• How Macroprocessor works :

MR. ANAND GHARU

MR. ANAND GHARU
 PREPROCESSORS,COMPILERS,
ASSEMBLERS, AND LINKERS

Skeletal Source Program

Preprocessor

Try for
gcc
example: Compiler
myprog.c
Assembler

Target Assembly Libraries and

Program Linker Relocatable
Object Files
Relocatable Object
Code Absolute Machine Code

42

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Compiler
• Compiler is a translator which converts the high
level language into low level language.

• Benefits of writing a program in a high level

language :

• Increases productivity: It is very easy to write a

program in a high level language.

• Machine Independence: A program written in a

high level language is machine
MR. ANAND GHARU independent.
 COMPILERS

• “Compilation”
– Translation of a program written in a source
language into a semantically equivalent program
written in a target language
Input

Source Target
Compiler
Progra Program
m
Error Output 3
messages
MR. ANAND GHARU
Phases of Compiler

MR. ANAND GHARU

Example : https://youtu.be/P1bQUyl__t0

PHASESOF COMPILER

Skeletal Source Program

Preprocessor

Compiler

Assembler

Linker

46

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Example : https://youtu.be/P1bQUyl__t0
C
FRONT END & BACK END OF
COMPILER

Skeletal Source Program

Preprocessor

Compiler

Assembler

Linker

47

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Phases of Compiler
• Lexical Analysis :

Lexical analyzer phase is the first phase of compilation process. It takes source
code as input. It reads the source program one character at a time and converts it
into meaningful lexemes. Lexical analyzer represents these lexemes in the form
of tokens.

• Syntax Analysis :

Syntax analysis is the second phase of compilation process. It takes tokens as

input and generates a parse tree as output. In syntax analysis phase, the parser
checks that the expression made by the tokens is syntactically correct or not.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Phases of Compiler
• Semantic Analysis :

Semantic analysis is the third phase of compilation process. It checks whether

the parse tree follows the rules of language. Semantic analyzer keeps track of
identifiers, their types and expressions. The output of semantic analysis phase is
the annotated tree syntax.

• Intermediate Code Generation :

In the intermediate code generation, compiler generates the source code into the
intermediate code. Intermediate code is generated between the high-level
language and the machine language. The intermediate code should be generated
in such a way that you can easily translate it into the target machine code.
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Phases of Compiler
• Code Optimization :

Code optimization is an optional phase. It is used to improve the intermediate

code so that the output of the program could run faster and take less space. It
removes the unnecessary lines of the code and arranges the sequence of
statements in order to speed up the program execution.

• Code Generation :

Code generation is the final stage of the compilation process. It takes the
optimized intermediate code as input and maps it to the target machine
language. Code generator translates the intermediate code into the machine code
of the specified computer.
MR. ANAND GHARU
Example :

MR. ANAND GHARU

 INTERPRTERS

• “Interpretation”
– Performing the operations implied by the
source program

Source
Program
Interpreter Output
Input

Error Messages

5
2
MR. ANAND GHARU
MR. ANAND GHARU
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Debugger
• Debugging tool helps programmer for testing
and debugging programs.

• It provides some facilities:

• Setting breakpoints.

• Displaying values of variables.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Device driver
• Debugging tool helps programmer for testing
and debugging programs.

• It provides some facilities:

• Setting breakpoints.

• Displaying values of variables.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Operating system
• It is system software which provides interface
between user and hardware(computer system)

MR. ANAND GHARU

Assembly
Language
MR. ANAND GHARU
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Assembly Language
• Assembly language is low level language.

• An assembly language is machine dependent.

• It differs from computer to computer.

• Writing programs in assembly language is very easy

as compared to machine(binary) language.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Machine Instruction in Assembly Language
• Machine Instructions are commands or programs
written in machine code of a machine (computer) that it
can recognize and execute.
1. A machine instruction consists of several bytes in memory that
tells the processor to perform one machine operation.

2. The processor looks at machine instructions in main memory one

after another, and performs one machine operation for each
machine instruction.

3. The collection of machine instructions in main memory is called a

MR. ANAND GHARU
machine language program.
 Machine Instruction in Assembly Language
The general format of a machine instruction is

[Label:] Mnemonic [Operand, Operand] [; Comments]

1. Brackets indicate that a field is optional

2. Label is an identifier that is assigned the address of the first byte of the instruction
in which it appears. It must be followed by “:”
3. Inclusion of spaces is arbitrary, except that at least one space must be inserted; no
space would lead to an ambiguity.
4. Comment field begins with a semicolon “ ; ”

Example:

Here: MOV R5,#25H; load 25H into R5

MR. ANAND GHARU
• Machine instruction
Format:

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Assembly language programming
Terms:
• Location Counter: (LC) points to the next
instruction.

• Literals: constant values

• Symbols: name of variables and labels

• Procedures: methods/ functions

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Assembly language Statements:
• Imperative Statements:

• Declarative/Declaration Statements:

• Assembler Directive:

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Imperative Statements
• Imperative means mnemonics
• These are executable statements.
• Each imperative statement indicates an action to
be taken during execution of the program.
• E.g
MOVER
.
BREG, X
STOP
READ X
ADD AREG, Z
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Declarative Statements
• Declaration statements are for reserving
memory for variables.
• We can specify the initial value of a variable.
• It has two types:
• DS // Declare Storage

• DC // Declare Constant

MR. ANAND GHARU

DS(Declare Storage):
• Syntax:
• [Label] DS <Constant specifying size>
• E.g. X DS 1
DC (Declare Constant):
Syntax:
[Label ] DC <constant specifying value>
E.g Y DC ‘5’

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Assembler Directive
• Assembler directive instruct the assembler
to perform certain actions during assembly
of a program.
• Some assembler directive are:
• START <address constant>

• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Advanced Assembler Directives
• 1. ORIGIN

• 2. EQU

• 3. LTORG

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Sample Assembly Code
1. START 100 It is an AD statement because it
has Assembler directive START

2. MOVER AREG, X It is an IS because it starts with mnemonic.

3. MOVER BREG, Y
4. ADD AREG, Y
5. MOVEM AREG, X

6. X DC ‘10’ It is an DS/ DL statement because it has DC

7. Y DS 1 It is an DS/ DL statement because it has DS
8. END
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Identify the types of
statements
State.No IS DS AD

8 MR. ANAND GHARU

 Identify the types of
statements
State.No IS DS AD

1 AD

2 IS

3 IS

4 IS

5 IS

6 DS

7 DS

8 MR. ANAND GHARU AD

 Advanced Assembler Directives
• ORIGIN

• EQU

• LTORG

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Advanced Assembler Directives
Origin :
The origin directive tells the assembler where to load instructions and
data into memory.

SYNTAX :

ORIGIN

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Advanced Assembler Directives
Equate:
The EQU directive is used to equate a name with an
expression, symbolic address,
or number. Whenever this name is used as a symbol, it is
replaced.

We might do something, such as the following, which makes the

symbol R12 to be equal to 12, and replaced by that value when
the assembler is run.
E.G. R12 EQU 12

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Advanced Assembler Directives
LTORG :

The LTORG directive instructs the assembler to assemble the

current literal pool immediately.

The Literal Pool contains a collection of anonymous constant

definitions, which are generated by the assembler.

The LTORG directive defines the start of a literal pool.

Syntax :

LTORG
MR. ANAND GHARU
 How LC Operates?
Sr. NO LC
1 START 100

2 MOVER AREG, X

3 MOVER BREG, Y

4 ADD AREG, BREG

5 MOVEM AREG, X

6 X DC ‘10’

7 Y DC ‘15’

8 END
MR. ANAND GHARU
 How LC Operates?
Sr. NO LC
1 START 100

2 MOVER AREG, X 100

3 MOVER BREG, Y 101

4 ADD AREG, BREG 102

5 MOVEM AREG, X 103

6 X DC ‘10’ 104

7 Y DC ‘15’ 105

8 END
MR. ANAND GHARU
Identify symbol, literals, AD, DS, IS ,
Symbol, Literal Label
• START 100
• MOVER BREG, =‘2’
• LOOP MOVER AREG, N
• ADD BREG, =‘1’
• ORIGIN LOOP+5
• LTORG
• ORIGIN NEXT +2
• LAST STOP
• N DC ‘5’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

Solution (From Previous Example)
Sr. No AD DS IS Symb Literal Label
ol
1 AD
2 IS =2
3 IS N LOOP
4 IS =1
5 AD
6 AD
7 AD
8 IS LAST
9 DS
10 AD MR. ANAND GHARU
Machine Structure

MR. ANAND GHARU

Machine Structure

MR. ANAND GHARU

• Consider any hypothetical assembly
language.
• It supports three registers:
• AREG
• BREG
• CREG

MR. ANAND GHARU

• Machine instruction
Format:

MR. ANAND GHARU

• It supports 11 different OPERATIONS.
• STOP
• ADD
• SUB
• MULT
• MOVER
• MOVEM
• COMP
• BC
• DIV
• READ
• PRINT

MR. ANAND GHARU

• In this hypothetical machine,
• First operand is always a CPU register.
• Second operand is always memory
operand.
• READ and PRINT instructions do not use
first operand.
• The STOP instruction has no operand.

MR. ANAND GHARU

• Each symbolic opcode is associated
with machine opcode.
• These details are stored in machine
opcode table(MOT).
• MOT contains:
• 1. Opcode in mneonic form
• 2. Machine code associated with the
opcode.
MR. ANAND GHARU
Symbolic Opcode Machine Code for Size of instruction
opcode (in number of
words)
STOP 00 1
ADD 01 1
SUB 02 1
MULT 03 1
MOVER 04 1
MOVEM 05 1
COMP 06 1
BC 07 1
DIV 08 1
READ 09 1
PRINT 10 1
MR. ANAND GHARU
Symbolic Opcode Machine Code for opcode

START 01
END 02
LTORG 03
ORIGIN 04
EQU 05

MR. ANAND GHARU

Sr. NO Declarative Statement Machine Opcode

01 DS 01

02 DC 02

MR. ANAND GHARU

Sr. Symbolic opcode Machine opcode
No
1 AREG 01

2 BREG 02

3 CREG 03

MR. ANAND GHARU

 ASSEMBLER
• An assembly language program can be translated
into machine language.
• It involves following steps:
• 1. Find addresses of variable.
• 2. Replace symbolic addresses by numeric
addresses.
• 3. Replace symbolic opcodes by machine
operation codes.
• 4. Reserve storage for data.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Step 1
• We can find out addresses of variable using LC.
• First identify all variables in your program.
• START 100
• MOVER AREG, X
• MOVER BREG, Y
• ADD AREG, X
• MOVEM AREG, X
• X DC ‘10’
• Y DC ‘15’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Step 1
Sr. NO LC
1 START 100

2 MOVER AREG, X 100

3 MOVER BREG, Y 101

4 ADD AREG, X 102

5 MOVEM AREG, X 103

6 X DC ‘10’ 104

7 Y DC ‘15’ 105

8 END
MR. ANAND GHARU
Sr. No Name of Address
Variable(Symbol)

1 X 104

2 Y 105

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Step2: Replace all symbolic address
with numeric address.
• START 100
• MOVER AREG, 104
• MOVER BREG, 105
• ADD AREG, 104
• MOVEM AREG, 104
• X DC ‘10’ Memory is reserved but no code is
generated.
• Y DC ‘15’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Step3: Replace symbolic opcodes by
machine operation codes.
LC Assembly Instruction Machine Code
101 MOVER AREG, 104 04 01 104

102 MOVER BREG, 105 04 02 105

103 ADD AREG, 104 01 01 104

104 05 01 104
MOVEM AREG, 104

105
106
107

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Question For U
START 102
READ X
READ Y
MOVER AREG, X
ADD AREG, Y
MOVEM AREG, RESULT
PRINT RESULT
STOP
X DS 1
Y DS 1
RESULT DS 1
END

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Question For u
START 101
READ N
MOVER BREG, ONE
MOVEM BREG, TERM
AGAIN MULT BREG, TERM
MOVER CREG, TERM
ADD CREG, ONE
MOVEM CREG, TERM
COMP CREG, N
BC LE, AGAIN
MOVEM BREG, RESULT
PRINT RESULT
STOP
N DS 1
RESULT DS 1
ONE DC ‘1’
TERM DS 1

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Assembler
• An Assembler is a translator which
translates assembly language code into
machine language with help of data
structure.

• It has two types

• Pass 1 Assembler.
• Pass 2 Assembler.
MR. ANAND GHARU
General design procedure of assembler

• Statement of Problem
• Data Structure
• Format of databases
• Algorithms
• Look for modularity.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Statement of Problem
• We want to convert assembly language
program into machine language.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Data Structure Used
• Data Structure used are as follows:
• Symbol table
• Literal Table
• Mnemonic Opcode Table
• Pool Table

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Format of Databases
• Symbol Table:
Name of Symbol address

• Literal Table:

Literal address

MR. ANAND GHARU

• MOT:
Mnemonic Machine Opcode Class Length

• Pool Table:

Literal Number

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Forward Reference Problem
• Using a variable before its definition is called as
forward reference problem.
• E.g.
• START 100
• MOVEM AREG, X
• MOVER BREG, Y
• ADD AREG, Y
• X DC ‘4’
• Y DC ‘5’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

• In example variable X, Y are making
forward reference.
• So, We can solve it by using back patching.

MR. ANAND GHARU

Consider another example

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Apply LC

MR. ANAND GHARU

Try to convert into machine code

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Backpatching
• The operand field of instruction containing a
forward reference is left blank initially.
• Step 1: Construct TII(Table of incomplete
instruction)

MR. ANAND GHARU

• Step 2 : After encountering END statement
symbol table would contain the address of all
symbols defined in the source program.

SYMBOL NAME ADDRESS

X 104

ONE 105

TEN 106

MR. ANAND GHARU

• Now we can generate machine code…

01 03

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Pass 1 Assembler
• Pass 1 assembler separate the labels ,
mnemonic opcode table, and operand
fields.
• Determine storage requirement for every
assembly language statement and update
the location counter.
• Build the symbol table. Symbol table is used
to store each label and each variable and its
corresponding address.
• Pass 2 Assembler: Generate the machine code
MR. ANAND GHARU
 How pass 1 assembler works?

• Pass I uses following data structures.

• 1. Machine opcode table.(MOT)
• 2. Symbol Table(ST)
• 3. Literal Table(LT)
• 4. Pool Table(PT)

• Contents of MOT are fixed for an assembler.

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 Observe Following Program

START 200
MOVER AREG, =‘5’
MOVEM AREG, X
L1 MOVER BREG, =‘2’
ORIGIN L1+3
LTORG

NEXT ADD AREG, =‘1’

SUB BREG, =‘2’
BC LT, BACK
LTORG

BACK EQU L1
ORIGIN NEXT+5
MULT CREG, =‘4’
STOP
X DS 1
END

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Apply LC
START 200
MOVER AREG, =‘5’ 200
MOVEM AREG, X 201
L1 MOVER BREG, =‘2’ 202
ORIGIN L1+3
LTORG
=‘5’ 205
=‘2’ 206

NEXT ADD AREG, =‘1’ 207

SUB BREG, =‘2’ 208
BC LT, BACK 209
LTORG
=‘1’ 210
=‘2’ 211
BACK EQU L1
ORIGIN NEXT+5
MULT CREG, =‘4’ 212
STOP 213
X DS 1 214
END
=‘4’ 215 ANAND GHARU
MR.
 Construct Symbol table
index Symbol Name Address
0 X 214
1 L1 202
2 NEXT 207
3 BACK 202

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 Construct Literal Table
index Literal Address
0 5 205
1 2 206
2 1 210
3 2 211
4 4 215

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 Pool Table.
• Pool table contains starting literal(index ) of
each pool.
Literal number
0
2
4

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 NOW CONSTRUCT INTERMEDIATE
CODE/MACHINE CODE
• For constructing intermediate code we need
MOT.

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MR. ANAND GHARU
MR. ANAND GHARU
Enhanced Machine opcode Table

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MR. ANAND GHARU
 START 205
Example No.2
MOVER AREG, =‘6’
MOVEM AREG, A
LOOP MOVER AREG, A
MOVER CREG, B
ADD CREG, =‘2’
BC ANY , NEXT
LTORG
ADD BREG, B
NEXT SUB AREG, =‘1’
BC LT, BACK
LAST STOP
ORIGIN LOOP+2
MULT CREG, B
ORIGIN LAST+1
A DS 1
BACK EQU LOOP
B DS 1
END
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• PASS 2 assembler requires two scans of
program to generate machine code.
• It uses data structures defined by pass 1. like
symbol table, MOT, LT.

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 Design of two pass assembler
• Tasks performed by the passes of a two pass
assembler are as follows:
• Pass 1:
1.Separate the symbol, mnemonic opcode, and
operand fields.
2. Build the symbol table.
3. Perform LC processing.
4. Construct intermediate representation(or IC).
• Pass 2:
1. Synthesize the target program.

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Two Pass Assembler

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Analysis Phase Vs. Synthesis Phase

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Comparison between Pass 1 and Pass2
Sr. No Pass 1 Pass 2

01 It requires only one scan to It requires two scan to generate

generate machine code machine code.

02 It has forward reference It don’t have forward reference

problem. problem.

03 It performs analysis of It process the IC to synthesize the

source program and target program.
synthesis of the
intermediate code.

04 It is faster than pass 2. It is slow as compared to pass 1.

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 Pass 1 output and pass 2 output
• Pass 1 assembler generates Intermediate
code.
• Pass 2 assembler generates Machine
code.

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INTERMEDIATE
CODE

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 INTERMEDIATE CODE
• Format for intermediate code:
• For every line of assembly statement, one line
of intermediate code is generated.

• Each mnemonic field is represented as

• (statement class, and machine code)

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• Statement class can be:
• 1. IS
• 2. DL/DS
• 3. AD

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• So, IC for mnemonic field of above line
is,
• (statement class, machine code)
• (IS, 04) …………………from MOT

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• Operand Field:
• Each operand field is represented
as

(operand class,
reference)

• The operand class can be:

• 1. C: Constant
• 2. S: Symbol
• 3. L: Literal
• 4. RG: Register
• 5. CC: Condition codes
MR. ANAND GHARU
• E.g. MOVER AREG, X
• For a symbol or literal the reference field
contains the index of the operands entry
in symbol table or literal table.
•
• So IC for above line is:
• (IS, 04) (RG, 01) (S, 0)

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• For example…

• START 200
• IC: (AD, 01) (C, 200)

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 Consider following example
START 200
MOVER AREG, =‘5’ 200
MOVEM AREG, X 201
L1 MOVER BREG, =‘2’ 202
ORIGIN L1+3
LTORG
=‘5’ 205
=‘2’ 206

NEXT ADD AREG, =‘1’ 207

SUB BREG, =‘2’ 208
BC LT, BACK 209
LTORG
=‘1’ 210
=‘2’ 211

BACK EQU L1
ORIGIN NEXT+5
MULT CREG, =‘4’ 212
STOP 213
X DS 1 214
END
=‘4’ 215 ANAND GHARU
MR.
 Symbol Table and Literal Table
index Symbol Name Address
•
0 X 214
1 L1 202
2 NEXT 207
3 BACK 202

index Literal Address

0 5 205
1 2 206
2 1 210
3 2 211
4 4 215
MR. ANAND GHARU
 Intermediate Code
(AD, 01) (C, 200)
200 (IS, 04) (RG,01) (L, 0)
201 (IS, 05) (RG,01) (S,0)
202 (IS, 04) (RG,02) (L,1)
203 (AD, 03) (C, 205)
205 (DL, 02) (C,5)
206 (DL, 02) (C, 2)
207 (IS,01) (RG, 01) (L, 2)

MR. ANAND GHARU

208 (IS, 02) (RG, 02) (L,3)
209 (IS, 07) (CC, 02) (S, 3)
210 (DL,02) (C,1)
211 (DL,02) (C,2)
212 (AD, 04) (C, 202)
212 (AD, 03) (C, 212)
212 (IS, 03) (RG, 03)(L, 4)
213 (IS, 00)

MR. ANAND GHARU

214 (DL, 01, C, 1)
215 (AD, 02)
215 (DL, 02) (C,4)

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Intermediate Code and Machine code
I.C LC Machine Code
(AD, 01) (C, 200)

(IS, 04) (RG,01) (L, 0) 200 04 01 205

(IS, 05) (RG,01) (S,0) 201 05 01 214

(IS, 04) (RG,02) (L,1) 202 04 02 206

(AD, 03) (C, 205) 203

(DL, 02) (C,5) 205 00 00 005

(DL, 02) (C, 2) 206 00 00 002

(IS,01) (RG, 01) (L, 2) 207 01 01 210

MR. ANAND GHARU
 I.C LC Machine Code
(IS, 02) (RG, 02) (L,3) 208 02 02 211

(IS, 07) (CC, 02) (S, 3) 209 07 02 202

(DL,02) (C,1) 210 00 00 001

(DL,02) (C,2) 211 00 00 002

(AD, 04) (C, 202) 212

(AD, 03) (C, 212) 212

(IS, 03) (RG, 03)(L, 4) 212 03 03 215

(IS, 00) 213 00 00 000

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 I.C LC Machine Code
(DL, 01, C, 1) 214

(AD, 02) 215

(DL, 02) (C,4) 215 00 00 004

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 Variants of Intermediate Code.
• There are two variants of I.C.:
• Variant I
• Variant II.

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 Variant I
• In Variant I, each operand is represented by a
pair of the form (operand class, code).
• The operand class is one of:
1. S for symbol 2. L for literal
3. C for constant 4. RG for register.

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 Variant
I

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 Variant II
• In variant II, operands are processed
selectively.
• Constants and literals are processed. Symbols,
condition codes and CPU registers are not
processed.

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Variant II

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 Error Reporting
• An assembly program may contain errors.
• It may be necessary to report these errors effectively.
• Some errors can be reported at the end of the source
program.
• Some of the typical programs include:
• Syntax errors like missing commas…
• Invalid opcode
• Duplicate definition of a symbol.
• Undefined symbol
• Missing START statement.

MR. ANAND GHARU

 Example

• START 100
• MOVER AREG, X
• ADDER BREG, X
• ADD AREG, Y
• X DC ‘2’
• X DC ‘3’
• Z DC ‘3’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

• START 100
• MOVER AREG, X
• ADDER BREG, X Invalid opcode
• ADD AREG, Y Undefined symbol Y
• X DC ‘2’
• X DC ‘3’ duplicate definition of Symbol X.
• Z DC ‘3’
• END

MR. ANAND GHARU

PASS-1 OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

NOTE : Draw pass-1 and pass-2 algorithm and flowchart in your own
understanding.
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PASS-1 OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

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PASS-2 OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

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PASS-2 OF TWO PASS ASSEMBLER

MR. ANAND GHARU

THANK YOU!!!
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