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Atomic Structure

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Atomic Structure

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+ ATOMIC STRUCTURE SYNOPSIS MATTER: "> Anything that has mass and occupies some space is called matter Matter Pure substances Mixtures — Elements Chemical compounds Homogeneous —_ Heterogeneous Elements: > The substances which can give same atoms upd} fine division are called elements. > Honeys eg:He,H,,Clh,O, et Compound > — These are formed when 2 different elements combine. > The properteso are different from those ofthe! > rial containing two or more substances in iny proportions is called mixture, > “The componentsin the mixture are present with out losing their identity. Homogeneous Mixture : “> Mixtures having aconstant composition through- out are said to be homogeneous mixture. eg: air, sea water, alloys. Heterogeneous mixturt > Mixtures having different compositions in dfer- cent regions are said to be heterogeneous mixture. eg: sandwater, dusttair. Molecule : ; > The smallest particle ofan element which has independent existence and chemically inet is molecule. eg:H, Cl, HCl ete. B Atom: B The word atom is sat reek w ATOMIO which means itdivis) > The termatom was pro > Matter is made yp’o made up of ator sens ental building blocks of mat D mic theory-postulates v byJohn Dalton, cules and molecules > Atoms of different elements differ fromeach o intheir properties and masses. > Atoms of different elements can combine in sit ratios to form compounds. > Atoms can beneither created nor destroyed. Merits of Dalton’s theory : > Dalton’s theory is able to explain law of conse vation of mass, law of constant composition a law of multiple proportions, Draw backs of Dalton’s theory : > Tt filed to explain the internal structure of atom > It could not explain how atoms of different e ‘ments differ from one another and combine Wi ‘one another, ’ > It failed to explain the experiments like when gt or ebonite rubbed with silk or fur generate e8 tricity. Sub atomic particles: ® — Atom consists of'smaller particles like electro proton ,ncutron, neutrino, anti neutrino, posi antiproton, pions and measons ete... Electron, Proton and Neutron are considered fundamental particles of atom. Scanned with CamScanner > Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson. > Thename eletetron was proposed by Stoney, > Thedischarge tube is a sealed tube, containing (wo thin metal plates called electrodes, > During the discharge tube experiment "Crookes" observed that rays were found to pass from negatively charged plate (eathode) to positively charged plate (anode), > Theelectrical discharge through the gases could be observed onlyat very low pressures(0.01mm. of Hg) and at very high voltages( 10000 V). > Therays emitted from cathode are called cathode mays. > Cathode rays are stream of electrons, Airat very Discharge low pressure tube Green glow. Properties of C je Rays : > Thecathode ra from cathode to anode. > These rays are'Inyisible but theirbehaviour can be obsery the help of fluorescent or phi eer eicun angen ot ther > These rays travel in: straight lines in the absence of electric and magnetic field, > Inthe presence of electric field they are deflected towards anode and in magnetic field towards south Pole, ® Cathode rays contain negatively charged particles called electrons. > The nature of cathode rays is found to be independent of nature ofthe cathode material and . Nature of the gas in the tube, Hence electrons are considered as constituent par- ticles ofallatoms, Charge to mass ratio of Electron“) m The charge to mass ratio is Known as shecific charge JJ.Thomson measured elm ratio ofthe cleo, tr 5) etic il isapplied. yy ter remote partie great ater the magnitude of greate n when electric anid, deflecto ( The deflection of electrons foe nal path inereases when voltage iner From the above points determine the val ison was able to irge to mass ratio. ~=1.758: 7 m a“ hod Anode: * As the velocity of the electron inercases, the specific charge of the electron decreases duc to” the increase of relative mass of the electron, ‘The mass ofa moving electron may be calculated by applying the Terma iy = Fest mass of electron V=velocity of the electron C=Velocity of light IE'Y=C, mass of the moving electron becomes infinity, The value of e/m of ca the nature of the metal 8s used in the discharge tube. This shows that cleetrons are un versal Constituents ofall matter Note: e/m value of ions wart, H-atom thode rays. independent of forming the cathode and the = Magnitudeof charge(relative charge) Magnitude of charg e(relativecharge) mi number (relative mass no) ron based on following points Scanned with CamScanner MEI: Find the e/m vatue of a~particle | We knowthat q= ne L (He") mnt, H-atom? Sol: e/m valueof He” = Charge of Electron : ‘The charge of electron is the smallest known lectrical charge, Its taken as unit negative charge. > Millikan determined the charge of the electron by anoil drop experiment. Charge on the oildrops was always an integral muttipleof 1.60x10-" C. e 1.60x10-" m2 N61" e/m, 1.758820x10" chy Millikan’s Oil Drop experimen iS > — Inthis, oil droplets whichare inthe mist i ere allowed o enter through a tiny hale inthe upper plate ofelectrical conden: x" > The downward motion o: plets was viewed through the raw equipped with a micrometer eye pi < > ‘titi: nasi oa oe gravitational static dueto electrical field and he-oildropis moving, ing the rate of fall of these droplets, ‘as able to measure the mass of oil air inside the chamber was ionized by passing abeam of X-rays through it. > — The electrical charge on these oil droplets was acquired by collisions with gaseous ions, > The fall of these charged oil droplets can be retarded, accelerated or made stationary depending upon the charge on the droplets and the polarity and strength of the voltage applied to the. plate, > — Bycarefully measuring the effects of electrical field strength on the motion of oil droplets. » Millikan concluded that the magnitude of electrical charge “q’ on the droplets is always an integral multiple ofthe electrical charge ‘e* that is q = ne , where n= 1,2,3..... WE.2: An oil drop has 8.0 x 10-°C charge. How many electrons does this oil drop has? Sol: Charge on the oil drop=g.9x10-%™C Charge onthe electron=1.6 19" oS Pa 1094 x10" » case 3: 4.5x10" =3xe he char on oil drops were IB 1.5% 10-15, 3x10, 45x10, Calculate the magnitude of th on the electron, rge should be smallest & be integral multiples of tha {=ne). So in the problem, the 2xe case 4: 6x10 =4xe so charge on the electrons is same in all cases and llbe 1.510" Discovery of Protons : > Protons are discovered by Gold Stein. ® Housed perforated cathode in the discharge tube and repeated J.J.Thomson experiment and ob- served the formation of anode rays. > These rays also termed as positive or Canal rays, > These are simply the positively charged gaseous ions. > The name protonis suggested by Rutherford Properties of anode rays : > Anode rays travel in straight line, and these are material particles, > Anode raysare positively charged, and get deflected by external magnetic field and effect the photo- graphic plate, e e > —— value of these rays is smaller than that of — m m value of clectrons, > = ‘value ofanoderays depends upon natureofthe gas. € . . > 7 value of anode rays is maximum when the gas —— TT present in the tube is hydrogen, (9.58x10°Ckg" of 9,58x10°Ce) Scanned with CamScanner protons carry unit positive charge with unit mas. . Rutherford obtained protons by bombarding nitro- genatomic nucleus with a ~ pagticle. s TyatHes> la al? . WusjHe> |H 40 7 ton Neutron: bi > liscovered by James Chadwick. br > ‘or Boron nuclides bombarded by : a-particles, neutrons are formed. 1» Theyhaveno.charge but posses mass almost equal to proton. °Be + tHe > PC + In Spherical cloud of positive charge > Thomson's Plum pyxtlig) Rutherfor ode!’ of Atom = Rutherfor 6d atomic model based on {cfing experiment. < particles are passed througha thin ich is enclosed with flouroscent ZaS Id foil Beiyllium a-particle — Carbon Neutron Pie preci 18 charge [harge| Electron | Thomson a <1 {1.76% 10" ChKg -4.8* 10" esu Proton —_| Gold Steit 1.60210" C ] 1 19.58% 10" C/Kg . 4.8x10"" esu [Neutron | Ch 0 0 0 : 1.67510" Kg | AG Models : J.J-Thomson atomic model: J.Thomson proposed that an atom sin spherical shape with radius approximately!" in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed . The electrons are embeded into it in sucha manner asto give more stable electrostatic arrangment > According to J.J. Thomson atom is like water melon. ‘The positive charge is distributed like fibrous material and electrons are embeded like seeds . An important feature of this mode! is that the mass ofthe atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed ‘over the atom. > Itcannot explain electrical neutrality ofthe atom. ‘Mis modelalso called plum pudding, raisin pudding model of atom. v v Observations - conclussions : > Most of the a - particles passes through the foil without any deflection which indicates that most of the atom is empty. ‘Asmall fraction of a - particles were deflected from its original path which indicates that the posi- tive charge is at the centre of the atom and due to repulsive forces deflections takes places. Onevadn Sharpen Meda, neemaro caer} Ste a SHY | mnie ceive} Rte From the fost Caen Rutherford's Gold periment Scanned with CamScanner % ¥ vvy ‘Avery few a ~ pat indicates that the whole mass is concentrated at the centre of atom, This heaviest part is named as “nucleus” S56 Rutherford's ‘The radius of the atom is very small and in the or- der of {0° yp. Where as for nucleus is 10°" m- revolve around the nucleus like plan- sun hence this model is call \N Theelectrons ets revolve around th planctary model or nuclear model. Defects of Rutherford’s Model : Itisagainst to ln of electrodynamics ied to expin sbi oP According to classical electron NO aay.tte revolving electron shoul yey and travel ina sp me < must fillinto the nucleus. But itdogsnothappen. The atomic spgeteul Soul be continuous band cohtinuous loss of energy but it is energi Atomic Number : ‘The number of clectrons or protons present in an atomof'anckment is called its atomic number(Z). Moseley gives the relation between atomic number (Z) and frequency( 1") of the characteristic X-rays of the clement by the equation vv =a(Z~0) Where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants and depends on nature of the elements. Ancutralatom contains equal number of electrons and protons. For Cation : Number of protons =z Number of electrons For Anion: Number of proton Number ofelectrons =z+no.of electrons gained no.of electrons lost Sok: Sol. No.of protons=11, hence atomic no. ‘Atomic i “The sumof protons and neutrons in an atomofan clement is called is mass mum FO, 10.0f neutrons Fno.oFprorons A A=ntz, Number of neutrons = A —Z. S&S oN 62h aa o is call Mass number is Atomic aii One-twelfih th > as atomic m.u). [tis also’ known ag Dalton(! ie EO WE: ‘he difference in mass number if i the rf halved and the number of trons doubled in, ass no is the sum olen and neutrons 20 Initial > Sinal protons: 6 -6 Neutrons: 6 = -3 massno: 120 - 9 Hence the decrease in mass no is 25.0% WES: Calculate the no.of protons,neutron and electrons in {3Cl l0.0f protons = Atomic number( mass number(A)=37 No.of neutrons=A~ No.ofelectrons=17 37-17=20 electron in !N*ion No.of protons=atomie number(z)=7 No.of ncutrons=(A-2)= No.of electrons in an ion =z+magnitudeof charge W.E.6: Calculate the no.of protons, neutron and W.E.7s The no.of electrons ,protons and neutron, ina species are equal to 10,11,12 respectively. Assign proper symbol to the specie so the element is Na. Ithas oneeletron le: ithas a unit +ve charge, No.of neutrons =12 sthan theno.of electrons, hence Mass number = no.of protons + no.of neutrons = 11+ 12=13 therefore the symbol of that species=7? Na’ Scanned with CamScanner a tr Isotopes > Themuclides ofsame clement having same atomic number bul different mass numbers are ealled Golopes. slopes shaw similar chemical properties but_| ent physical and radioactive properties — > Fractional atomic masses of elements is due to the vescnceoflsotopcs —| presence of Isotopes, Avgatomic mass >. Youbundance of isotopex atomic weight total ratio eg. 1) Isotopes of hydrogen : Protium (,/1'), Deuterium (,/7*) or >? Tritium (,4°) or ,7°. Protium (9.985%), Deuterium (0.015%) 2) Isotopes of chlorine: ,, C7" and ,,C?” N\ 3) isotopes of uranium: j°U and 28U \ ¥ WES The mass number of | taee MO Sof an element are 10,12,14 units. rcemage abundance is 80,15 and ae respectively. What is the atomic the element? Sol: Percentage abundath “@ Total ratio W6H3+4xI 195 20 , The Avg. Awt=10.5, 1: Naturally occuring boron consists of two isotopes whose atomic weights are 10.01 and 1.01 the atomic weight of natural boron is 10.81. Calculate the percentage of each Isotope in natural boron? Ans; Let the percentage of isotope with atomic weight 10.01 = Let the percentage of isotope with atomic weight 11.01=(100-x) mx MX Avg.Awt = x+% 10.81 = 100 3x=20% Farm eT ». The percentage of sovope wire ser 10.01-20% , “The percentage ofisotope with Aavt 11.01=80.0% Isobars : The nuclides of ill elements I aomic number and mass number but having same number ofneutron(A-Z) arecalledisotones Isotones show different physical ind chemical properties, og. Osi p.Bs 2) 80,0 3) ih Na.i3Mg ving same isotopic number{ A-2Z) odiaphers, They posses same differ- uulronsand protons (n-p). osters ‘The molecules with same atomicit number of electrons are called is eg. COs, NO Coy & BWNM, (Atomicity= totalno. ofa ‘toms i in molecule) Iso-clectronic speci ‘The molecules or ions within saber of electrons are called iso electronic eg N70 c2 POS .CP, Ar, KY CaS Nature ‘of eet : Scanned with CamScanner Frequency (¥) J 5 > Itwas proposed by Huygens given > According to Huygens Light and other forms of |» The number of waves that ass ngs: radiant energy propagate through spacc in the fo Point in one second is ol of waves. messpacetatha erm Units : The SI units are s« Per second » Maxwell proposed when electrically charged | (cps) or Hertz (H2). 1 sec"! Particle moves under acceleration.alternating Frequency( v) and (A )are related as electrical and magnetic fields are produced and transmitted. c > These are transmitted in the formofwaveand are ; associated with clectric and magnetic fields are ty of light called electromagnetic radiation(EMR) or or3 x 10!° cm/sec electromagnetic waves, ber (¥): > — Bothelectricand magnetic fieldsare perpendicular to Number (v): , each other and to the direction of the propagation. ‘The number of wave lengths per unit length > These electromagnetic waves do not require any (or) medium and can travel in vaccum. Electromagnetic wave (ly The reciprocal wave length is called wave number, Units: em! oF mi" Wave number ¥ =: ~% > Therelation between y and v is y=Cv Amplitude (a): > The height of the crest or depth of the troughofa wave is called amplitude. cl is properties of wave : Units: m,cm, pm . . , Charactent wD: e > — Amplitude is a measure of the intensity or bright- > The between two similar points ina wave ness ofa beam of light. wave length. Velocity (C): > of wave length are m, cm, A®, nm, | > The distance travelled by a wave in one second is cr: orpm. called its velocity, 0 10-em=10"™ Units: m/sec or envsec. 1Aalov emit “m > Alltypes of electromagnetic radiations have the same Inm=10em=10 m=Imp=104" Ipm=10"cm=10"" m velocity which is equal to the velocity of light 3x10" ms") Property | Formula Units | Wave length (X) Frequency Ju = The visible region is a small part of the entire spectrum. It ranges from 400 nm to 750 nm: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 04 05 0.6 0,7 micrometers T Len; 6S 4 32 MD 2 (micromet) 6% 16° 16° 10 16° 10' 110 Ww wid 10! ww Cosmic Gamma X Wj near &} L 1 mys ys rays { mide { waye and : IR : TV Scanned with CamScanner v Corpuscular theo According to Newton, light and other form of radiant energies are propagated in the form of corpuscules(simple invisible particle) . After the wave theory of light, the corpuscular theory lost significance Black body radiation ; ‘The ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations ofall frequencies, is called a black body. The radiation of black body is called black body radiation. A bollow sphere coated inside with platinum black, which has a small hole in its wall can act as a near black body. eg :1. The reddish glow from the heating eler in an electric stove eg :2 white light emitted by the hot anes bulb ~\\ A graphis obtained by plotting thi intensity of radiation against wave le wn in fig iven temperature the intensity of radiation emitted increases, reaches a maximum value and then decreases. ‘As the temperature increases the maximum inten- sity shifts towards the shortest wave lengths. Planck’s Quantum Theory : The phenomenon of the black body radiation is given by Max planck. The absorption or emission of radiation is mainly due to the vibrations of charged particles. ‘The radiation is associated with definite amount of energy. ‘The radiant energy is always in discontinuous wave form. It is absorbed or emitted discontinuosly in the form small packets of energy called quantum. The energy ofa quantum of radiation is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. Edy) E-(m) tbo) Where E = Energy of radiation h=Planck’s constant 625 x10” erg—sec = 6.625 x10" Joule—set ted in the form of small particle is call ton. The radiation is propagated in the form, photons. > Theenergy ofa photon is directly proportionalt frequency of the radiation. ‘The energy of a photon is h E=hv(or) eat 12375 B= a Where E=energy ineV A=wavelength in A° ‘The energy of I mole of photons is E=Nhy Where N = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 10 Plank's quantum theory was extended by Einst forall types of electromagnetic radiations. Compton Effect: > The increase in wave length or decrease in ener of the X - rays after scattering from an objec called the compton effect. W.E, 13: calculate energy of one mole of photor of radiation whose frequency is 5 x 10"| Ans: Energy (E) ofone photons E=hv h = 6.626 x 10-4 Js v=5x 10's"! (given) E = (6,626 x 10°" Js) x (5x 10'4s"!) =3.313 x 101 Energy of one mole of photons = (3.313 x 10-1?) x (6.022 x 10% mol!) = 199.51kJmot! Scanned with CamScanner a MELA l0thoat bulb emits monochromatic leh of wwvelength 400mm, Calculate the novg 8 emtitted per second by the bulb? gat Power ofthe ball Loowatt of “100 ys! Enengy of one photon E=iv= i d " _ 6.626x10™, X3810'ms 400510 969X108 umber of photons emitted 100Js “eN10T 2.01210" 6! WEIS: When electromagnetic radiation of waves |S length 300nm falls on the surfa sodium.electrons are emitted vir . energy of 1.68 x 10Imol!W minimum energy need fe electron from sodium? her d wavelength that rat ey maximum a photoelectren to be emitted? Sot: nearer sh 300m photonis given by "@ 6X10 sx 3.06 10 mst 300N10° mm The energy of one mole of photons = 6.62610" Y x 6.02210" mol 3.9910' Jmol” ‘The minimum energy needed to remove one moke ofelectrons from sodium. =G.99-1.68)10° Jmol" 31810° Jmol! ‘The minimum energy for one electron 2.31<10° Jmol 02210 electrons mol 384x108 WEG : Calculate the ¢ radiation whos Ans = 5000.4° @s "nm Sey cael 6.62610 “sx 3.0) MRIS PY g avelngh correspon en colour in visiblegpedtrgm. of photons of gts is SODA? $17nm this Sx10'm ax 6.6210 “ds Q 108 x3x 10" > sx107 NO 7x10 E17: What is the number of photons of light with a wave length 4000pm that provide 1J energy? wavelength = 4000pm= 4x10 m 3.010% ms! N= 6.625x10 “Js,¢ Number of photons providing | joule of energy 1 =— = =2.01x10'" 4.909S10 ei WE.18: Calculate the energy of one mole of quanta of radiation whose frequency is Sx 10!see-! Sok: Energy of mot quantum Nig» = 6.023810" 6.626% 10" x 5x10! = 19.95. mol W.E.19: Compare the ener one with A= 600m 300 Teles of two radiations and other with 300nm. 1 5 Thereltion between two enengiesis £, = 2k, Scanned with CamScanner Photo electric effect : > Ze Phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the wut € of metal when light of’suitable frequency 7 Te Scaled as Photo clectric effect. > electrons ejected are called photo electrons. he imum frequency required to eject the 5 _Sketronsis called threshold frequency The Photo electric effcct is readily exhibited by > alkali metals like K , Rb and Cs. A part of the energy of photon is used to escape the electron from the attractive forces and the Temaining energy is used in increasing the kinetic energy ofelectgon. _E=W+KE Where W = Work function or Threshold energy = x hve hyg+ KE ww aa (he _ he (KEGhvxhy, rw S\ Ady Where v, = Threshold ‘of photo elec- to intensity of inci- In photo electric te A trons emitted is PRES dent light. \: Intensit, ‘transfered per unit area. Its S.1. units mm’). It is used mostly for waves. “The Kinetic energy of photo electrons depends only on the frequency of incident light and not on the intensity of light. The minimum energy required for emission of photo electrons is called threshold energy or work function. For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency ¥, (also known as threshold frequency) below which photoelectric effect is not observed. > Ata frequency v> v, then photoelectric effect is observed. Values of work Function (W,) for Few Note : Stoping potential : It is the minimum potential p« at which the nhoto electric current becomes Zero. Intensity W.E-20 : The threshold frequency v, for a metal 7.0 x 10's"!, Calculate the kinetic mo an electron emitted when radiation frequency v = 1.0 10's" hits the metal, i Sol: According to Einstein's equation i 4 1 Kinetic energy = 57%" = (5) = (6.626% 10" Js 1.0% 10! s"! — 7.0% 10" = (6.626% 10™ Js 10.0% 10's"! - 7.010" = (6.62610 Js) x (3.0105) j 988x110 W.E.2I: The minimum energy required to the attractive forces between an electron the surface of Ag metal is 5.52 x 10"*J. will be the maximum kinetic energy 4 electron ejected out from Ag which is bein exposed to UV-light of 2 = 3604"? : Energy of the photons absorbed _ he _ 6.626x10"" x3x10" a 360x10* =5.52x10""'erg = 552x108 J E(photon)= Work function+K.E KE =5.52x10" -7.52x10" = 47.6810 °F Scanned with CamScanner Sol Pr i£.22: When light of 470nm falls on the surface ofpotassium metal, electrons are emitted with a velocity of 6.4 x 10!ms"!, What is the minimum energy required to remove one mole electrons from potassium metal? 1 Sol: kinetic energy of photo electrons= 7 x9.1x107"x(6.4x10!)? =1.864«107 we know that, Absorbed energy from light = Threshold energy + kinetic energy of photoelectrons Orv, -Vy =2y, -2v, Orv, = 2v,-Vs 15 =2(2.0x10")-(3.2x10") => 8,0x10 ‘Hz WE-24: Threshold waveleng! yetal t 230nm. What will be Ae pad : photoelectrons ejec' n the metal i: th 180nm? irradiated with OS (h=6.626x, ase Ans: Absoi from light = Threshold reg ic energy of photoelectrons nRtkE => KE=he, pole OS 4 2 Ns = 6.626x10 x3x10—__ _ 6.626%10™ x3x10" NX “470x107 ~® =H, +1.864x1071F ~\ =W, =419.206x107, < Energy required ne mole electrons =419.21 02310 =25 Jmol =252.4kJmol” WE.23: na certain metal was irradiated with light of frequency 3.2 x 10!%Hz,the Photoelectrons emitted had twice the kinetic orevardid Ton dh. energy as did photoelectrons emitted when the sume meta er Trane Wi Wtf Srequency 2.0% 10" Hz Calculate vy for the metal? Ans Applying photoclectric equation, KE KE=hv—hvgor (vv) =~ Given K.E,=2K.E, Dividing equation(1) with (2), KE, 2KE, 18010” 330x107) tot » roy Ly = 6.626x10 "3x10! x10 I =1.9878x10"""[5.55x10° ~ 4.347107] =2.4x10"7 SPECTRA AND ATOMIC MODELS: > Theimage recorded when radiant energy is passed through a prism or grating iscalled a spectrum. > The splitting of white light into seven colours is known as dispersion. > Thedevive used to record spectrumis called spec trograph or spectrometer. Continuous spectrum : > The spectrum ofsun light where one colour merges into another without any ‘gap is knownas cortinu- ous spectrum. eg: light emitted from incadescent solid Discontinuous spectrum : The spectrum having distinct and well defined lines with gap (dark areas) is called discontinuous spectrum Spectra is broadly divided into two types 8) Absorption spectrum b) Emission spectrum Scanned with CamScanner , Absorption eee 9's? Sen ea Speetrune mission % This ight when passed through prism an emerge aa Spectrum beam of lights collected over photo graphic fin, sl is spectruml1. it is spectrum] This is called H-atomic spect Produced by] produced by |> Itisalinespectrumand simp mic transmitted lighter] emission o spectrum after absorption off radiation. (de |> iteontainsaseriesof tadiation ( - excitation of |> ‘Theycanbeclssi Clestnstion_ of electron in d a) Lyman seri b) Balmer series rons in al subst: reser substance ©) Pacer 4) Bracket series 2. i Contains dark!2. tt contains brigh| }> The SS tice temtcteyeisemas back grou meh tines on the dar le region of hydrogen spectrum, Bround. back ground 52 iscovered by Balmer, so itis called Balmer 3. Eg: sodium vapou € 3. Eg: Sodium vay gives two dark|” gives two heey series. gives two bri Different series of spectral lines in lines at $890A and] fines at S890A rie 5896A in yellow) 896A. in yu hydrogen emission spectrum. region reion Ne Pee [s[ os [Sis | Eemee wavenumber 4. The spectrum is| discontinuous be imuous, | | [tome seca] 1 4) Emission Spectrum can sited into ine | lpaimer sess | 2 |3.45,62... visite and band spectru mic and molecular an be ect é Near Sf Paschen series] 3 [4.567 |Meat Band Spectrum Brackett series} 4 |5,6,7. Infrared [Ultraviolet] > ine spectrum|1.The band sharp, distinct] spectrum has ll defined lines. | _ many closed lines 2.1t is th el2. itis characteristic i Far Pfund series] [62 ced characteristic off of gaseous] | n=7 = gaseous atom and| molecules and is| | "~6 is also called] also called| |*5 atomic spectrum. molecular] | a-s— spectrum, 3.1t is due tol3-It is due to} | °3 “146s transition off vibration and 5 electrons between| rotational changes] | °~? ees a0 energy level in an] of atoms in a atom. molecule. wo ay 4. It is given by inert}4. It is given by hot yan gases, metal] metals and . vapoursandatoms.| molecules Explanation of line spectrum of Hydrogen: > The energy gap between the two orbits is given Hydrogen emission spectrum : By applying high potential difference inadischarge | _ bY eauation AE = E, ~ E,----c(1) tube containing hydrogen gas a bright light is > — The energy of its stationary state is given by the obtained. Scanned with CamScanner e wavelength of the v be KX expression Introducing the eq (2) in equation (1) (2) (avhere n, and n, stand for inital orbit and final orbits, m, and mmay be refered as n, and”) 18x10 “(5 = ae=fi \ ‘The frequency (v) associated with the absorption and emission of the photon can be evaluated by using equation re Onsubstituting R,, and hvalues =3.29x10" In mage (°) eet) Onsubstituting R,, hand C values 1 overrsa0'{ 1 pe \" a Rydberg constant value is not same for all the elements. For hydrogen like species He*, L?*, Be, R= 1,09.677 x Z? cm" =RyxZ? 1 Note: 912.4" The first line in Balmer series is called H,, line and its wavelength is 6563 A’, The second lines called Hy line and its wavelength is 4961.40 The spectral lines get closer when the n, value is increased. oe Vv cS fo > If n, istakenas’ finity th limiting line(last he series is obtained. R [3 \ } Ry oy : Re ‘The wavelength or wave nut the lines in all the series ted by using Ryders equa 8 7 ee ee 4] ny here: Rydberg’s constant for H-atom & 1,09,677 cm" n, = Lower energy level (1, ) n= Higher energy level (7) > imum number of spectral lines produced when an electron jumps from n, to n, state forasimple atom o gx 9 _n(n4l) on (0) fgg a? Number of spectral line in a series= 1, —n, an What are the frequency and wavelength of @ photon emitted during a transition from n=5 state to the n=2state in the hydrogen atom? Ans: Sifce n, = Sand n, =2,, thistransition gives rise «_ to’a special line in the visible region of the Balmer series. AE =2.18%10"" JL = 458x105 ‘The frequency of the photon (taking energy in terms of magnitude) is given by AE. 4.58x10VS hh” 6626x10™ Js vee =691x10"He We 3.0x10'ms" aoe a2 Ol ms v 691xI0" Hz mm i Scanned with CamScanner wavelength in hy Series. Calculate the shortest and longest drogen spectrum of Lyman Ceo ea ets (3-6) will have same wavelength as that of second line of Balmer series in fye* spectrum, ‘Ans: For Lyman series nj = 1 W.E.28: Calculate the possibl 2” of lines in For shortest Wavelength in Iyman seri es(ie,seri the spectrum of hydr 7 cn electrons limit), the energy difference in twostatesshowing | "ltr from 7th a “i ‘rarsition should be maximum, ys nnd oe "neo = Liag b 1 og té the wave number and sivy ak Ppl =R, igh) H, line in Bracket series of i. n 1 += Soe =9.117x10% cm ae) A, line in Bracket series =911.74" es n,=4,n,=5 sept For longest wavelength in hman series(ie. v=rft.4y the energy difference in two states show n,n, em =1215.74° WE. Imer series in He* spectrum? {transition of 1 ;° spectrum will have wavelength as that of second line of { OA v v 11 = 109677 5-32 = 2467.7325em" 4.0x104cm Bohr’s atomic model : To explain the origin of lines in hydrogen and to overcome the defects in Rutherfords model, Neils Bohr proposed his model of atom, Postulates : ‘The electron in the hydrogen atom revolves around the nucleus with definite velocity in fixed,closed, circular paths, called orbits’ or ’shells” These are designed as 1,2,3,4... or Ky L, M, N from the side of the nucleus. [derived from Kepler’s law] ‘The electron revolves in the orbit whose angular h momentum (J x@) is equal to ~ It is givenby the expression mvr= i 2x where m=mass of electron v= velocity ofelectron tadius of orbit n=1,2,3... Each orbit is associated with definite amount of energy.So these are also called energy levels or energy states. Scanned with CamScanner ~ wn yes nut enange as long as the electron revolves in the orbit. Hence these orbits are called ‘stationary orbits’ or ‘stationary states’ ‘The energy of electron changes only when the electron moves from one orbit to another, Ifenergy is absorbed the electron jumps from lower energy state to higher energy state, and ifit lose the energy the electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state. ‘The change in energy is given by the formula > AE=E,-E,=hv ‘The centripetal force on the electron is balanced by centrifugal force. Expression for radius: Centrifugal force r ‘The centrifugal force of the electron due to revolv- -mvV? ing around the nucleus =~ Expression for the radius of Bohr’s orbit eh 4x’ mZe” By substituting all constants, radius oforbitis 0.529% n? a0 529% 0 Z For H-atom, Z= 1, hence r=0.529xn7A° 1 =0.529xn? x10 cm 1=52.9xn" pm Ao ‘Total energy ofelectron Expression for energy : 1 Kinetic energy of electron =ymv" Potential energy of electro x 2 ag E=KE+PE= aS iy? 2 Expression, of Bohr's orbit m (By substi ° e ius of orbit inthe above mZet wh "As we go to higher orbits, kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases and the total energy increases. Energy of orbits in hydrogen atom (Z= 1) -2.179 x10" 2.79 X10 ergs, ” 22.179 x10 = Joules atom 2B Ks) mole 5 = 3S ey atom 1 = 7313-6 « cal/mole - leV=1.602x10"" J ‘The energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom has negative sign for all possible orbits, because the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the energy ofa free electron at rest. Energy of orbits for H - like species where E, = Energy of * orbit in hydrogen atom. <<< Scanned with CamScanner E,= = Energy of first orbit in hydrogen atom n=1,2,3,4 Where E, = Energy of 9 orbit in other H-like species. = Atomic number E,= Energy of first orbit in hydrogen atom The ratio of PE, KE and TE Rydberg’s constant : 22: 1s-1 Ra2timZiet ne =1, mentee Dien ofemy cnn eo > hydrogen atom seen 2 Where n, wee 1, higher orbit a ; z a i quency of radiation absorbed (or) emitted | ” n transitions occurs between two stationary states that differ in energy by aF . is given by SE _E,-E, hh This expression is commonly known as Bohr’s frequency rule. v where Z = atomic number. Velocity of the electron : Velocity of electron in hydrogen atom ya2tZe 2.18810" cm/: nh n y, v= For hydrogenatom, V,=— where V, = Velocity of electron in »* orbit f revolutions per second (or) frequency by an electron ina shell Velocity ig 66x10 ee | Circumference 2xr el Time period of revolution : ‘Time period of revolution of electron in: hag dar , T, 1sx10"*x Tonisation potential: For hydrogen atom, ionization potetal= 5 For H - like species, lonisation potentiat'==*2 a lonisation potential ofan atom or ion = hv 3 WE30: — the radius of Bohr's | icenseneeeneammeenseeetlallana ein Scanned with CamScanner on ele foe hydrogen atom. Also calculate the ber of revolutions per second that his electron makes around the nucleus, gat: Radnas of Sed orbit = 47 0.529010" = 4.76110 Som h nh ” Qe lamr 624 «10 5 10 *\ 4.76110") = 0.72910" em / see Tene taken for one revolution = =~ Number of revolutions per second ‘energy associated with the firs orbleof }1<°. What is the radius of this orbit? (21810 "YZ? ‘ at om " for He’ n= 1,2 =2 _ (2.1810 "J )2 Fr =-8.72«10" The radius of the orbit is given by equation , ~ (0.0529 mn? : Zz since n=1,Z=2 (0.0529nm)t? 5 = 0.02645nm WE.33: The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom 's 13.6e¥; What will be the ionisation energy of He* and Li*? end ORE Ist orbit) Sol: lonisation ene’ ny y Energy of the Ist orbit of hydrogen © -13.6¢ Energy of the Ist orbit of He" = ~ 13.6xZ? 6xeV S4de¥’ (Z for He’ Q, wit nent KO He’ ~ 4 SAAD S i Eoraref sos ©) 13.6%9 22 i) Sty of Li* = -(-122.4) tet tations of Bohr’s Model : {tue to cxphu the line spectra ofatoms or ions having more than one electron, It fails to account the fine spectra details (doublet, that is two closely spaced lines) of the hydrogen atom, It failed to explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect. The splitting of spectral lines of an atom into a group of fine lines under the influence of magnetic field is called Zeeman effect. The splitting of spectral lines ofan atom into group of fine lines under the influence ofan electric field is called Stark effect. Bohr modelotthe hydrogen atom, not only ignores dual behaviour of matter but also contradicts Hewenbery uncertainity principle de-Broglie’s wave theory : The wave nature of electron was first proposed by de-Broglie. According to de-Broglic theory all moving particles have wave properties. Wave properties are important only for particles of small mass and high velocity. From Planck's quantum theory he Behy fl) a Einstein's mass energy relationship is E=mC 2) from equation (1) & (2), ah >= mc’ or — = mcor 7z 7 where ‘c’is the velocity of light. SLi ee, Scanned with CamScanner where 2.=wave length h=Planck’s constant 625x10™ J.sec v =Velocity of the particle mv = P= Momentum of the particle de-Broglie’s concept and Bohr’s theory : ‘Two types of waves are possible for an electron ‘moving around the nucleus in the circular path a)A standing or stationary or non-energys| > radiating wave: oe Hence de-Broglie’s theory and Bohr’s theory are inagreement with cach other. b) Non stationary or energy radiating wave. Inthis 277 # nA hence, such an orbit cannot exist, de-Broglie’s applications ; Number of waves in an orbit = n > > Number ofrevolutions ofan electron per second in circumference Relation between kinetic energy and wave lengg, ofamoving particle h ** ken Let a charged partic witha potential: KE-e% Qy é Vn Reece t= 22 lectron be acceleray 12.27 9 Ww ‘The de Broglie wavelength for an electronina giva orbit = 3.33xn A W.E.34: What will be the wavelength of a ‘a mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 1 Sol: According to de-Broglie equation h _ 6.626x10™ Js mv (0.1kg)\(10ms") =6.626%10™ m(J = kms) A= i WE35: The mass of an electron is 9.1 x 1854 its KE. is 3.0 x 10°5J, calculate wavelength, 1 :since K.E= ym 2KE v=) = (2X3.0%10* kem's? 9.1x107" =812ms"! | | 6.626 x10™ Js my (9.110 kg \(812ms") = 8967%10"m =896.7nm WE.36: Calculate the mass of a photon wavelength 3.6 A® ANS 4 = 3.64" =3.6x10-'m Velocity of photon= velocity oftight h_ 6.626 x10 Js Av B.6x10 3x10") =6.135x10 kg 7.37: Calculate the de- Broglie wavelength an electron travelling at 1% of the Speed of light. Sol: de-Broglic wavelength can be calculated as, where, h = 6.626x10™ Js m=9.1x107 kg 1 =——x3x10" =3x10% v 00” x «10° m/sec substituting these values in eq(1), we get 6.626 x10™ x 107" x 3.x 10° =242.7x10? m =242.7pm ay W.E.38 :Two particles A and B are in the wavelength associated 5x10*m, calculate the wavel with particle B if its m Sok we know , oY «: fromegn(i) 5x10% Dy 2p, ay =107m W.E.39: An electron beam emerges from an accelerator with kinetic energy 100eV. what is its de- Broglie wavelength? [m=9.1x107"kg,h =6.6x10™ Js, 6x10 J] Sol: Kinetic energy of electron =100eV =100x1.6x107 =16x10 lel =1.228x10 mm W.E.40: The kineti on electron is ets 121.610" [h=66 me en whe my? = 4.55x107 2 ord x9.1x10 xv? 2 =4.55x10 3 orv= 244.5510 9.110" v=10' ms" Applying de Broglie equation “kh __ 66x10 my 9.1x10"'x10° =0.72x10%m Heisenberg’s Uncertainity Principle: Ttis impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or velocity) ofanelectron” It is called Heisenberg’s uncertainity principle, (or) Itis impossible to determine both the position and momentum of the electron simultaneousty and accurately. tis givenby the expression h Ax.Ap>— ar = Ax.mav2t an = Avav> 4nm where Ax —uncertainity in position Scanned with CamScanner Av =uncertainity in velocity m= mass of the particle h= Planck's constant Itstates that if one is determined with high accuracy sthen the other becomes uncertain. i.e. If position of the electron is determined (Ax =0), then Ay=oo similarly If velocity of the electron is determined (Av=0), then Ay =a The product of the uncertainities is inversely Proportional to mass of the particle. brave + m The uncertainty principle is mainly applicabl microscopic particles. IfA and B are two particles then (AxAv), (AxAv), Significance of uncertajuity principle : Tt rules out the exist lefinite paths and leads to probability whi be given by quantum mechanical model, eg. If u position isofonly 19% then the: ‘velocity would be 10Cm's" 0" 'ms"' (a large value) 10m WE.AI: A microscope using suitable photons is employed 10 locate an electron in an atom within a distance of 0.1A°. What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity? > le m, Sol: Axdp=—- (or) ArmAy=-". 4a 4x A Av tam 6.626x10 “Js © Gx3.14 0.110 x9. lO Rg = 0.579% 10" ms-\(IJ = lkgm?s) 79 10° ms"! ] SP = Uncertainty nto ep ILE 42: Agolf ball has a mass of tm ond! — Of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured within accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in the position. Sol : The uncertainty inthe speed @ 455 09m" we h secre De . “a 440x107 kg x \ 1.4610 m This isnearly 10'* times smaller than the diameter ofa typical atomic nucleus. As mentioned earlier for large particles, the uncertainty principle sets no ‘meaningful limit to the precision of measurments, W.E.43. An electron has a speed of 40ms" accurate upto 99.99%. What is the uncertainty in its location? Ax Sol: Given, Av = OO 40 = 0.004ms"' h we know, ArAv>—— 4am > A 4Aamdv 6.625x10" © 4x3.14%9.1x10 0.008 Ax=1.45x107 m Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom & Its Important Features : > The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by Schrodinger, > Itexplains three dimensional concept of moving electron. > This equation is based on de-Broglie’s wave equation and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principe. > — Schrodinger’s wave equation is written as on where y = Wave function(amplitude of the wan seo oat eee - Scanned with CamScanner n h> Planek’s constant Higher maximumnat 2.0A" radial distance: E = Total energy of the electron V = Potential energy of x,y. Zare co - ordinates 8a'm Viv ge Eww =0 y? isthe Laplician operator Fiy = Ey where 77 isa mathematical operator called Hamiltonian operator, wl | vt ‘s 8ax'm\ Ox where jj The Schrodinger ave equation gives principal azimuthal and magnetic quantum number but not the spin quantum number Important features of the Qu Mechanical Model of Atom: Itstates that the energy felted omis quantized. It explains the proabibnye ys the electron around the nucleus ip ness ensionaly, Anatomic orbital isthe wave function y foran electron in an aid si It is a wave function.It ‘0 energy state which contains all infor yn about electron. Significance of y?: Itisa probability function. It indicates maximum probability of finding an clectron ata certain point inanatom. The probability of finding an electron at a certain distance from the nucleus is called radial probability. 7 The curves obtained by plotting probability function D=4ar dr" and radial distance (1) are called radial probability distribution curves, Number of peaks obtained ina curve = Where n = principal quantum number !=Azimuthal quantum number The nodal surface of 2s orbital exists at a distance of 2a, from the nucleus. Where a, is the Bohr n-l radius (0.529A°) The curve for 2s orbital has two peaks the curve Passes through lower maximum at 0.53 A® and Shapes of Atomic Orbitals : ‘The space around the nucleus, wher ability of finding electron ( y? ) is an orbital. The maximum probability wu electron in an orbital is 95% ik s-orbital : ‘The variation ® gs function ofr for 1s and song venas follows rum) r(nm) som Is 300 2s 000 2404 von \ vio | voor °F Ton Ow b 04 On (nm) r(nm) + Itmaybenoted that (from b-graph) for Is orbital sity is maximum at the nucleus arply as move away from it. For 2sorbital the probability density first decreases, sharply to zero (node) and again starts increasing, > The region where probability density (y?) iszero called nodes (or) nodal surface. > For ns-orbital, (n—/) nodes are present. eg: for 2s:2-1=1, 3s:3-1=2 fords:4-1=3, nsiml > The shape of's orbital (/=0,m =0 ) is spherical It isanon directional orbital, ¥ Size of s- orbital increases with increase in * n’, that is 4s > 3s > 2s > Is. » Nodes in Is, 2s and 3s orbitals Scanned with CamScanner P-orbita Inap-sub shell, the three orbitals are represented > as P,.P,,andp,. These are degenerate orbitals. > The shape ofa p - orbital (/= 1 ) is dumbell. > P- orbitals are oriented along the axes. So they are directional orbitals. Orbital: pp, op, mo: +1 1 0 > With the increase of principle quantum number size, and energy of ‘p" orbitals increases 4p > 3p > 2p. > — The shapes of p-orbitals are vv 26 ae A x PB P, + RS * th Inad-subshell the five orbitals are represented wd yey andd,”. ‘degenerate orbitals. Heshpe fad oil 2) dub uno 4,,,d,, andd,, orbitalsare oriented in between the axes. d,, 2 andd,” orbitals are oriented along the axes. Orbital dd, dy ds, m :42 41 5, 3 d-sub shell is five fold degenerate. The shapes of d-orbitals are z 2 26 os “ x y ¥ d. y Zz 2 x z p-sub shell is v jal planes : . ; Aad where the probability of finding the electrons is zero (y? =0) iscalled a modal play ner nodes for d_, orbital has no nodal plane , because it has toro ring.It has two nodal cones above and below th plane. ‘When the number of nodal planes increases, the energy of the orbital increases. So the energy oF der of the orbitals is s < p (where n=n0.of the orbit) Angular momentum ofan electron in an bit =n ° 2x Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (/) : It was proposed by Sommerfeld The values of / depends on ‘n’ , The values are = 0, 1, 2, .....(n-1). The values of / represents various sub When /= 0, 1, 2,3... the orbitals are s, pd, f...... Sub shells respectively. The energies are inthe order ofsand —> > Foreach value of‘m’, there can be two ‘s’ values. > It indicates the direction of the spin of the electron. > The clock wise(1) direction spin is represented 1 by +5 and anticlock wise +) direction spin is 1 represented by > Spin anuglar momentum of the electron h 1 “es - “ [s(s+1) ; where ‘s’ is total spin. > Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2. > The maximum number ofelectrons present ins, p, dand fshells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively. WE.44: What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n=3? Sol: For n=3, the possible values of / are 0,1 and 2. Thus there is one 3s orbital (n=3,/=1 and m,-1,0,+1); there are five 3d orbitals (03,1 = 2and m, = -2,-1,0,+1,42). ‘The same value can also be obtained by using the __ Felation; number of orbitals = n°, j,e3? =9 Scanned with CamScanner Sol: _ idee Ua Wms i ‘2. | ee 'WEAS: Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the 1=0 orbital with the following quantum numbers an=2,1=1 5) n=4,1=0, gn=5,1=3 dn=3,1=2 n 1 orbital a2 1 2 4 0 4s 05 3 d3 2 3d Energy of Orbitals : ‘The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined by the principal quantum number. Thus the energy of the orbitals increases as follows: Is<2s = 2p <3s = 3p =3d<4s = dp = 4d=4f ‘The energy ofan electron ina multielectron atom depends not only on its principal quantum nt (shell), but also on its azimuthal quantum (subshell). S ‘The energy ofan electron is git ght i a en eh the % tals have the same The lower the value of lowers its energy. value of (n-+/) ital with lower value of n° will have energy. Energi ihe orbitals in the same subshell seri increase in the atomic number (Z,). a Oent rbital in IA group £,(4) H)> E,,(Li)> E,, (Na} >£(®) Aufbau Principle : In the ground state of the atoms,the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies. It means , among the available orbitals, the orbitals oflowest energy are filled first. The energy value of an orbital increases as its (n+ 0) value increases. Iftwo orbitals have the same value for (n+ /), the orbital having lower ‘n’ value is first filled. The increasing order of energy’s different orbitals. is as follows. Is<2s <2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p<5s<4d <5p<6s<4f< 5d <6p<7s<, Moellar diagram of order of filling of orbitals : Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: It gives the restrictions in filling of various orbitals with electrons. It states that - No two electrons in an atom can have the same sct of all four quantum numbers . ‘The two electrons ina given orbital may have same values ofn, / and m, but different ‘s* value. It says that , an orbital cannot accommodate more than two | vaca] wi For Ist electron, n=2,/=0,m=0,s= 6 eg. For 2s orbital, 1 For 2™ electron, n=2,/=0,m=0,s= a ‘The maximum number of electrons present ins, p, dand fshells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively. Hund’s Rule : It deals with the filling up of degenerate orbitals with electrons (degenerate = orbitals of equal energy) The orbitals having the same values for n and/are called degenerate orbitals. It states that - Pairing up ofelectrons in degenerate te > > ome, . Scanned with CamScanner ‘orpitals takes’ place after electron of parallel s The pairing of clectrons in the p,d and forbitals start with the entry of 4th, 6th and 8th electrons respectively. Electronic Configuration of Atoms : > Thedistribution ofelectrons into orbitals ofan atom iscalled Electronic Configuration. > Iris represented as nF notation or moellar diagram » Theclectrons in the inner shells are called core electrons. » Theelectrons that are added to the electronic shell with highest principal quantum number are called valence electrons. ing each with one > Haan conptly et degre oi give greater stability to atoms. > Chromium (Z=24) and copper (Z=29) im anomalous electronic configuration a this reason. eg.Electronic configuration of chhomiim atom is Cr (2=24): Is? 2s? 2p® 39238 3af 4s! but not Js? 2s? 2p 3d! 4s? > Thus Pr dy ,f'' configurations, which are city If filled or fully filled are more stable. Other €Xanhiples are ist (NG(41)58°4d* (8(42)5s'4a° 4(46)55° aa” la7)ss'4a” Galos)as'satay’ G79) 65's" Stability of Completely filled and Half filled subshells: > The completely filled and halffilled sub shells are stable due to the following reasons. 1.Symmetrical distribution of electrons: > Itiswell known that symmetry leads to stability. ‘The completely filled or half filled subshells have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are more stable. > Thestabilizing effect arises whenever 1 2. Exchange Ener} two OF . re present in more clectrons with the same spin al the degenerate orbitals of a subshell These electrons tend to exchan{ sitions and the energy released due xchange is called exchange energy. ; ‘The number of exchan} ‘can take place is maximum when is either half filled or completely fi Asarest inge energy will be maximum and sp.is We abil eoeeoee 0 ee Nw» change =a Here N is the number of electrons having parallel spin, a) 4 exchange by electron 1 22 3 exchange by electron 2 Try exchange by electron aah L exchange by electron 4 n> Scanned with CamScanner

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