Linear Algebra I

UNIT I
VECTORS

Certain Physical quantities such as mass, area, density, volume, etc., that possess only
magnitude are called scalars. On the other hand, there are physical quantities such as
force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc that has both magnitude and direction.
Such quantities are called vectors.

The concept of a vector is essential for the whole course. It provides the foundation and
geometric motivation for everything that follows. Hence the properties of vectors, both
algebraic and geometric, will be discussed in this unit.

1.1 Definition of Points in n-space

We know that, once a unit length is selected, a number x can be used to represent a point
on a line. A pair of numbers (i.e. a couple of numbers) (x, y) can be used to represent a
point in the plane. A triple of numbers (x, y, z) can be used to represent a point in space.
The following pictures illustrate these representations:

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 Linear Algebra I

We can say that a single number represents a point in 1-space (A), a couple represents a
point in 2-space (B) and a triple represents a point in 3-space (C).
Although we cannot draw a picture to go further, we can say that a quadruple of numbers
(x, y z, w) or (x1, x2, x3, x4) represent a point in 4-sapce.

Activity 1.1.1: Define a point in n-space, where n is a positive integer.

The set of all points in n-space is represented by . For the point X
in , represented by n-tuple of real numbers (x1, x2, …, xn), the
numbers x1, x2;…, xn are called the coordinates of X.

Example 1.1.1 The space we live in can be considered as a 3 space. After selecting an
origin and a coordinate system, we can describe the position of a point
(body, particle, etc.) by 3 coordinates. We can extend this space to a 4
dimensional space, with a fourth coordinate, for example, time. If you
select the origin of the time axis as the birth of Christ, how do we
describe a body with negative time co-ordinate? What if the birth of
the earth is taken as the origin of time?

If A = (a1, a2, ., an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are points in the same space , and if c is a
real number then
i. A and B are equal (or represent the same point) if a 1 = b1, a2 = b2, … and an =
bn.
ii. A + B, A – B and cA are defined to the points whose coordinates are (a 1 + b1,
a2 + b2, …, an + bn), (a1-b1, a2-b2, …,an - bn) and (ca1, ca2, …, can), respectively.

Example 1.1.2 1) Let A = (1,2), B = (-3,4) , then A+B=(-2,6), A-B = (4,-2), -3A=(-3,-6)
2) Let X = (1, 0, π, 4), Y = (2, 4,-2π,-6), then 2X+Y = (4, 4, 0, 2) and
X-(1/2) Y = (0,-2, 2π, 7).

1.2. Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

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Every pair of distinct points A and B in determines a directed line segment with initial
point at A and terminal point at B. We call such a directed line segment a vector and
denote it by . The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector. Although
has zero length, and strictly speaking, no direction, it is convenient to view it as a
vector. It is called a zero or a null vector. It is often denoted by .

Two vectors and will be considered to be equal (or equivalence), = , if

they have the same magnitude and direction.

Notice that the definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have
the same initial and terminal points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely
provided we make no change in magnitude and direction.

Activity 1.2.1
Let (a1, a2) be the coordinate representation of A
and let (b1, b2) be that of B. Let P be the point
(b1-a1, b2 –a2). If O is the origin, is in the
direction of ?
Is length of equal to the length of ?
Is = ?

If your answer for the above questions is yes, then we can conclude that any vector V=
in the plane is a vector with initial point at the origin. This is the only vector
whose initial point is the origin and P = B – A, which is equal to . Moreover, V

= is uniquely determined by its terminal point P . If P = (x, y), then we shall write V =
(x, y) and refer to it as the coordinate representation of V relative to the chosen
coordinate system. In view of this, we shall call (x, y) either a point or a vector,
depending on the interpretation which we have in mind. So if V = , then we can write
V = B – A. In view of this two vectors and are equal (or equivalence) if B – A =
D – C.

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Example 1.2.1: If P = (1, 3), Q = (-1,0), R = (0, -1) and S = (-2, -4) then
As numbers can be added subtracted and multiplies, vectors can be combined in the
following ways.
Let A = (a1, a2) and B = (b1, b2) vectors and t be a real number. The sum
A + B = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2)
The difference A – B = (a1 - b1, a2 – b2)
The scalar multiple tA = (t a1, t a2)
The geometric interpretation of the above vector operations is that A + B is a vector
obtained by placing the initial point of B on the terminal point of A.
If t > 0, then tA is a vector in the direction of A. What about if t<0? A and tA are said
to have opposite direction.( see figure a and b)

tA
for t > 0 Fig. a for t < 0 Fig. b
We can extend the above notions to vectors in but the geometric interpretations for n
> 3 are difficult. Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors.

If A = (a1, a2, …, an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) are vectors in and if t is any real number,
then

tA = (ta1, ta2, …, tan)

A and B are said to be parallel vectors iff either A = tB for some real number t or
B = tA. In other words, A and B are parallel iff one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Using the arrow notation and are parallel if and only if
Q – P = t(S – R) or S – R = t(Q – P) for some real number t.

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Activity 1.2.2: 1) Let A = (6, -2, 4). Find two vectors C and D which are parallel to A.
Are C and D also parallel to each other?
2) Let P = (3,7), Q = (-4,2), R = (5,1), S = (-16,-14).
Is parallel to ?

Using the above definitions and applying the associative and commutative properties of
real numbers, one can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 1.2.1 Let A, B and C be any members of , and let m and n be any real
numbers. Then
a) Associativity
b)
c) Commutativity
d)
Distributive property
e)
f)
g)
Proof c)
=
=
=
=

Example 1.2.3
A boat captain wants to travel due south at 40 knots.
If the current is moving northwest at 16 knots, in
what direction and magnitude should he works the
engine?

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 Linear Algebra I

Solution: we have u = v + w where u corresponds to the engine’s vector and w

corresponds to the velocity of the current. We have u = -40j and w = i+ j
Hence v = u – w = -40j – ( i+ j) = i – (40 + )j. The magnitude is
= 52.5.

The direction is = -1.35 radians

Exercise 1.2.1:
1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
a. A+B c. A+B – C
b. 2A – B d. A – 3B + 10C
2. Determine whether and can be found to satisfy the vector equations
a. (2, 1, 0) = (-2, 0, 2) + (1, 1, 1)
b. (-3, 1, 2) = (-2, 0, 2) + (1,1,1)

The Distance Formula

The distance formula is derived from the three dimensional version of the Pythagorean
theorem, which is displayed below,

x z

y
The distance between two points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is given by:

1.3 Scalar product and norm of vector, orthogonal projection, and direction cosines

Let A = (a1, a2,…,an) and B = (b1, b2, …, bn) be two vectors. The scalar product of A and
B is the number A.B defined by

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 Linear Algebra I

Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product.

Example 1.3.1

1) Given A = (3, -1) and B = (2, 3), then A.B = 3

2) , where i = (1,0,0) and j = (0,1,0).

The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones
are:

a)

b)

c)

d) If is the zero vector, then , and otherwise

Activity 1.3.1: Proof the above properties.

Example 1.3.2: Given A = (3, 2,-1) and B = (2,0, 3), and C = (1,-1,1), then

a. A.B = B.A = 3
b. 2(A.B) = 6
c. (A+B).C = A.C + B.C = 5

Activity 1.3.2: Find A.A, B.B, and C.C. Are all positive values?

Exercise 1.3.1: Given the vectors A = (1,-1,2), B = (-2,0,2), C = (3,2,1). Evaluate

a. A.C b. B.C c. (A + B).C d. A.(2B + 3C) e. (A.B)C

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 Linear Algebra I

The length, or norm or magnitude of vector A = (a1, a2, …, an), denoted by ||A||, can be
expressed in terms of the scalar product. By definition

and

Thus, the norm of the vector A is the number:

||A|| =

Example 1.3.3: If A = (-1, 2, 3) then

Note: 1. A unit vector is a vector having norm or length 1.
2.

Example 1.3.4: If , then

Any non-zero vector can be fully represented by providing its magnitude and a unit
vector along its direction. Let be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then

Example 1.3.5: Given a vector A = (1, 1, 1). Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Solution:
, then the unit vector in the direction of A is:

Activity 1.3.3: 1. Given three vectors A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 2, 3) and C = (0, 3, 4), find
the unit vector in the direction of A+B – C.
2. The vectors i (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0) and k = (0, 0, 1) are unit vectors in the
direction of positive x, y and z axis, respectively. Find a unit vector in the
direction of A = (-1, 2, 3).
Let A, B be two n-tuples of vectors. We define the distance between A and B to be

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 Linear Algebra I

Note: Let A be any vector and , then and

The following theorem gives us a geometric interpretation for the scalar product.

Theorem 1.3.1: Let and

be non-zero vectors and let be

the angle between and .

Then

Proof: Consider a triangle formed by and

(Why?)

 After
cancellation, we get,

Activity 1.3.4: Given two non-zero vectors A and B, how do you find the angle between
them? Take, for example, A = (2, -1, 2), B = (1, -1, 0) and find the
angle between them.

Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle between

them is .

Note: Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if A.B= 0.

Activity 1.3.5: 1. Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular?

a. (1,-1,1), and (2,1,5)

b. (-5,2,7), and (3,-1,2)
c. (1,-1,1), and (2,3,1)

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d. ( ,2,1), and (2,- ,0)

2. Suppose A.B = A.C, what can you deduce about A, B and C?

Exercise 1.3.2: 1. Show that if and only if A.B=0.

2. Let A1, A2, …, Ar be non-zero vectors such that Ai.Aj = o if .

Let c1, c2, …., cr be numbers such that c1A1+ c2A2+…..+ crAr = 0.
Show that ci = 0 for all i = 1,2, 3, …, r.

The following are two of the important inequalities

Theorem 1.3.2 Let A and B be vectors. Then

a) (Schwarz inequality)

b) (Triangle inequality)

Proof a) If one of A or B is a zero vector then both sides of the inequality are equal
to 0. Suppose both A and B are non-zero.

From ,

Which implies (Why?)

b) From the fact that ,

By taking the square roots,

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n
Remark: The inequalities of Theorem 1.3.2 hold true also for any vectors A and B in R .

We now define the component of a vector in the direction of another vector.

Let A and B be two non-zero vectors.

Let  be the angle between them.

From the terminal point of B drop a perpendicular to the

line containing A.

The vector has magnitude , , and its direction is either

the same as that of A or opposite to it depending on whether  is acute or obtuse.

Since is a unit vector in the direction of A and since has magnitude

and is in the direction of A or opposite to A, we can write

or (why?)

This vector is called the projection of B along A and is denoted by .

That is,

We call the component of B along A.

Note: 1. is parallel to A. That is , for some

2. B - is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 1.3.6: Let A = (3, -1, -2) and B = , then

Activity 1.3.4: One application of projections of vector arises in the definition of the
work done by a force on a moving body. Find another application.

Given a non-zero vector in . The direction cosines of the vector u are:

, ,

Where the direction angles, , and are the angles that the vector makes with the
positive x, y, and z-axes respectively.

Remark:

Example 1.3.7: Let u = (1, -2, 3). Find the direction cosines of u.

Solution: Since

Thus the direction cosines are: , , and

Activity 1.3.5: Is ?

1.4 The Vector product

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 Linear Algebra I

The second type of product of two vectors is the cross product. Unlike the dot product,
the cross product of two vectors is a vector.
Definition 1.4.1 The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors
A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3) is defined by
A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)
Note that the cross product is defined in

Example 1.4.1 Let A = (2, -1, 3) and B = (-1, -2, 4)

A x B = (-4 + 6, -3 – 8, -4 –1) = (2, -11, -5)
Activity 1.4.1: Find B x A.

The following are some of the basic properties of cross product

Theorem 1.4.1 For vectors A, B and C,
1) A x B = -(B x A)
2) A x A = O
3) tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t 
4)
5) C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6) (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7) C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8) A . (A x B) = 0 and B. (A x B) = 0 (that is, AxB is perpendicular to
both A and B.)
9) (AxB) x C = (A. C) B – (B.C)A

Proof :The following is the proof for 1, 2 and 8. The rest are left as an exercise
1) From the definition of cross product,
A x B = (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 – a1 b3, a1 b2 – a2 b1)
For B x A, interchange A and B to obtain
B x A = (b2 a3 – b3 a2, b3 a1 - b1 a3, b1 a2 - b2 a1)
= (a2 b3 – a3 b2, a3 b1 - a1 b3, a1 b2 - a2 b1)

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 Linear Algebra I

= - (A x B)
2) A x A = (a2 a3 – a3 a2, a3 a1 - a1 a3, a1 a2 - a2 a1)
= (0, 0, 0)
8) Setting C = A in 5) yields
A . (A x B) = B . (A x A)
= B.0 (why?)
=0
By setting C = B in 5),
B .(A x B) = A . (B x B)
= A.0=0
This shows that for non zero vectors A and B, the cross product A x B is orthogonal to
both A and B.
Activity 1.4.2: Are the usual commutative and associative laws valid? i.e. for any
vectors A, B and C in , is A x B = B x A?
Is A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C?

Exercise 1.4.1: Let A = (2,1,0), B = (2,-1,1) and C = (0,1,1). Find

a. AxB b. (AxB)xC c. (A.C)B – (B.C)A d. BxC e. Ax(BxC)

From 4) of theorem 1.4.1, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross
product.

( is the angle between A and B)

(For 0    , sin is non- negative)

Activity 1.4.3:
- For the unit vectors and , find and . What is
- If A and B are parallel, what is A B?

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 Linear Algebra I

- If A and B are orthogonal, What is

Exercise 1.4.1:
1. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = (2,-3,1) and B = (1,2,-4).
2. Prove that (A – B)x(A + B) = 2(AxB).

1.5. Application on area and volume

Let u and v be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make. Then

= Area of the Parallelogram

The direction of uxv is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.

To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v, and w, we find
the triple product:

= Volume

This can be found by computing the determinant of the three vectors:

Example 1.5.1: 1. Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors
u= (1, 3, 2) and v= (-2, 1, 3).

2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors

u = (3, -2, -1), v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).

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 Linear Algebra I

Solution: 1. The area of the parallelogram is given by:

2. The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors is:

Exercise: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at u = (3, -2, -1),

v = (1, 3, 2), and w = (-2, 1, 3).

1.6 Lines and planes

Activity 1.6.1: Given two vectors A and B with B  0, consider vectors of the form
A + tB, where t varies over all real numbers. The vector A + 2B, for
example is as shown in the figure. Show the vectors A + tB for t = 0, 1,
3, , -1, -2, , what kind of figure is generated by these vectors?
i.e. what is the collection of all points which are terminal points of A +
tB?

Definition 1.6.1: A line is any set of the form where B is assumed to be

a non-zero vector and A is a fixed point on the line.

Note that if (x, y, z) is on line and if A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3 then
(x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) for some real number t.

Activity 1.6.2: Is point A on ? Is B parallel to

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 Linear Algebra I

a vector formed by any two

points of ?
P = A + tB is a vector equation of a line through A

Example 1.6.1 Find equation of a line through P1 = (0, 1, 2) and P2 = (-1, 1, 1).
Solution: We need a point A on the line and a vector B parallel to the vector
formed by two point of the line.
Take A = P1 and B = P2 – P1. Then
A + t B = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1)
(x, y, z) = (0, 1, 2) + t (-1, 0, -1) is equation of the line. By giving
distinct values for t we will obtain distinct points on the line. Find some
of the points.
Note: The equation of a line passing through points A and B is given by:

P = A + t(B – A) or P = (1 – t)A + B,

Exercise 1.6.1: Let the line L1 passes through the points (5,1,7) and (6,0,8) and the line
L2 passes through the points (3,1,3) and . Find the value of

for which the two lines intersect.

Suppose P = (x, y, z) is a point on line through A = (a1, a2 a3) in the direction of

B = (b1, b2, b3). Then p = A + tB  (x, y, z) = (a1, a2, a3) + t(b1, b2, b3) or equivalently
x = a1 + b1t
y = a2 + b2t
z = a3 + b3t
These equations are parametric equation of a line and t is called a parameter.

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Activity 1.6.3: 1) Find the parametric equation of a line that contains (2, -1, 1) and is

parallel to the vector (3, , 0).

2) From the parametric equation of a line in , derive the

equation

It is called standard form of equation of a line.

If the line is on a plane show that the standard form reduces to an
equation of the form y = mx + c.

Two lines and m given by A1 + tB1 and A2 + tB2 are said to

be parallel if B1 and B2 are parallel. That is the vectors P1 – Q1 and P2 – Q2 are parallel for

any two points P1, Q1 of and P2, Q2 of m.

Let be a line through A in the direction of B (

. Consider the distance between and the origin. This distance is

the minimum of the lengths of all vectors with initial point the origin and terminal point

on . That is, minimum of for any real

number t. Now put

This is a quadratic function whose graph opens upward:

So it has minimum at:

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 Linear Algebra I

Let Po be a point and N be a non zero the vector

vector. We define the plane passing is perpendicular N.
through Po to perpendicular to N to be
the collection of all points P such that

According to our definition, if P is any point on the plane through P0 and perpendicular to

N, then or

Activity 1.6.4: Starting from the equation , show

that equation of a plane through point P o = (xo, yo, zo) perpendicular to N =
(a, b, c) is
ax + by + cz = d where d = axo + byo + czo.
This equation can be written as . The vector N is said
to be normal to the plane.
Hence a plane is any set of the form {P: N.P = d}. Where N is a given non-zero vector
and d is a given number.

Example 1.6.2: Find an Equation of the plane that contains point (-2, 4, 5) and that is
normal to (7, 0, -6).
Solution: The equation of the plane is given by 7(x+2)+0(y-4)-6(z-5) = 0 or 7x- 6z = -44

Activity 1.6.5: Does this plane intersect the y-axis?

Two planes in 3 spaces are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They
are said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle
between two planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.

Activity 1.6.6:
1. A plane passes through (-1, 2, 3) and is perpendicular to the y-axis. What is
the equation?

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 Linear Algebra I

2. Consider the planes x + 2y - 3z = 2 and 15x - 9y – z = 2. Are they parallel or

perpendicular planes? Or neither parallel nor perpendicular?

Exercise 1.6.2: Find the equation of the plane passing through the three points
P1 = (2,1,1), P2 = (3,-1,1), P3 = (4,1,-1).

Let Q be a point outside a plane normal through P. The distance d from Q to the
to N. We define the distance from point plane is the distance between Q and Po.
Q to the plane as follows. Let Po be the
point of intersection of the line through
Q, in the direction of N, and the plane

Now we find a formula for this distance. Clearly =

However,

Hence =

Therefore the distance d of a point Q from a plane through P which is normal to N is

given by:
Exercises 1.1
1. Let A = (0, 1, 5) ,B = . Find the angle between A and B.
2. Which of he following vectors are parallel or perpendicular to (1, 1, -1)?
a) (2, 2, -2) d) (1, 0, 1)
b) (2, -2, 0) e)

c) (-2, 2, 2) f)

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3. a) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 = (1, 0, 0)

b) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to both E1 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
c) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1, E2 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
4. Find a non-zero vector orthogonal to (1, 2, -1)
5. Find a unit vector in the direction of (3, -1, 2, 4)

6. Let ,

a) Show that each u1, u2, u3 is orthogonal to the other two and that each is
a unit vector
b) Find the projection of E1 on each of u1, u2, u3
c) Find the projection of A = (a1, a2, a3) on u1.
7. In the following cases compute (A x B).C
a) A = (1, 2, 0) B = (-3, 1, 0), C = (4, 9, -3)
b) A = (-3, 1, -2) B = (2, 0, 4), C = (1, 1, 1)
8. Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if
for every number t.
9. If A + B + C = 0. Show that A x B = B x C = C x A
10. Find a formula for the area of a parallelogram whose vertices, in order, are
P, Q, R & S.

11. Show that

12. Find parametric equations of lines through

a) (-5, -6, 8) and (1, 3, 7) b. (10, 3, 1) and (6, -2, -3)

13. Find equation of a plane through points

(0, 1, 0), (0, -1, -1) and (1, 2, 1)
14. Find a point of intersection of the lines {p:p = (1, -5, 2) + t(-1, 1, 0)} and
{p:p = (3, -3, 1) + t(4, 0, -1)}
15. Prove that the line {p:p = (1, 3, -1) + t(0, 3, 5)} lies entirely in the plane
{(x, y, z): 2x – 5y + 3z = -16}

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16. Find the intersection point of the lines {p:p = (-2, 4, 6) + t(1, 2, 3)} and
{p:p = (-2, 1, 6) + t(3, 2, 1)}. Find equation of the plane containing the two
lines.
17. Find all points of intersection of the line {p:p = t(1, -3, 6)} and the plane
{p:x + 3y + z = 2}
18. Prove that if B.N = 0 and A is on the plane {p:(p – po).N = 0} then the entire
line {p:p = A + tB} lies in the plane.
19. Find a line through the point po = (-5, 2, 1) and normal to the plane
{(x, y, z): x = y}
20. Find a line through (xo, yo, zo) and normal to the plane {(x,
y, z): ax + by + cz = d}

21. Let be a line given by A + tB and let P be a point on

different from A. For point Q not on , show that

the distance d of Q form the line is given

by:

22. Let be the line x = 1 + 2t, y = -1 + 3t, z = -5 + 7t. Find the two

points on at a distance 3 units from the

plane 2(x-1) + 2(y+3) –z = 0

23. The set of all points equidistant from (0, 1, 5) and 5, -1, 3) is a plane. Find the
equation.

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 Linear Algebra I

UNIT II
VECTOR SPACES

2.1 The axioms of a vector space

Definition 2.1.1: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the
following conditions:
a) If x, y are elements of K then x + y and xy are also elements of K.
b) If x is an element of K, then –x is also an element of K.
Furthermore, if x  0, then x-1 is also an element of K.
c) 0 and 1 are elements of K.
Example 2.1.1: The set of all real numbers  and the set of all complex numbers ℂ are
fields.
Activity 2.1.1: Are ℤ (The set of all integers) and Q (the set of all rational numbers
fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and
multiplied and the results are also elements of the field. Moreover, every
element can be divided by a non-zero element.
Definition 2.1.2: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added
and can be multiplied by elements of K. It satisfies the following
properties.
V1) For any u, v  V and a  K, we have
u+vV and au V
V2) For any u, v, w  V,
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
V3) There is an element of V, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that
0 + u = u + 0 = u for all elements u of V.
V4) For u  V, there exists –u  V such that
u + (-u) = 0

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 Linear Algebra I

V5) For u, v  V, we have

u+v = v+u
V6) For u, v  V and a  k,
a(u + v) = au + av
V7) For u  V and a, b  k, (a + b) u = au + bu and (ab) u = a(bu)
V8) For u  v,
1u = u

Activity 2.1.2:What is the name given for each of the above properties?

Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For
example, the property 0u = O can be proved as :
0u + u = 0u + 1.u (by V8)
= (0 + 1) u (by V7)
= 1. u
=u
By adding –u to both sides of ou + u = u, we have 0u = O

Examples of different models of a vector space

1) Consider sets 2 and 
Clearly, for V = 2 and k = , properties V1 and V2 hold.
The element 0 of 2 that satisfied v3 is 0 = (0, 0).
The other 5 properties can be easily verified. Hence 2 is a vector space over.
2) Let V = 2 and K = ℂ
For any u, v  2, we have u + v  2.
But for a  ℂ, au is not always in 2.
For example for a = 3i and u = (1, -2), au = (3i, -2i)  2 .
Hence 2 is not vector space over ℂ.
Thus when dealing with vector spaces, we shall always specify the field over
which we take the vector space.

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 Linear Algebra I

3) Let F be the set of all functions form  to , for any f and g in F, f + g is a

function from  to  defined by (f + g) (x) = f(x) + g(x).
For a  , af = af(x) is in F.
The zero element O of F is the zero function f(x) = 0 for all x  .
By verifying the other properties, we can see that F is a vector space over .

The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those
of elements of 2, 3, or n. Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors

Activity 2.2.1:Which of the following are vector spaces?

a) C on 2
b) Cn over ℂ
c) Qn over Q
d) n over ℂ

2.3 Subspaces, Linear Combinations and generators

Definition2.3.1: Suppose V is a vector space over k and W is a subset of V. If, under the
addition and scalar multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we
call W a subspace of V.

Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:
i) W is closed under addition. That is, if u, w  W, then u + w  W
ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if uW and a  k, then auW.
iii) W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W  V, properties V1 – V8 are satisfied for the elements of W.
Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 2.3.1: Consider H = {(x, y): x, y   and x + 4y = 0} .

H is a subset of the vector space 2 over . To show that H is a subspace of V, it is
enough to show the above three properties hold in H.
Let u = (x1, y1) and w = (x2, y2) be in H. Then x1 + 4y1 = 0 and x2 + 4y2 = 0
u + w = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) and (x1 + x2) + 4(y1 + y2) = x1 + 4y + x2 + 4y2 = 0 + 0 = 0
Which shows .

For and = = 0.
Hence au  H. Now, the element O of 2 is (0, 0). 0 + 4(0) = 0. Hence O = (0, 0) is in H.
 H is a subspace of 2

Activity 2.3.1:Take any vector A in 3. Let W be the set of all vectors B in 3 where
B.A = 0. Discuss whether W is a subspace of 3 or not.

Definition 2.3.2: Let v1, v2, …, vn be elements of a vector space V over k. Let x 1,
x2, …, xn be elements of k. Then an expression of the form x 1v1 + x2v2 +… + xn vn is
called a linear combination of v1, v2, …, vn..

Example 2.3.2: The sum 2(3, 1) + 4(-1, 2) +(1, 0) is a linear combination of (3, 1), (-1, 2)
and (1, 0). As this sum is equal to (3, 10), we say that (3, 10) is a linear combination of
the three ordered pairs.

Activity 2.3.2:
i) Take two elements v1 and v2 of 3. Let W be the set of all linear
combinations of v1 & v2. Show that W is a subspace of . W is called the
subspace generated by v1 and v2
ii) Generalize i) by showing that a set w generated by elements
v1, v2, …, vn of a vector space V is a subspace.

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 Linear Algebra I

2.4. Linear dependence and independence of vectors

Definition 2.4.1: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements v 1, v2, …, vn of V are said to
be linearly independent if and only if the following condition is satisfied:
whenever a1, a2, …, an are in k such that a1v1 + a2v2 + … + anvn = 0, then ai = 0 for all
i = 1, 2, …, n.
If the above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other
words v1, v2,…, vn are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers a 1, a2, …, an
where a1v1 + a2v2 + … + anvn = 0 for at least one non-zero ai.

Example 2.4.1: Consider v1 = (1, -1,1) , v2 = (2, 0, -1) and v3 = (2, -2, 2)
i) a1v1 + a2v2 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, 0, -1) = (a1 + 2a2, -a1, a1 – a2)
a1v1 + a2v2 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 = 0 and a1 – a2 = 0
 a1 = 0 and a2 = 0
Hence v1 & v2 are linearly independent.
ii) a1v1 + a2v3 = a1 (1, -1, 1) + a2 (2, -2, 2)
= (a1 + 2a2, -a1 – 2a2 , a1 +2 a2)
a1v1 + a2v3 = 0  a1 + 2a2 = 0, -a1 – 2a2 = 0 and a1 +2 a2 = 0
 a1 = -2a2
Take a1 = 2 and a2 = -1, we get 2(1, -1, 1) + (-1) (2, -2, 2) = 0.
As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.

Activity 2.4.1: Show that v1, v2 and v3 are also linearly dependent.
Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.

Activity 2.4.2: Show that (1, 0, 0, …,0), (0, 1,0,…)…, (0,0,0, …, 1) are linearly
independent vectors in n.

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 Linear Algebra I

2.5 Bases and dimension of a vector space

Definition 2.5.1: If elements e1, e2, …, en of a vector space V are linearly independent
and generate V, then the set B = {e 1, e2, …, en} is called a basis of V.
we shall also say that the elements e1, e2,…, en constitute or form a
basis of V.
Example 2.5.1:
1) Show that e1 = (0, -1) and e2 = (2, 1) form a basis of 2.
Solution: we have to show that
i) e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) They generate 2 i.e every element (x,y) of 2 can be written as a
linear combination of e1and e2.
i) a1 e1 + a2 e2 = O  a1(0, -1) + a2(2,1) = (0, 0)
 2a2 = 0 and –a1 + a2 = 0
 a2 = 0 and a1 = 0
 e1 and e2 are linearly independent
ii) (x, y) = a1e2 + a2 e2  (x, y) = (0, -a1) + (2a2, a2)
 x = 2a2 and y = -a1 + a2

 a2 = and a1 = a2 – y … (*)

Therefore, given any (x, y), we can find a 1 and a2 given by (*) and (x, y) can be
written as a linear combination of e1 and e2 as

(x, y) =

For example, (4, 3) =

Or (4, 3) = -(0, -1) + 2(2, 1)

Note that {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is also a basis of 2. Hence a vector space can have two or
more basis. Find other bases of 2.

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 Linear Algebra I

2) Show that e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e2 = (1, 1, 0) form a basis of 3.

Solution: e1 = (2, 1, 0) and e 2 = (1, 1, 0) are linearly independent but they do not
generate 3. There are no numbers a1 and a2 for which
(3, 4, 2) = a1 (2, 1, 0) + a2 (1, 1, 0).
Hence {(2, 1, 0), (1,1,0)} is not a basis of 3.

The vectors E1 = (1, 0, 0) , E2 = (0, 1, 0), E3 = (0, 0, 1) are linearly independent and every
element (x, y, z) of 3 can be written as
(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1)
= xE1 + yE2 + zE3
Hence {E1, E2, E3} is a basis of 3.
Note that the set of elements E 1 = (1, 0, 0,…,0), E2 = (0, 1, 0, … 0),…,E n = (0, 0, 0, …,1)
is a basis of n. It is called a standard basis.

Let B = {e1 , e2, …, en} be a basis of V. since B generates V, any u in V can be

represented as u = a 1e1 + a2 e2 + … + an en. Since the ei are linearly independent, such a
representation is unique. We call (a 1, a2, …, an) the coordinate vector of u with respect to
the basis B, and we call ai the i – th coordinate.

Example 2.5.2

1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of (4,3) with respect to the basis
{(0, -1), (2,1)} is (-1, 2). But with respect to the standard basis it is (4, 3).
Find coordinates of (4,3) in some other basis of 2.

2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions f:    which are of degree less
than or equal to 2.
Every element of V has the form f(x) = bx2 + cx + d, where b, c, d  
V is a vector space over  (show).
Clearly, e1 = x2, e2 = x and e3 = 1 are in V and a1e1 + a2 e2 + a3e3 = O

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 Linear Algebra I

(0 is the zero function)

 a1x2 + a2e2 + a3 e3 = 0 for all x
 a1 = a2 = a3 = 0.
Which shows e1, e2 and e3 are linearly independent
bx2 + cx + d = a1e1 + a2e2 + a3e3 for all x
 bx2 + cx + d = a1x2 + a2x + a3
 b = a1, c = a2 and d = a3
Thus e1, e2 and e3 generate V.
 {x2, x1 1} is a basis of V and the coordinate vector of an element
f(x) = bx2 + cx + d is (b, c, d)
The coordinate vector of x2 – 3x + 5 is (1, -3, 5)

Activity 2.5.1:Show that the polynomials

E1 = (x – 1)2 = x2 – 2x + 1
E2 = x – 1
and E3 = 1
form a basis of a vector space V defined in 2) of example 2.5.2. What is the
coordinate of f(x) = 2x2 – 5x + 6 with respect to the basis {E1, E2, E3}?

E = {(1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)} and B = {(-1,1,0), (-2, 0, 2), (1, 1, 1)} are bases of and
each has three elements. Can you find a basis of having two elements? four elements?
The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same
number of elements. To prove this, we use the following theorem.

Theorem 2.5.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let {v 1, v2,…,vn} be a basis of
V. If w1, w2,…,wm are elements of V, where m > n, then w 1, w2, …, wm
are linearly dependent.
Proof (reading assignment)
Theorem 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and
another basis W has m elements. Them m = n.

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 Linear Algebra I

Proof: As B is a basis, m > n is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a

linearly dependent set. Which contradicts the fact that W is a basis. Similarly, as
W is a basis, n > m is also impossible. Hence n = m.

Definition 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space having a basis consisting of n elements. We

shall say that n is the dimension of V. It is denoted by dim V.

Remarks : 1. If V = {0}, then V doesn’t have a basis, and we shall say that dim v is
zero.
2. The zero vector space or a vector space which has a basis consisting of
a finite number of elements, is called finite dimensional. Other vector
spaces are called infinite dimensional.

Example 2.5.3:
1) over has dimension 3. In general over has dimension n.
2) over has dimension 1. In fact, {1} is a basis of , because
and
any number has a unique expression .

Definition 2.5.3: The set of elements {v1, v2, …,vn}of a vector space V is said to be a
maximal set of linearly independent elements if v1, v2, …,vn are
linearly independent and if given any element w of V, the elements
w,v1, v2, …, vn are linearly dependent.

Example 2.5.4: In {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1)} is a maximal set of linearly
independent elements.
We now give criteria which allow us to tell when elements of a vector space constitute a
basis.
Theorem 2.5.3: Let V be a vector space and {v1, v2, …,vn}be a maximal set of linearly
independent elements of V. Then {v1, v2, …,vn}is a basis of V.

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 Linear Algebra I

Proof: It suffices to show that v1, v2, …,vn generate V. (Why?)

Let .
Then w, v1, v2, …,vn are linearly dependent (why?).
Hence there exist numbers ao, a1, a2, …, an not all 0 such that
ao w + a1v1 + a2v2 + …+ anvn = O
In particular (why?
Therefore, by solving for w,

This proves that w is a linear combination of v1, v2, …,vn.

Theorem 2.5.4: Let dim V = n, and let v1, v2, …,vn be linearly independent elements of v.
Then
{v1, v2, …,vn} is a basis of v.
Proof: According to theorem 3.4.1, {v1, v2, …,vn} is a maximum set of linearly
independent elements of V.
Hence it is a basis by theorem 2.5.3

Corollary 2.5.1: Let W be a subspace of V. If dim W = dimV, then V = W

Proof: Exercise

2.6. Direct sum and direct product of subspaces

Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let U, W be subspaces of V. We define the
sum of U and W to be the subset of V consisting of all sums u + w with and
. We denote this sum by U +W and it is a subspace of V. Indeed, if and
then

If , then

32
 Linear Algebra I

Finally, . This proves that U + W is a subspace.

Definition 2.6.1: A vector space V is a direct sum of U and W if for every element v in
V there exist unique elements and such that .

Theorem 2.6.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K, and let U, W be subspaces. If
U + W = V, and if , then V is the direct sum of U and W.
Proof: Exercise
Note: When V is the direct sum of subspaces U, W we write:

Theorem 2.6.2: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field K. Let W be a
subspace. Then there exists a subspace U such that V is the direct sum of W and U.
Proof: Exercise

Theorem 2.6.3: If V is a finite dimensional vector space over the field K, and is the
direct sum of subspaces U, W then
dim V = dim U + dim W
Proof: Exercise

Remark: We can also define V as a direct sum of more than two subspaces. Let W 1,
W2, …., Wr be subspaces of V. We shall say that V is their direct sum if every element
of can be expressed in a unique way as a sum

With wi in Wi.
Suppose now that U, W are arbitrarily vector spaces over the field K(i.e. not necessarily
subspaces of some vector space). We let UXW be the set of all pairs (u, w) whose first
component is an element u of U and whose second component is an element w of W.
We define the addition of such pairs component wise, namely, if and
we define

33
 Linear Algebra I

If , we define the product by

=
It is then immediately verified that UXW is a vector space, called the direct product of
U and W.
Note: If n is a positive integer, written as a sum of two positive integers, , then
we see that is the direct product and .

Example 2.6.1: Let, , , and .

Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.
Solution: Since V, U and W are vector spaces, and in addition to that U and W are
subspaces of V.
The sum of U and W is:
U+W=
Thus; V = U + W
The intersection of U and W is:
Therefore, V is the direct sum of W and U.

Activity 2.6.1: 1. Let, , , and .

Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.
2. Let, , , and .
Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.

Exercise:

1. Let, , , and .

Show whether V is the direct sum of W and U or not.

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 Linear Algebra I

2. Let, , , and Show whether

V is the direct sum of W and U or not.

Exercise 2.1
1. Let k be the set of all numbers which can be written in the form , where a,
b are rational numbers. Show that k is a field.
2. Show that the following sets form subspaces
a. The set of all (x, y) in such that x = y
b. The set of all (x, y) in such that x – y = 0
c. The set of all (x, y, z) in such that x + y = 3z
d. The set of all (x, y, z) in such that x = y and z = 2y
3. If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that and are
subspaces.
4. Decide whether the following vectors are linearly independent or not (on )
a) (, 0) and (0, 1)
b) (-1, 1, 0) and (0, 1, 2)
c) (0, 1, 1), (0, 2, 1), and (1, 5, 3)
5. Find the coordinates of X with respect to the vectors A, B and C
a. X = (1, 0, 0), A = (1, 1, 1), B = (-1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, -1)
b. X = (1, 1, 1) , A = (0, 1, -1), B = (1, 1, 0), C = (1, 0, 2)
6. Prove: The vectors (a, b) and (c, d) in the plane are linearly dependent if and only
if ad – bc = 0
7. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace of generated by
{(1, -4, -2, 1), (1, -3, -1, 2), (3, -8, -2, 7)}.
8. Let W be the space generated by the polynomials x3 + 3x2 – x + 4, and
2x3 + x2 – 7x – 7. Find a basis and the dimension of W.
9. Let V = {(a, b, c, d)  4: b – 2c + d = 0}
W = {(a, b, c, d)  4: a = d, b = 2c}
Find a basis and dimension of
a) V b) W c)

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 Linear Algebra I

10. What is the dimension of the space of 2 x 2 matrices? Give a basis for this
space. Answer the same question for the space of n x m matrices.
11. Find the dimensions of the following
a) The space of n x n matrices all of whose elements are 0 except possibly
the diagonal elements.
b) The space of n x n upper triangular matrices
c) The space of n x n symmetric matrices
d) The space of n x n diagonal matrices
12. Let V be a subspace of 3. What are the possible dimensions for V? Show that if
V 3, then either V = {0}, or V is a straight line passing through the origin, or V
is a plane passing through the origin.

UNIT III
Matrices
The concept of matrices has had its origin in various types of linear problems, the most
important of which concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear
equations. Matrices are also useful in organizing and manipulating large amounts of data.
Today, the subject of matrices is one of the most important and powerful tools in

36
 Linear Algebra I

Mathematics which has found applications to a very large number of disciplines such as
Engineering, Business and Economics, statistics etc.

3.1 Definition of a matrix

Definition 3.1.1: A rectangular arrangement of mn numbers (real or complex) in to m

horizontal rows and n vertical columns enclosed by a pair of brackets [ ],
such as

is called an (read “m by n”) matrix or a matrix of order .

Parentheses ( ) are also commonly used to enclose numbers constituting matrices.
Before we go any further, we need to familiarize ourselves with some terms that are
associated with matrices. The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements
of the matrix. For the entry , the first subscript i specify the row and the second
subscript j the column in which the entry appears. That is, is an element of matrix A
which is located in the row and column of the matrix A. Whenever we talk about a
matrix, we need to know the order of the matrix.

The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has. When we say a matrix
is a 3 by 4 matrix, we are saying that it has 3 rows and 4 columns. The rows are always
mentioned first and the columns second. This means that a 3 4 matrix does not have the
same order as a 4 3 matrix. It must be noted that even though an matrix contains
mn elements, the entire matrix should be considered as a single entity. In keeping with
this point of view, matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as A, B, C and so
on.
Remark: By the size of a matrix or the dimension of a matrix we mean the order of the
matrix.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 3.1.1: Let .

Solution: Since A has 2 rows and 3 columns, we say A has order , where the number
of rows is specified first. The element 6 is in the position a23 (read a two three) because it
is in row 2 and column 3.

Example 3.1.2: What is the value of and in

Solution: , the element in the second row and third column, is 1 and , the element
in the third row and second column, is 7. What is the size of this matrix?
Activity 3.1.1: 1. Suppose A is a 5x7 matrix, then
a. A has 7 rows. (True/False)
b. is an element of A for i = 6 and j = 4.(True/False)
c. For what values of i and j, is an element of A?

2. Suppose and

a. What is the order of A and B?

b. Find , , and .

It is customary to abbreviate the matrix

by the symbol or more simply . This notation merely indicates what type of
symbols we are using to denote the general entry.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 3.1.3: Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i + j.

Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and
five columns.

= .

Activity 3.1.2: Form a 4 by 3 matrix, B, such that

a) b)

Definition 3.1.2: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written A = B, if they are of
the same order and if all corresponding entries are equal.

For example, but . Why?

Example 3.1.4: Given the matrix equation . Find x and y.

Solution: By the definition of equality of matrices,

solving gives x = 2 and y = -1.

Activity 3.1.3: Find the values of x, y, z and w which satisfy the matrix equation

a.

b.

3.2. Types of matrices: Square, identity, scalar, diagonal, triangular, symmetric, and
skew symmetric matrices

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 Linear Algebra I

Certain types of matrices, which play important roles in matrix theory, are now
considered.

Row Matrix: A matrix that has exactly one row is called a row matrix. For example, the
matrix is a row matrix of order .

Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single column is called a column matrix. For

example, the matrix is a column matrix.

Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It

is usually denoted by or more simply by 0. For example, is a

zero matrix.
Square Matrix: An matrix is said to be a square matrix of order n if m = n. That
is, if it has the same number of columns as rows.

For example, and are square matrices of order 3 and 2

respectively.

In a square matrix of order n, the entries which lie on the

diagonal extending from the left upper corner to the lower right corner are called the
main diagonal entries, or more simply the main diagonal. Thus, in the matrix

C= the entries and constitute the main diagonal.

Note: The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix A of order n is

called the trace of A. That is, Trace of A = .

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 Linear Algebra I

Activity 3.2.1: Find the trace of C in the above example.

Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper (lower) triangular matrix if all
entries below (above) the main diagonal are zeros.

For example, and are upper and lower triangular

matrices, respectively.

Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix is said to be diagonal if each of the entries not falling
on the main diagonal is zero. Thus a square matrix is diagonal if for .
Activity 3.2.2: What about for i = j?

For example, is a diagonal matrix.

Notation: A diagonal matrix A of order n with diagonal elements is

denoted by

Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix whose all the diagonal elements are equal is called
a scalar matrix.

For example, is a scalar matrix.

Note: Let be a square matrix. A is a scalar matrix if and only if .

Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit
matrix if all its main diagonal entries are 1’s and all other entries are 0’s. In other words,

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 Linear Algebra I

a diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or
unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In or more simply by I.

For example, is identity matrix of order 3. is identity matrix

of order 2.

Note: Let be a square matrix. A is an identity matrix if and only if

3.3 Algebra of matrices

Activity 3.3.1: . Can you guess what number should

appear in the entries marked by question mark?

Addition of matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition
of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding
corresponding entries of A and B. Thus, if
and then .

Remark: Notice that we can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order. If
they are, we say they are conformable for addition. Also, the order of the sum of two
matrices is same as that of the two original matrices.

Activity 3.3.2: Given the matrices A, B, and C below

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 Linear Algebra I

A= B= C=

Find, if possible. a) A + B b) B + C

If A is any matrix, the negative of A, denoted by –A, is the matrix obtained by replacing
each entry in A by its negative. For example, if

then

Properties of Addition of Matrices

1. Matrix addition is commutative. That is, if A and B are two matrices of the same
order, then A + B = B + A.
2. Matrix addition is associative. That is, if A, B and C are three matrices of the
same order, then (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
3. Existence of additive identity. That is, if 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as
that of the matrix A, then A + 0 = A = 0 + A.
4. Existence of additive inverse. That is, if A is any matrix, then
A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A

Note: The zero matrix plays the same role in matrix addition as the number zero does in
addition of numbers.

Subtraction of Matrices: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by
A – B, we mean A + (-B). In other words, to find A – B we subtract each entry of
B from the corresponding entry of A.

Example 3.3.1: Let and

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 Linear Algebra I

Then

Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A be an matrix and k be a real number (called a scalar). Then the
multiplication of A by k, denoted by k A, is the matrix obtained by multiplying
each entry of A by k. This operation is called scalar multiplication.

Example 3.3.2: If . Find 2A + 3B.

Solution: and

Example 3.3.3: Express the matrix equation as a system of

equations and solve.

Solution: The given matrix equation gives

By equality of matrices we have

Solving gives x = 2, y = -4

Properties of scalar multiplications

1. If A and B are two matrices of the same order and if k is a scalar, then

2. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then

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 Linear Algebra I

3. If k1 and k2 are two scalars and if A is a matrix, then

Multiplication of Matrices
While the operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication are fairly
straightforward, the product AB of matrices A and B can be defined under the condition
that the number of columns of A must be equal to the number of rows of B. If the number
of columns in the matrix A equals the number of rows in the matrix B, we say that the
matrices are conformable for the product AB.
Because of wide use of matrix multiplication in application problems, it is important that
we learn it well. Therefore, we will try to learn the process in a step by step manner. We
first begin by finding a product of a row matrix and a column matrix.

Example 3.3.4: Given A = and B = , find the product AB.

Solution: The product is a 1 1 matrix whose entry is obtained by multiplying the

corresponding entries and then forming the sum.

AB =

= [ (2a + 3b + 4c)]
Note that AB is a 1 1 matrix, and its only entry is 2a + 3b + 4c.

Example 3.3.4: Given A = and B = , find the product AB.

Solution: AB = =
Note: In order for a product of a row matrix and a column matrix to exist, the number of
entries in the row matrix must be the same as the number of entries in the column matrix.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 3.3.5: Here is an application: Suppose you sell 3 T-shirts at $10 each, 4 hats at
$15 each, and 1 pair of shorts at $20. Then your total revenue is

Example 3.3.6: Given A = and B = , find the product AB.

Solution: We already know how to multiply a row matrix by a column matrix. To find
the product AB, in this example, we will be multiplying the row matrix A to
both the first and second columns of matrix B, resulting in a 1 2 matrix.

AB = [ 2 . 5 + 3 . 6 + 4 . 7 2.3 + 3.4+ 4.5 ]

= [ 56 38 ]
We have just multiplied a 1 3 matrix by a matrix whose order is 3 2. So unlike
addition and subtraction, it is possible to multiply two matrices with different dimensions
as long as the number of entries in the rows of the first matrix is the same as the number
of entries in columns of the second matrix.
Activity 3.3.3: 1. Given the matrices E, F, G and H, below
E= F= G= H=
Find, if possible. a) GH b) FH c) EF d) FE
2. Given the matrices R,S, and T below.

R= S= T=
Find 2RS – 3ST.

We summarize matrix multiplication as follows:

In order for product AB to exist, the number of columns of A, must equal the number of
rows of B. If matrix A is of dimension m n and B of dimension n p, the product AB
will have the dimension m p. Let be an matrix and be an
matrix. Then the product AB is the matrix defined by where

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 Linear Algebra I

, I = 1,2,…,m and k = 1,2,…,p

Thus, the product AB is the matrix, where each entry of AB is obtained by

multiplying corresponding entries of the ith row of A by those of the kth column of B and
then finding the sum of the results.

Activity 3.3.4: 1. If a matrix A is 3x5 and the product AB is 3x7, then what is the order
of B?
2. How many rows does X have if XY is a 2x6 matrix?

Remark: The definition refers to the product AB, in that order, A is the left factor called
pre factor and B is the right factor called post factor.

Example 3.3.7: Find the product AB if and

Solution: Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the
product AB=C is defined. Since A is and B is , the product AB
will be

The entry c11 is obtained by summing the products of each entry in row 1
of A by the corresponding entry in column 1 of B, that is.
. Similarly, for C21 we use the entries in
row 2 of A and those in column 1 of B, that is C21 = (5) (-2) + (3) (2) = -4.
Also, C12 = (1) (4) + (-4) (7) = -24
C13 = (1) (1) + (-4) (3) = -11
C14 = (1) (6) + (-4) (8) = -26
C22 = (5) (4) + (3) (7) = 41
C23 = (5) (1) + (3 ) (3) = 14

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 Linear Algebra I

C24 = (5) (6) + (3) (8) = 54

C31 = (0) (-2) + (2) (2) = 4
C32 = (0) (4) + (2) (7) = 14
C33 = (0) (1) + (2) (3) = 6
C34 = (0) (6) + (2) (8) = 16

Thus

Observe that the product BA is not defined since the number of columns of B is not equal
to the number of rows of A. This shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative.
That is, for any two matrices A and B, it is usually the case that (even if both
products are defined).

Example 3.3.8: Let , and , then

, . Thus, .

Activity 3.3.4: 1. Which of the following are defined?

i) iii)

ii) iv)

2. If and , find a and b such that AB = BA.

Note: 1. AB = 0 does not necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0.

2. AB = AC does not necessarily imply B = C.

Example 3.3.9: 1) Let , , then .

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 Linear Algebra I

2) Let , ,

then . But .

In this chapter, we will be using matrices to solve linear systems. Later, we will be asked
to express linear systems as the matrix equation AX = B, where A, X, and B are
matrices. The matrix A is called the coefficient matrix.

Example 3.3.10: Verify that the system of two linear equations with two unknowns:

can be written as AX = B, where

A = X = and B =

Solution: If we multiply the matrices A and X, we get

AX = =
If AX = B, then

=
If two matrices are equal, then their corresponding entries are equal.
Therefore, it follows that

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 Linear Algebra I

Activity 3.3.5: Express the following system as AX = B.

Properties of Matrix multiplication

If A, B and C are any matrices, and if I is an identity matrix, then the following hold,
whenever the dimensions of the matrices are such that the products are defined.

A(BC) = (AB)C Associative Law

A.I = I.A =A
(The order of I and A Multiplicative Identity Law
is the same)
A(B + C) = AB + AC Left Distributive Law
(A + B)C =AC+BC Right Distributive Law
A.0 = 0.A = 0 Multiplication by Zero

Remark: For real numbers, a multiplied by itself n times can be written as an.
Similarly, a square matrix A multiplied by itself n times can be written as
An. Therefore, A2 means AA, A3 means AAA and so on.

Exercise:

1. If and

Find each of the following

(i) A + B ii) 2B – 3C
iii) A+B–C iv) A – 2B + 3C v) 2A – C

2. Let

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 Linear Algebra I

Find the following: i) AB ii) BC iii) (AB)C iv) A(BC)

3. If compute A2. Is it equal to I3, where I3 is the identity matrix

of order 3?

Transpose of a matrix
Definition 3.3.1: Let A be an matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by or , is
the matrix obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus the
first row of A is the first column of At, the second row of A is the second column of At
and so on.

Example 3.3.11: If then

Activity 3.3.6: Find a 3x3 matrix A for which A = At.

Properties: a) If A and B have the same order, .

b) For a scalar .
c) If A is and B is , then .
d)

Definition 3.3.2: A square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if

Example 3.3.12: is orthogonal (verify)

Definition 3.3.3: A square matrix is said to be symmetric if , or

equivalently, if for each i and j.

Example 3.3.13: is symmetric.

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 Linear Algebra I

Activity 3.3.7: 1. For is to be a symmetric matrix, what numbers

should the letters a to j represent?

2. a) Does a symmetric matrix have to be square?
b) Are all square matrices symmetric?

Definition 3.3.4: A square matrix is said to be skew symmetric if ,

or equivalently, if for each i and j

Remark: or . Hence elements of main diagonal of a skew-

symmetric matrix are all zero.

Example 3.3.14: For .

So A is skew-symmetric.

Properties of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices

1. For any square matrix A, A + At is symmetric and A – At is skew- symmetric
2. If A and B are two symmetric (or skew symmetric) matrices of the same order,
then so is A + B. Proof (exercise)
3. If A is symmetric or skew symmetric, then so is kA. Proof (exercise)
4. Let A and B be symmetric matrices of the same order. The product AB is
symmetric if and only if AB = BA.
Proof: AB is symmetric

Suppose AB = BA. Then (AB)t = BtAt = BA = AB

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 Linear Algebra I

Exercise
1. a) Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i*j, where * represents
multiplication.
b) What is BT? c) Is B symmetric? Why or why not?

2. Given and B= . Verify that

i) ii) iii)

3. Let is is symmetric?

3.4 Elementary row and column operations

Elementary row operations:

1. (Replacement) Replace one row (say ) by the sum of itself and a multiple of
another row (say ). This is abbreviated as .
2. (Interchange) Interchange two rows (say ). This is abbreviated as
.
3. (Scaling) Multiply all entries in a row (say ) by a nonzero constant (scalar)
k. This is abbreviated as
For elementary column operations “row” by “column” in (1), (2) and (3) above.

We say that two matrices are row equivalent if one is obtained from the other by a finite
sequence of elementary row operations.
It is important to note that row operations are reversible. If two rows are interchanged,
they can be returned to their original positions by another interchange. If a row is scaled

by a nonzero constant c, then multiplying the new row by produces the original row.

Finally, consider a replacement operation involving two rows, say rows i and j, and

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 Linear Algebra I

suppose c times row i is added to row j to produce a new row j. To “reverse” this
operation, add – c times row i to the new row j and obtain the original row j.

Example 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to
the second, and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in
to the first.

Solution: R2 ½ R2

2R2 R2

Activity 3.4.1: Find the elementary row operation that transforms the first matrix in to
the second, and then find the reverse row operation that transforms the second matrix in
to the first.

a) b)

3.5 Row reduced echelon form of a matrix

In the definition that follows, a nonzero row (or column) in a matrix means a row (or
column) that contains at least one non-zero entry; a leading entry of a row refers to the
left most nonzero entry (in a non zero row).
Definition 3.5.1: A matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the
Following three properties:
1) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.

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 Linear Algebra I

2) Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry
of the row above it.
3) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition then it is in
reduced echelon form (or row reduced echelon form)
4) The leading entry in each non zero row is 1
5) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.

Example 3.5.1: The following matrices are in row echelon form, in fact the second
matrix is in row reduced echelon form

Definition 3.5.2: (i) A matrix which is in row echelon form is called an echelon matrix.
(ii) A matrix which is in row reduced echelon form is called a reduced
echelon matrix.
Note: 1) Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one row reduced echelon matrix.
But a matrix can be row equivalent to more than one echelon matrices.
2) If matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U, we call U an echelon
form of A. If U is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon
form of A.
Activity 3.5.1: Determine which of the following matrices are in row reduced echelon
form and which others are in row echelon form (but not in reduced echelon form)

a) b) c)

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 Linear Algebra I

d) e)

3.6. Rank of a matrix using elementary row/column operations

Let A be an m x n matrix and U be an echelon or the reduced echelon form of A. The
rank of A is denoted by Rank (A) and is defined as the number of non zero rows of U.

Example 3.6.1: Find the rank of each of the matrices given in the above activity.
Solution: a) has rank 2; b) has rank 1; c, d, and e have rank 3.

Activity 3.6.1: Find the row reduced echelon form of each of the following matrices and
determine the rank.

a) b)

c) d)

3.7. System of Linear equations

In this section we will present certain systematic methods for solving system of linear
equations.

Definition 3.7.1: A linear equation in the variables over the real field
is an equation that can be written in the form

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 Linear Algebra I

(1)
where b and the coefficients are given real numbers.

Definition 3.7.2: A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of

one or more linear equations involving the same variables, say .
Now consider a system of m linear equations in n-unknowns :

(2)

If then we say that the system is homogeneous. If for some

i{1,2,3, . . ., m} then the system is called non homogeneous. In matrix notation, the
linear system (2) can be written as where

and

We call A the coefficient matrix of the system (2).

Observe that entries of the k-th column of A are the coefficients of the variable in (2).
The matrix whose first n columns are the columns of A (the coefficient
matrix) and whose last column is B is called the augmented matrix of the system. We
denote it by [AB]. The augmented matrix determines the system (2) completely because
it contains all the coefficients and the constants to the right side of each equation in the
system. For example for the non homogeneous linear system

(3)

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 Linear Algebra I

The matrix is the coefficient matrix and is the

augmented matrix.
Are the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of a homogeneous linear system
equal? Why?
A solution of a linear system in n-unknowns is an n-tuple of
real numbers that makes each of the equations in the system a true statement when si is
substituted for xi, i = 1,2, . . ., n. The set of all possible solutions is called the solution set
of the linear system. We say that two linear systems are equivalent if they have the same
solution set.

Activity 3.7.1: 1) Give the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of the linear
system

2) Does the linear system have a solution?

3) Find the solution set of the linear system

How many solutions does it have?

4) Given the system . Is a solution of the linear

system? What about (-7, -22, 0) and ?

The activity given above illustrates the following general fact about linear systems.
A system of linear equations has either
1. no solution, or
2. exactly one solution, or
3. Infinitely many solutions.

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 Linear Algebra I

We say that a linear system is consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many
solutions; a system is inconsistent if it has no solution.

Activity 3.7.2:
1. The homogeneous linear system is consistent for any matrix A.
Explain, why?
2. Consider a linear system of two equations in two unknowns, give geometric
interpretation if the system has
i) no solution ii) exactly one solution iii) many solutions
Do the same for a linear system of three equations in three unknowns.

Solving a linear system

This is the process of finding the solutions of a linear system. We first see the
technique of elimination (Gaussian elimination method) and then we add two more
techniques, matrix inversion method and Cramer’s rule.

Gaussian Elimination Method

The Gaussian elimination method is a standard method for solving linear systems. It
applies to any system, no matter whether m < n, m = n or m > n (where m and n are
number of equations and variables respectively). We know that equivalent linear systems
have the same solutions. Thus the basic strategy in this method is to replace a given
system with an equivalent system, which is easier to solve.
The basic operations that are used to produce an equivalent system of linear equations are
the following:
1. Replace one equation by the sum of itself and a multiple of another equation.
2. Interchange two equations
3. Multiply all the terms in an equation by a non zero constant.

Activity 3.7.3: Why these three operations do not change the solution set of the system?
We illustrate this technique by using the following example.

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 3.7.1: Solve the system

Solution: We perform the elimination procedure with and without matrix notation of the
system. For each step we put the resulting system and its augmented matrix side by side
for comparison:

We keep x1 in the first equation and eliminate it from the other equations. For this replace
the third equation by the sum of itself and two times equation 1.

We write the new equation in place of the original third equation:

R3 R3 + 2R1

Next use the x2 in equation 2 to eliminate 3x2 in equation 3.

The resulting equivalent system is:

R3 R3 – 3R2

Now we eliminate the –2x3 term form equation 2. For this we use x3 in equation 3.

From this we get

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 Linear Algebra I

R2 R2 +2R3

Again by using the x3 term in equation 3, we eliminate the –x3 term in equation 1.

Thus we get the system

R1 R1+R3

Finally, we eliminate the term in equation 1. We use the x 2 term in equation 2 to

eliminate the term above it.

So we have an equivalent system (to the original system) that is easier to solve.

R1 R1 – 3R2

Thus the system has only one solution, namely (5, -2, -3) or . To
verify that (5, -2, -3) is a solution, substitute these values in to the left side of the original
system, and compute:
5 + 3(-2) - (-3) = 5 – 6 + 3 = 2
-2 - 2(-3) = -2 + 6 = 4
-2(5) - 3(-2) - 3(-3) = -10 + 6 + 9 = 5
It is a solution, as it satisfies all the equation in the given system (3).

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 3.7.1, illustrates how operations in a linear system correspond to operations on

the appropriate rows of the augmented matrix. The three basic operations listed earlier
correspond to the three elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.

Let us see how elementary row operations on the augmented matrix of a given linear
system can be used to determine a solution of the system. Suppose a system of linear
equations is changed to a new one via row operations on its augmented matrix. By
considering each type of row operation it is easy to see that any solution of the original
system remains a solution of the new system.

Conversely, since the original system can be produced via row operations on the new
system, each solution of the new system is also a solution of the original system. From
this we have the following important property.

 If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent, then the two
systems have the same solution set.
Thus to solve a linear system by elimination we first perform appropriate row operations
on the augmented matrix of the system to obtain the augmented matrix of an equivalent
linear system which is easier to solve and use back substitution on the resulting new
system. This method can also be used to answer questions about existence and
uniqueness of a solution whenever there is no need to solve the system completely.

In Gaussian elimination method we either transform the augmented matrix to an echelon

matrix or a reduced echelon matrix. That is we either find an echelon form or the reduced
echelon form of the augmented matrix of the system. An echelon form of the augmented
matrix enables us to answer the following two fundamental questions about solutions of a
linear system. These are:
1. Is the system consistent; that is, does at least one solution exists?
2. If a solution exists, is it the only one; that is, is the solution unique?

Example 3.7.2: Determine if the following system is consistent. If so how many

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 Linear Algebra I

solutions does it have?

1  1 1 3 
 
Solution: The augmented matrix is A  1 5  5 2
2 1  1 1 

Let us perform a finite sequence of elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.

The corresponding linear system of the last matrix is

(*)

But the last equation is never true. That is there are no values

that satisfy the new system (*). Since (*) and the original linear system have the
same solution set, the original system is inconsistent (has no solution).

Example 3.7.3: Use Gaussian elimination to solve the linear system

Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is

Let us find an echelon form of the augmented matrix first. From this we

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 Linear Algebra I

can determine whether the system is consistent or not . If it is consistent

we go a head to obtain the reduced echelon form of [AB] , which enable
us to describe explicitly all the solutions.

The associated linear system to the reduced echelon form of [AB] is

The third equation is . It is not an

inconsistency, it is
always true whatever values we take for x, y, z. The system is consistent
and if we assign any value  for y in the first equation, we get
. From the second we have z = 3. Thus

, y =  and z = 3 is the solution of the given system,

where  is any real number. There are an infinite number of solutions, for
example,
x= , y = 0, z = 3
x = 0, y = 1, z = 3 and so on.

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 Linear Algebra I

In vector form the general solution of the given system is of the form
where   . What dose this represents in ?

Remark: A system of linear equation is consistent if and only if the ranks of the
coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix are equal.

Activity 3.7.4: Find the solution set of the system: .

Exercise 3.1:
1. Find the solution set of the following system:

a. c.

b. d.

2. For what values of and the system: , has

i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution

3. Let = the set of all mxn matrices. Is M mxn a vector space under matrix
addition and scalar multiplication?

4. Let . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where

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 Linear Algebra I

5. Let . Is W a subspace of M2x2, where

UNIT IV
Determinants

4.1 Definition of a Determinant

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 Linear Algebra I

We interrupt our discussion of matrices to introduce the concept of the determinant

function. Remember that a matrix is simply an ordered arrangement of elements; it is
meaningless to assign a single numerical value to a matrix.
However, if A is a square matrix, then the determinant function associates with A exactly
one numerical value called the determinant of A, that gives us valuable information
about the matrix. By denoting the determinant of A by or det A we can think of the
determinant function as correspondence:

In this case, the straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the
determinant of the matrix. We will see some of the uses of the determinant in the
subsequent sections. For now, let's find out how to compute the determinant of a matrix
so that we can use it later.

Definition 4.1.1: (Determinant of order 1): Let be a square matrix of order 1.

Then determinant of A is defined as the number itself. That is, .
Example and

Definition 4.1.2: (Determinant of order 2): Let be a matrix, then

.
That is, the determinant of a matrix is obtained by taking the product of the entries
in the main diagonal and subtracting from it the product of the entries in the other
diagonal.
To define the determinant of a square matrix A of order n(n > 2), we need the concepts of
the minor and the cofactor of an element.
Let be a determinant of order n. The minor of aij, is the determinant that is left
by deleting the ith row and the jth column. It is denoted by Mij.

For example, given the 3 x 3 determinant . The minor of is

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 Linear Algebra I

, the minor of is , and so on.

Let be a determinant of order n. The cofactor of aij denoted Cij or Aij, is

defined as , where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j

in which the entry lies. Thus . For example, the cofactor of

a12 in the 3 x 3 determinant is

Example 4.1.1: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the matrix:

Solution: C11 = -1, C21 = 1 , C31 = -1, C12 = 8, C13 = -5, C22 = -6, C32 = 2, C23 = 3, C33 = -1

Activity 4.1.1: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the given matrices:

a. b.

Definition 4.1.3 :( Determinant of order n): If A is a square matrix of order n (n >2), then
its determinant may be calculated by multiplying the entries of any row (or column) by
their cofactors and summing the resulting products. That is,
Or

Remark: It is a fact that determinant of a matrix is unique and does not depend on the
row or column chosen for its evaluation.

Example 4.1.2: Find the value of

Solution: Choose a given row or column. Let us arbitrarily select the first row. Then

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 Linear Algebra I

= 22
If we had expanded along the first column, then

= 22, as before

Example 4.1.3: Find the value of

Solution: Expanding along first row, we have

=

= = 54 – 94 + 13 = -27

Activity 4.1.2: Compute the determinant of A if:

a. c.

b. d.

Note: 1. , where is an identity matrix of order n.

2. The product of the diagonal elements, if A is a diagonal matrix or lower
triangular matrix or upper triangular matrix.

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 Linear Algebra I

The following diagram called Sarrus’ diagram, enables us to write the value of the
determinant of order 3 very conveniently. This
technique does not hold for determinant of
higher order.
Working Rule: Make the Sarrus’ diagram by
repeating the first two columns of the
determinant as shown below. Then multiply the elements joined by arrows. Assign the
positive sign to an expression if it is formed by a downward arrow and negative sign to
an expression if it is formed by an upward arrow.
Value:

Example 4.1.4: Find the value of with

the help of Sarrus’ diagram

Solution: The Sarrus’ diagram for the given determinant
is to the right. Thus the value of the determinant is

Exercise:

1) Evaluate the following determinants: a) b) c)

2) Let . Determine each of the following

a) the minor of a21 b) the minor of a22 c) the cofactor of a22

d) the cofactor of a23 e) the cofactor of a32.

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 Linear Algebra I

4.2. Properties of Determinants

We now state some useful properties of determinants. These properties help a good deal
in the evaluation of determinants. We use the notations Ri and Cj to denote respectively
the i-th row and the j-th column of a determinant.

Property 1: The value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into
columns and columns into rows. That is,

or

Remark: In terms of matrices, if A is a square matrix, then .

Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of
the determinant so obtained is the negative of the value of the original determinant. That

is, .

Remark: The notation is used to represent interchange of ith and jth

row (column).
Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the

determinant is zero. That is, . R1 and R2 are identical

Property 4: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a

constant k, the value of the determinant so obtained is k times the value of the original

determinant. That is,

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 Linear Algebra I

Remark: 1. The notation is used to represent multiplication of each

element of ith row (column) by the constant k.
2. , where k is any real number and A is an nxn matrix.

Property 5: If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added k times
the elements of another row (or column), the value of the determinant so obtained is
equal to the value of the original determinant. That is,

Property 6: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of two
elements, the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,

Example 4.2.1: Find the value of the determinant

Solution: By applying various properties of determinants, we make maximum number of

zeros in a row or a column. We shall make maximum number of zeros in C 1. Performing
the operations and (property 5),

= = 24 - 36 = -12

Example 4.2.2: Show that

Solution: Let . Performing we get

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 Linear Algebra I

Performing and , we get

= (Property 5)

Activity 4.2.1: Evaluate the following determinants by using the properties listed above:

a) b) c)

Product of two determinants

Theorem 4.2.1: The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product
of their determinants. That is, .

Example 4.2.3: Let and , then

Example 4.2.4: Let A and B be 3x3 matrix with det A = 2 and det B = -3.
Find det (2ABt).
Solution: , since det B = det Bt.

4.3 Adjoint and Inverse of a matrix

Definition 4.3.1: Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n and let Cij be the cofactor of
aij. Then the adjoint of A, denoted by adj A, is defined as the transpose of the cofactor
matrix (Cij).

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 4.3.1: Find adj A, if

Solution: We have C11=-3, C12=6, C13= -3, C21=5, C22=-10, C23=5, C31=2,C32=-4, C33=2.

Thus, .

Activity 4.3.1: Find adj A if

Properties of the Adjoint of a matrix

1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then
A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A)A, where In is an identity matrix of order n.
2. If A is a square matrix of order n, then adj
3. If A and B are two square matrices of the same order, then
adj(AB) = adj(B) adj (A).

Example 4.3.2: If , verify that A(adjA) = |A| I3 = (adjA)A

Solution: We have |A| = 2(-5)-1(12+4)+3(10) = -10 – 16 + 30 = 4

Now C11=-5, C12=-16, C13=10, C21 = 9, C22=24, C23=-14, C31=1, C32=4, C33=-2.

Hence =

Similarly, it can be proved that

Definition 4.3.2: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a square matrices B of order
n, if it exists, is called an inverse of A if AB = BA = In. A matrix A having an inverse is

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 Linear Algebra I

called an invertible matrix. It may easily be seen that if a matrix A is invertible, its
inverse is unique. The inverse of an invertible matrix A is denoted by A-1.
Does every square matrix possess an inverse? To answer this let us consider the matrix

. If B is any square matrix of order 2, we find that AB = BA = 0.

We thus see that there cannot be any matrix B for which AB and BA both are equal to I2.
Therefore A is not invertible. Hence, we conclude that a square matrix may fail to have
an inverse. However, if A is a square matrix such that , then A is invertible and

. For, we know that

. Thus A is invertible and .

A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if , and it is called non-

singular (invertible) if .

Example 4.3.3: Find if the matrix has no inverse.

Solution:


 or

Example 4.3.4: If , then

Since is non-singular or invertible.

Activity 4.3.2: Find A-1.

Further, if then and it is singular.

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 Linear Algebra I

Note: If A is an invertible nxn matrix, then AA-1 = In and det A-1 = , where

Properties of the inverse of a matrix

1. A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.


2. The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix itself, i.e. A  1 )  1  A 
3. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e.,

4. If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is also
invertible and moreover,

Example 4.3.5: Find the inverse of the matrix A= .

Solution: . Thus exists and is given by

. To find adjA, let Cij denote the cofactor of aij, the element in the ith row

and jth column of |A|. Thus C11=3, C12 = -1, C13=-6, C21 = 2, C22=2, C23=-4, C31=-9 C32=-5 and C33 =26.

. Hence

Activity 4.3.3: 1. Find the inverse of A, if i) ii)

2. Find matrix A such that .

3. If then . (True/False)

4.4. Cramer’s rule for solving system of linear equations (homogeneous and non
homogeneous)

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 Linear Algebra I

Suppose we have to solve a system of n linear equations in n unknowns Ax = b. Let Ai(b)

be the matrix obtained from A by replacing column i by the vector b and Ak be the k-th
column vector of matrix A.

Now let e1, e2, . . . en be columns of the n × n identity matrix I and Ii(x) be the matrix
obtained from I by replacing column i by x.

If Ax = b then by using matrix multiplication we have

AIi(x) = A[e1 . . . x . . . en] = [Ae1 . . . Ax . . . Aen]
= [A1 . . . b . . . An] = Ai(b)
By the multiplicative property of determinants, (detA)(detIi(x)) = det Ai(b)
The second determinant on the left is xi. (Make a cofactor expansion along the ith row.)

Hence (det A). xi = det Ai(b). Therefore if detA  0 then we have .

This method for finding the solutions of n linear equations in n unknowns is known as
Cramer’s Rule.

Example 4.4.1: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.

Solution: Matrix form of the given system is

where

By Cramer’s Rule,

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 Linear Algebra I

and

Example 4.4.2: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer’s Rule.

Solution: Matrix form of the given system is

where

By Cramer’s Rule,

, and

Activity 4.4.1: 1. Use Cramer’s rule to solve each of the following

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 Linear Algebra I

a) 2z + 3 = y + 3x b) –a + 3b – 2c = 7
x – 3z = 2y + 1 3a + 3c = -3
3y + z = 2-2x 2a + b + 2c = -1

2. Consider the system of homogeneous n linear equations in n unknowns

Ax = 0. Discuss about the cases that we can use Cramer’s Rule.

For the non homogeneous system , if , then the Cramer’s rule does
not give any information whether or not the system has a solution. However, in the case
of homogeneous system we have the following useful theorem.

Theorem 4.4.1: A system of n homogenous linear equations in n unknowns Ax = 0, has a

non trivial solution if . If it has only the trivial
solution x1 = x2 = … = xn = 0.

Example 4.4.3: Let . Find the value(s) of if has non-zero

solution.
Solution: det A = 0



 or

4.5 The rank of a matrix by sub determinants

Let us consider a square matrix A of order n (i.e n rows and n columns). If there are at
least k rows and k columns which must be deleted in order to obtain a non vanishing
determinant, then the order of the highest ordered non vanishing determinant in A is
given by r = n – k and this number is defined as the rank of A.

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 Linear Algebra I

We are now giving the definition of rank, in terms of determinant.

Definition 4.5.1: The rank of a matrix A, r(A), is equal to the order of the highest
ordered non vanishing determinant in A.
Remark: The rank of a matrix is the order of the largest sub square matrix whose
determinant is different from zero.

Note: If A is a non singular matrix of order n, then the rank of A is equal to n.

1. Rank of A is unique
2. Every matrix has a rank
3. If A is a matrix of order m  n, then r(A)  minimum of
4. If r(A) = k then every minor of order k + 1, k + 2 etc is zero
5. A is a matrix of order n  n. A is non singular  r (A) = n
6. Rank of In = n
7. A is a matrix of order m  n. If every kth order minor (k < m, k < n) is zero then
r(A) < k.
8. A is matrix of order m  n. If there is a minor of order k (k < m, k < n) which is
not zero, then r(A)  k.
9. If A is a null matrix, then the rank of A is defined as zero. That is, if A is
non-zero matrix.

Example 4.5.1: Obtain the rank of the matrix A=

Solution: det A = -1 (21 – 9) - 2 (9 – 5) + 0 = -20  0

 A is non singular and hence r (A) = 3

Example 4.5.2: Obtain the rank of the matrix A=

Solution: | A | = -1(24 – 25) + 2(18 – 20) – 3(15 – 16) = 0. So R (A) < 3 … (1)

A minor of order 2 of A is . So R(A)  2 ……(2)

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 Linear Algebra I

 From (1) and (2); rank (A) = 2.

Example 4.5.3: Find the rank of the matrix A =

Solution: Since A is a 2x3 matrix, rank of A  2. But every determinant of order 2 in

A is zero. So rank of A < 2 …..(1)
But A is a non zero matrix  r(A)  1 …. (2)
 from (1) and (2) r(A) = 1

Example 4.5.4: Find the rank of the matrix A= .

Solution: A is a 3x4 matrix. So rank of A  3 ……(1).

A non vanishing determinant of order 3 in A is

= -43. So rank of A  3 ……(2).

Combining (1) and (2) we have rank of A = 3.

Example 4.5.5: The 34 matrix A = has a row that is a constant multiple

of another row (i.e R2 = 2R1). This matrix possesses four square sub

matrices order 3: , , , .

The determinant of each of these matrices is zero. Because, in each case the second row
is a constant multiple of the first row. Thus the rank of the matrix A cannot be equal to 3.
That is rank of A < 3. However, it is easy to find a 2 x 2 sub matrix of A whose

determinant is different from zero. Take its determinant is equal to -4  0.

This indicates that rank(A) = 2.

4.6. Determinant and volume
This is related to the idea of triple dot product.

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 Linear Algebra I

If A is a 2x2 matrix, the area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of A is

det A.
If A is a 3x3 matrix, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A
is det A.

4.7. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a matrix

Definition 4.7.1: Let A be an n x n matrix over a field K. A scalar  in K is said to be an
eigenvalue of A iff there is a non-zero vector X in Kn such that
AX = X ……… (*)
If  is an eigenvalue of A then any vector v in Kn satisfying (*) is called an eigenvector
of A corresponding to . (In our case K is the set of all real numbers)

Note: Intuitively, an eigenvector of A is a vector that remains unchanged or reversed in

direction when A operates on the vector space. If the corresponding value is 1, then it is
unchanged in magnitude also and it then said to be invariant under A.

Activity 4.7.1: Let .

i) Are u and v eigenvectors of A?

ii) Show that 7 is an eigenvalue of A.

How to determine the Eigenvalues and corresponding Eigenvectors of a Matrix?

X is an eigenvector with eigenvalue   AX = X (A - In) X = 0 …(**)

X = 0 is the trivial solution of (**). Further solutions will exist iff .

Hence, solving the equation gives the eigenvalue(s) of A.

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 Linear Algebra I

For each eigenvalue , the corresponding eigenvector is found by substituting  back into
the equation .

Note: i) The polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of A.

ii) The equation is called the characteristic equation.

Example 4.7.1: Let . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding

eignvectors of A.

Solution:

The corresponding eigenvectors can now be found as follow:

For  = 7: (A – 7I2)X = 0

Hence, any vector of the type  , where  is any real number, is an eigenvector

corresponding to the eigenvalue 7.

For  = -4: (A + 4I2)X = 0

Hence, any vector of the type , where  is any real number, is an eigenvector

corresponding to the eigenvalue –4.

Note: If X is an eigenvector with eigenvalue , X is also an eigenvector with the same

eigenvalue, where  is a non-zero scalar.

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 Linear Algebra I

The following theorem summarizes our results so far.

Theorem 4.7.1: If A is an n x n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent:

i)  is an eigenvalue of A.
ii) There is a non-zero vector X  Kn such that AX = X.
iii) The system of equations (A - I)X = 0 has non-trivial solutions.
iv)  is a solution of the characteristic equation det (A - I) in K.

Example 4.7.2: Let . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding

eignvectors of A.

Solution: Characteristic equation of A:

 (3 - ) (3 - ) (5 - ) - 4(5 - ) = 0
 [(3 - )2 - 4] (5 - ) = 0
 (2 - 6 + 5) ( - 5) = 0
 ( - 1) ( - 5)2 = 0
So, eigenvalues of A are:  = 1 and  = 5.
To find the corresponding eigen vectors, we substitute the values of  in the equation

(A - I) X = 0. That is, …. (*)

For  = 1, (*) becomes:  x = y, z = 0

Thus, the eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue 1 are vectors of the form:

X= = for any x in the set of real numbers.

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 Linear Algebra I

For  = 5, (*) becomes:  x = -y

Thus, eigenvectors of A corresponding to eigenvalues 5 are vectors of the form.

Exercise:
Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrices:

a) b)

c) d)

4.8. Diagonalization of symmetric matrix

Theorem 4.8.1: If A is an symmetric matrix, then the eigenvectors of A associated

with distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.

Proof:

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 Linear Algebra I

Let and be eigenvectors of A associated with distinct eigenvalues

and , respectively, i.e.,

and .
Thus,

and
.
Therefore,
.

Since , .

Example 4.8.1: Let .

A is a symmetric matrix. The characteristic equation is

The eigenvalues of A are . The eigenvectors associated with these eigenvalues

are

Thus, are orthogonal.

Note: If A is an symmetric matrix, then there exists an orthogonal matrix P such

that
,

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 Linear Algebra I

Where are n linearly independent eigenvectors of A and

the diagonal elements of D are the eigenvalues of A associated with these eigenvectors.

Example 4.8.2: Let .

Please find an orthogonal matrix P and a diagonal matrix D such that .

Solution: We need to find the orthonormal eigenvectors of A and the associated

eigenvalues first. The characteristic equation is

Thus,

1. As solve for the homogeneous system

.
The eigenvectors are

and are two eigenvectors of A. However, the two eigenvectors

are not orthogonal. We can obtain two orthonormal eigenvectors via Gram-Schmidt
process. The orthogonal eigenvectors are

Standardizing these two eigenvectors results in

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 Linear Algebra I

2. As solve for the homogeneous system

.

The eigenvectors are : .

is an eigenvectors of A. Standardizing the eigenvector results in

Thus,

and .
Note: For a set of vectors , we can find a set of orthogonal vectors
via Gram-Schmidt process:

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 Linear Algebra I

UNIT V
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

5.1. Definition of linear Transformations and examples

A linear transformation is a special type of function. Hence before the discussion about
linear maps, it is helpful to revise the concept of functions.

Activity 5.1.1: Recall about the meaning and properties of a function. Also try to recall
about related concepts like domain, range, one to one, on to,
composition, and inverse.
Recall that a function (mapping) consists of the following:
i) a set X, each of whose element is mapped
ii) a set Y, to which each element of x is mapped
iii) a rule (correspondence) f, which associates with each element x of X a single
element f (x) of Y.

A function (mapping) f from X to Y is written as f : X  Y.

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 Linear Algebra I

If f maps an element a of X in to element b of Y then we write f (a) = b. Here b is called

the image of a under f and a is called pre-image of b. Moreover, for any subset A of X,
the set of all images of elements of A is denoted by f [A] and we call it the image of A
under f. On the other hand if B is a subset of Y the set of all elements of X whose images
are in B is denoted by f -1[B] and we call it the pre-image of B under f. Using set notation
the image of A and the pre-image of B under f can be defined respectively as
f [A] = {bY | b = f (a) for some a  A} and f -1[B] = {aX | f (a)  B}

Note: For any function f: X  Y,

1. Domain of f = X and range of f = f[X] the image of set X under f.
2. f is one-to-one (injective) if and only if for any x 1, x2  X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2.
3. f is on to (surjective) if and only if for every b in Y there exists an
element a in X such that f (a) = b, i.e f [X] = Y or range of f = Y.
4. We say that f is invertible (has an inverse) if and only if there is a function
g from Y into X such that
i) gof is the identity function on X, i.e (gof) (x) =x for all x X.
ii) fog is the identity function on Y i.e (fog) (y) = y for all y  Y.
This function g:Y X is unique whenever it exists and we call it the
inverse of f. It is denoted by f -1. Moreover from (i) and (ii) it follows that
f(x) = y if and only if . Observe that if there is a function
g:Y X satisfying (i) then f is one-to-one. Similarly if there is a function
g:Y X satisfying (ii) then f is on to. What do you conclude from this?
Further one can easily verify that if f:Y X is one-to one and on to then
there exists a unique function g:Y X which satisfies (i) and (ii). Thus f is
invertible if and only if it is one-to-one and on to.

Activity 5.1.2:
1. Let A = [2, ) and B = [-4, ). Define a function
f : A  B by f (x) = x2 - 4x.

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 Linear Algebra I

a) show that f is one-to-one

b) Show that f is on to
c) Find the inverse of f
2. Let g : 2  2 be given by g(a, b) = (a + b, b)
i) Is g one-to-one? Verify!
ii) Is g onto? Verify!
iii) Does g have inverse? If so find its inverse.

As it is already mentioned a linear transformation is a special type of function. What

is/are the condition(s) that a function must satisfy so as to be a linear transformation?

The following definition will enable us to give a complete answer for this question.
Definition 5.1.1: Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field K. A function
T: V  W is called a linear transformation (or a linear mapping)
of V in to W if it satisfies the following conditions:
i) T (u + v) = T(u) + T(v)  u,v  V
ii) T(u) =  T(u)   K and u  V

Note: 1. Using condition (ii) of the definition, one can show that T(Ov) = Ow
where Ov and Ow are zero vectors in V and W respectively.
T (Ov) = T(0.u) ( because 0.u = Ov for any u V)
= 0T(u) (by (ii),0  K (The zero element in the field K))
= OW (Why?)
This proves that a linear mapping maps a zero vector in to zero vector.
2) The two conditions in the definition are equivalent to
T(u + v) = T(u) + T(v) ,  K and u, vV

Let us prove that a function T from vector space V in to W over the same field K is a
linear transformation iff T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) for any 1, 2  K and for
any v1, v2  V.

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 Linear Algebra I

Proof: First suppose T: V  W is a linear transformation.

Since 1v1, 2v2  V 1, 2  K and v1, v2  V,
T(1v1 + 2v2) = T(1v1) + T(2v2) by condition (i) of definition 4.1.1
= T(v1) + 2 T(v2) by condition (ii) of definition 4.1.1
Thus T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) 1, 2 K and v1, v2 V.
Next suppose that
T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2 T(v2) 1, 2 K and v1, v2  V *
We have to prove that T is a linear transformation.
T(v1 + v2) = T(1.v1) + 1.v2) , where 1 is the multiplicative identity in K.
= 1.T(v1) + 1.T(v2) From (*)
= T(v1) + T(v2).
T(1 v1) = T(1v1 + 0.v2) , where 0 is the zero element of K.
= 1T(v1) + 0.T(v2) , from (*)
= 1T(v1) + Ow, (0.T(v2) = Ow – zero vector in W)
= 1 T(v1)
Therefore T(v1 + v2) = T(v1) + T(v2)and T(1v1) = 1 T(v1)
 1  k, v1, v2  V.
Consequently T: V  W is a linear transformation if and only if
T(1v1 + 2v2) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) 1, 2  K and v1, v2  V.
Observe that by induction we also have a more general relation
T(1v1 + 2v2 + … + nvn) = 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) + …+T(vn) or

for any n vectors v1, v2, …, vn in V and

for any n scalars 1, 2, 3, …, n in K whenever T:VW is a linear

transformation.

3) A linear mapping T: V V is often called a linear operator on V.

Now let us see some examples of a linear transformation (or a linear mapping).

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 Linear Algebra I

Example 5.1.1 Let V be a vector space over the field K. Then the mapping
I: V  V given by I(v) = v vV is a linear transformation. To prove
this let u,v V and   K. Then u + v V and uV as V is a vector
space. Since I(x) = x x  V, we have
i) I (u + v) = u + v and I(u) + I(v) = u + v
Thus I (u + v) = I(u) + I(v)
ii) I (u) = u and I(u) = u
Thus I (u) = I(u)
Therefore I is a linear transformation. We call I identity transformation.

Example 5.1.2: Let T be a mapping from a vector space V over a field K into it self
given by T(v) = Ov v  V where Ov is a zero vector in V.
Then T is a linear transformation. (Verify!). We call this linear
transformation the zero transformation.

Example 5.1.3: Let V be the vector space of all differentiable real valued functions
of real variables on an open interval (a, b). Then the mapping D: V  V
given by (where is the derivative of f) is a linear
transformation. This can be easily verified by using the properties of
derivative.

Example 5.1.4: Let T : Mn  Mn( where Mn is the vector space of n x n matrices

over ) be given by T(A) = At . Show that T is a linear transformation.
To show this let A, B  Mn and   .Then using the properties of
transpose of matrices we have,
(A + B)t = At + Bt and (A)t = (At) = At
Thus T(A + B) = (A + B)t by definition of T
= A t + Bt
= T(A) + T(B)

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Also T(A) = (A)t = At = T(A)

Therefore T is a linear transformation.

Example 5.1.5: Let a function L: 23 be given by L (x, y) = (x + y, y, x)

Is L a linear transformation?
Solution: Let (a, b) , (c, d)  2 and   .
Then (i) T((a, b) + (c, d)) = T(a + c, b + d)
= (a + c + b + d, b + d, a + c)
= (a + b, b, a) + (c + d, d, c))
= T(a, b) + T(c, d)

ii) T((a, b)) = T(a, b)

= (a + b, b, a)
= (a + b, b, a)
=  T(a, b)
Thus T is a linear transformation.

Example 5.1.6: Is the mapping N: 3 defined by N(x, y, z) =

a linear transformation?
Solution: No, take (0, 1, 2), (3, 0, 1)  3
N((0, 1,2) + (3, 0, 1)) = N(3, 1, 3)
=
=
N(0, 1, 2) + N(3, 0, 1) =
=
=
Since , N ((0,1,2) + (3, 0, 1))  N (0,1,2) + (3,0,1)
Thus N is not a linear transformation as N(u + v) = N(u) + N(v) must hold true
for all vectors u, v in 3.

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Remark: To show that a mapping T from a vector space V in to W over the same
field K is not a linear transformation it suffices to show that there exists two
vectors v1, v2  V such that T(v1 + v2)  T(v1) + T(v2) or there exists scalar  V
such that .

Activity 5.1.3:
1. Show that the mapping T : 32 defined by T(x, y, z) = (x-y, x – z) is a linear
transformation.
2. Is the mapping L: 32 defined by L (a, b, c) = (| a |, 0) a linear
transformation? Justify your answer!

Let us add one more example. Recall that vectors v 1, v2, v3, … vm in a vector space V
over a field K are linearly independent iff 1 v1 + 2v2 +… + nvn = Ov (where 1,2,
…, n K) implies 1 = 2 = …. = n = 0

Example 5.1.7: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
same field K. Prove that the vectors v1, v2, v3, …, vn  V are linearly
independent if T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent
vectors in W.

Solution: Suppose T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent vectors in W
where v1, v2, v3, …, vn are vectors in V and T:V  W is a linear
transformation. To prove that v1, v2, v3,…,vn are linearly independent.
Let 1 2, 3, … ,n  K such that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + …+ nvn = Ov
Then T(1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + … + nvn) = T(Ov)
So 1T(v1) + 2T(v2) + 3T(v3) + … + nT(vn) = Ow
But T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn) are linearly independent.
Hence 1 = 2 = 3 = … = n = 0. Thus we have shown that
1v1 + 2v2 + 3v3 + … + nvn = Ov implies

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 Linear Algebra I

1 = 2 = 3 = … = n = 0.
Consequently v1, v2, v3, …, vn are linearly independent.

Exercise
1. Determine whether or not each of the following mappings is linear transformation.
a) T: 22 given by T (x, y) = (x + y, x)
b) T: 2 given by T (x, y) = xy
c) T: 32 given by T (x1, x2, x3) = (1 + x1, x2)
d) L: 32 given by L (x, y, z) = (z + x, y)
e) L: 22 given by L (p, q) = (p3, q3)
2. Let M2 denote the vector space of 2  2 matrices over .

Let T: M2  M2 be given by

Is Ta linear mapping? Justify your answer!

3. Let V be the vector space of m  n matrices over . Let P be a fixed mm matrix and
Q a fixed n  n matrix over . Show that the mapping L: V  V defined by
T(A) = PAQ is a linear transformation.
4. Show that the mapping F: 2   defined by F(a, b) = |a – b| is not a linear
transformation.
5. Let G : V  W be a linear transformation where V and W are vector spaces over the
same field K.
Prove that if u1, u2, u3, …, un are linearly dependent vectors in V then G(u 1), G(u2),
G(u3), …, G(un) are linearly dependent vectors in W.
6. Let U, V, and W be vector spaces over the same field K.
If g: U  V and f : V  W are linear transformations show that fog is also a linear
transformation form U in to W.
7) i) Let A = (a, b, c) be a fixed given vector in 3. Define T: 3   by
T(X) = AX X  3.
(AX is the scalar (dot) product of A and X). Show that T is a linear
transformation.

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 Linear Algebra I

ii) Let A be as in (i) define T: 3   by T(X) = AX + 4. Show that T is not

a linear transformation.
8) Let V be the space of n x 1 matrices over  and let W be the space of m 1
matrices over . Let A be a fixed m  n matrix over . Define T: V  W by
T(X) = AX, X  V.
Prove that i) T is a linear transformation.
ii) T is a zero transformation if and only if A is the zero matrix.
9) Let V be the vector space of all n  n matrices over  and let B a fixed n  n
matrix.
If T: V  V is defined by T(A) = AB – BA then verify that T is a linear
transformation.
10) Let V be a vector space over , and f: V  , g: V   be two linear
transformations. Let F: V  2 be the mapping defined by F(v) = (f(v), g(v)).
Show that F is a linear transformation.
11) Let V, W be two vector spaces over the same field K and let F: V  W be a
linear transformation. Let U be the subset of V consisting of all elements u such
that F(u) = Ow. Prove that U is a subspace of V.
12) Let F: 3  4 be a linear transformation. Let P be a point of 3 and A is a non
zero element of 3. Describe F[S], where S = {X  3| X = P + t A, t  }.
(Distinguish the cases when F(A) = 0 and F(A)  0).

Properties of Linear transformation

Recall that in the previous section, we have seen that if T: V  W is a linear

transformation from vector space V in to W over the same field K then
i) T(Ov) = Ow

ii) i  K and vi  V, i = 1, 2, …, n.

We now state two other basic properties in the following theorem. The proof is left for
you as an exercise.

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Theorem 5.1.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
same field K. Then i) T(-v) = -T(v) v  V
ii) T(v1 – v2) = T(v1) – T(v2) v1, v2  V
Our next theorem asserts that a linear transformation from a given finite dimensional
vector space V in to any vector space W is completely determined by its values on the
elements of a given basis of V.
Theorem 5.1.2: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let {v1, v2, v3, …, vn}be
a basis of V. If {w1, w2, w3, …, wn}is a set of arbitrary vectors in W, then
there exists a unique linear transformation F: V  W such that
F(vj) = wj for j = 1, 2, … n.
To prove the theorem, we need to
a) define a function F from V into W such that F(vi) = wi for all i = 1, 2, 3, … n.
b) show F is a linear transformation
c) show that F is unique.
Proof: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let {v1, v2, v3, …, vn} be a basis
of V and {w1, w2, w3, …, wn} be any set of n-vectors in W.
Since {v1, v2, v3, …, vn} is a basis of V, for any v  V there exist unique scalars
a1, a2, a3, …, an  K such that

a) Define F : V  W by F(v) = a1w1 + a2 w2 + a3w3 + … + anwn

i.e where

Every element v of V is mapped to only one element of W as the scalars a i ‘s are

unique. As W is a vector space, every linear combination of vectors in W is also

in W. So . Thus F is a function from V in to W

Moreover, since vi = 0.v1 + 0.v2 + … + Ovi-1 + 1.vi + 0.vi+1 + …+ 0.vn

for any i = 1, 2, 3, …, n, we have
F(vi) = 0.w1 + 0.w2 + … + 0wi-1 + 1.wi + 0.wi+1 + … + 0.wn = wi

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 Linear Algebra I

So F(vi) = wi for each i = 1, 2, 3, …, n

b) We show that F is a linear transformation,
i.e F(u + v) = F(u) + F(v) and F(v) = F(v)   K and u, v  V.
To do this, let x, y  V and   K

Then and for some unique scalars x1, x2, x3, …,xn,

y1, y2, y3, …, yn in K.

(i) F(x + y) =

= by definition of F

= by definition of F

= F(x) + F(y)
F(x + y) = F(x) + F(y) x, y  V

ii) F(x) =

= by definition of F

= by definition of F

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 Linear Algebra I

So F (x) =  F(x)   K and x  V

Therefore from (i) and (ii) we conclude that F is a linear transformation from V in
to W.
c) In (a) and (b) we have shown the existence of a linear transformation F : V 
W such that F(vi) = wi for all i = 1, 2, 3, …, n.
To prove that F is unique, suppose that G: V  W is a linear transformation
such that G(vi) = wi i  {1, 2, …,n}

Let x be any vector in V then for some unique scalars x 1, x2, x3,

…, xn in K.

Thus

= as G is a linear transformation

= as G(vi) = wi for each i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n.

= by definition of F.

= F(x)
Since G(x) = F(x) for any x  V, we conclude that G = F.
This proves that F is unique. With this we complete the proof of the theorem.

Remark: 1) The vectors w1, w2,w3,…, wn in theorem 4.2.2 are completely arbitrary;
they may be linearly dependent, independent or they may even be equal to
each other. But the number of these vectors in W must be equal with that of
the number of basis vectors of V.
2) In determining the linear transformation from V in to W the assumption that
{v1, v2, …, vn} is a basis of V is essential.

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Example 5.1.8:
a) Is there a linear transformation T from 2 in to 2 such that T(2, 3) = (4, 5) and T(1,
0) = (0, 0)?
b) How many linear transformations satisfying the given conditions do we have?
Solution: a) Yes. The two vectors (2, 3) and (1, 0) are linearly independent and hence
they form a basis for 2. Thus according to theorem 4.2.2, there is unique
linear transformation from 2 in to 2 such that T(2,3) = (4, 5) and T(1,
0) = (0, 0).
b) As it is verified above, we have only one linear transformation satisfying
the given conditions.

Example 5.1.9: Describe explicitly the linear transformation T: 2  2 such that

T(2, 3) = (4, 5) and T(1, 0) = (0, 0).
Solution: Let (x, y)  2. Then (x, y) can be expressed as a linear combination of
(2, 3) and (1, 0)as {(2,3), (1,0)} form a basis of 2.
So (x, y) = a(2, 3) + b(1, 0) for some a, b  or (x, y) = (2a + b, 3a)

Hence we have x = 2a + b and y = 3a, which inturn implies and

Thus (x, y) =

Therefore  (x, y)  2

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Observe that the image of any vector (a, b)  2 under the linear transformation of

example 4.2.2 is . So the image of 2 under T is the line through (0, 0) with

direction vector .

Activity 5.1.4:

Let T: 2  2 be as in example 4.2.2 above, i.e

i) Let A = {(x, y)| x2 + y2 = 1}. Find the image of A under T i.e T[A].
ii) Describe the set containing all elements in 2 whose images is (0,0)

Example 5.1.10: Find a linear transformation T : 2  3 such that

T(1, 2) = (3, -1, 5) and T(0, 1) = (2, 1, -1)
Solution:  = {(1, 2), (0, 1)} is a basis of 2. (verify)
Thus there exist a unique linear transformation (by theorem 4.2.2) T: 2  3
such that T(1,2) = (3, -1, 5) and T(0, 1) = (2, 1, -1).
To describe this unique linear transformation explicitly, suppose (x, y)  2
Then (x, y) = t1 (1, 2) + t2 (0, 1) for some t1, t2   as  is a basis of 2.
= (t1, 2t1 + t3)

Thus we have

Which in turn implies t1 = x and t2 = y – 2x. So (x, y) = x(1, 2) + (y – 2x) (0, 1)

and T(x, y) = x T(1, 2) + (y - 2x) T(0, 1)
= x(3, -1, 5) + (y – 2x) (2, 1, -1)
= (3x, -x, 5x) + (2y – 4x, y-2x, 2x – y)
= (2y – x, y – 3x, 7x – y)
Therefore the required linear transformation is given by
T(x, y) = (2y – x, y – 3x, -y + 7x).

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Activity 5.1.5:
1 a) Find a linear transformation T: 22 such that T(1, 0) = (1, 1) and
T(0, 1) = (-1, 2)
b) Prove that T maps the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and
(0, 1) in to a parallelogram.
2. a) Is there a linear transformation T:33 such that
T(0, 1, 2) = (3, 1, 2) and T(1, 1, 1) = (2, 2, 2)?
b) If your answer in (a) is yes,
(i) find T.
(ii) is it unique? Why?

Example 5.1.11: Is there a linear transformation L from 2 in to 2 such that

L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1)?
Solution: Even though (1, -1, 1) = (1, 1,1) are linearly independent vectors in 3,
They do not from a basis of 3 . This is because a basis of 3 must
contain three linearly independent vectors as 3 a 3-dimensional vector
space. So theorem 4.2.2 does not guarantee us the existence of a linear
transformation L : 3  2 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and
L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1)? But to make use of the theorem we need to have a
basis of 3 containing the two given vectors v 1 = (1, -1,1) and v2 = (1, 1,
1) and a vector v3 different from v1 and v2. That is we need to find a vector
v3 so that {v1, v2, v3} is a basis of 3. For this put v3 = (0, 0, 1).
Since  (1, -1, 1) + (1, 1, 1) + (0, 0, 1) = (0,0,0) for some ,, 
implies  =  =  = 0, (1, -1, 1), (1,1,1) and (0, 0, 1) are three linearly
independent vectors in 3. In addition to this let us take one more vector
in 2, say (0, 0). Now we have a basis {(1, -1, 1), (1, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1)} of 3
and three vectors (1, 0), (0, 1), (0,0) in 2. Thus by theorem 4.2.2 there
exists a unique linear transformation L: 3  2 such that
L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0), L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1) and L(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0).

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To find this linear transformation, first let us write any (x, y, z)  3 as a

linear combination of (1, -1, 1), (1,1,1) and (0, 0, 1). This is possible as
they form basis of 3.
Set (x, y, z) = a(1, -1, 1) + b(1, 1,1) + c(0, 0, 1); a, b, c  and solve for a,
b, c interms of x, y, and z.
(x, y, z) = (a, -a, a) + (b, b, b) + (0, 0, c)
 (x, y, z) = (a + b, -a + b, a + b + c)

 ,

Thus (x, y, z) = (1,-1,1) + (1,1,1) + (z - x) (0,0,1)

L(x, y, z) =

Therefore we have obtained a linear transformation L: 3  2 given by

L(x, y, z) =

Moreover L(1,-1,1) = = (1,0) and

L(1, 1,1) = .

Consequently we can say that there is a linear transformation L: 3  2 satisfying the

two given conditions L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1,1,1) = (0, 1).

Note: The linear transformation T: V  W whose existence and uniqueness is

guaranteed by theorem 4.2.2 depends on the given basis vectors of V and the given

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vectors of W whose number equals the number of basis vectors in V.

Is L: 3  2 given by L(x, y, z) = the only linear mapping that can

satisfy the requirements of the question in the above example? Replace (0, 0, 1) by (1, 0,
0) in the solution of the above example and find a linear transformation
L: 3  2 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1). Do the same by replacing
(0, 0) by (1, 1) and (0, 0,1) by (1, 0, -1).

Exercise:

1. Find a linear transformation

a) T: 2  2 such that T(1, 0) = (2, -1) and T(0,1) = (-2, 1)

b) T: 2  2 such that T(1, 2) = (3, 0) and T(2, 1) = (1, 2)
c) L: 2  3 such that L(2, -5) = (-1, 2, 3) and L(3, 4) = (0, 1, 5)
d) L: 3  2 such that L(3, 1,1) = (1, 0), L(2, -1, 5) = (0, 1)
and L(4, 0, -3) = (-1, 1)
e) F: 2  3 such that T(2, 1) = (3, -1, 5) and T(1, 0) = (2, 1, -1)
f) G: 3  2 such that G(2, 0, 1) = 1, 1) and G(0, 3, 0) = (-1, 1)
2. If v1 = (1, -1) w1 = (1, 0)
v2 = (2, -1) w2 = (0, 1)
v3 = (-3, 2) w3 = (1, 1)
Is there a linear transformation G from 2 into 2 such that G(vi) = wi
for i = 1, 2, 3 ? If so find G.
3. Let T: V  W be a linear mapping . Let v be an element of V. Show that
T(-v) = -T(v)
4. Let L: 2  2 be a linear mapping, such that
L(3, 1) = (1, 2) and L(-1, 0) = (1, 1) compute L(1, 0)
5.2. The Rank and Nullity of a linear transformation and examples

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In this section we will discuss in detail about two important sets related to a linear
transformation T: V  W where V and W are vector spaces over the same field K. One
of them is a subset of V and the other is a subset of W. Is there an element v in V such
that T(v) = Ow -the zero vector in W? We know that T(O v) = Ow, so there is at least one
element v in V such that T(v) = Ow. Hence we have a non-empty subset
U = {u  V| T(u) = Ow} of V. It is a subspace of V because
i) Ov  U as T(Ov) = Ow
ii) If u1, u2  U then T(u1) = T(u2) = Ow
So T(u1 + u2) = T(u1) + T(u2) as T is a linear transformation
= Ow + Ow
= Ow
Thus u1 + u2  U for any u1, u2  U
iii) if u  U and   K, then T(u) = Ow
T(u) = T(u) as T is a linear transformation
= .Ow
= Ow
So  u  U for any   K and for any u  U
From (i), (ii) and (iii) it follows that U is a subspace of V.
On the other hand we know that, the range of T is a subset of W. It is also a subspace of
W(verify!).

This section is concerned with these two special subspaces. Let us begin with the
following definition.

Definition 5.2.1: Let V, W be vector spaces over K and T: V  W be a linear

transformation.
i) The set of elements v  V such that T(v) = Ow is called the Kernel of T or
the null space of T.
ii) The set of elements w in W such that there exists an element v of V such
that T(v) = w is called the image or the range of T.

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Notation: We shall denote the Kernel and image of a linear transformation

T: V  W by KerT and ImT respectively. So KerT = {u  V| T(u) = Ow}
and ImT = {w  W| w = T(v) for some v  V}
At the beginning of this section we have proved that kerT is a subspace of V. In the
theorem below we prove that ImT is a subspace of W.

Theorem 5.2.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
some field K. Then (a) Ker T is a subspace of V
(b) ImT is a subspace of W.
Proof :a) It is already proved
b) Clearly ImT is a subset of W
i) Since T(Ov) = Ow , Ow  ImT.
ii) Let w1, w2  ImT. Then there exists u1, u2  V such that
T(u1) = w1 and T(u2) = w2. Since V is a vector space, u1 + u2  V. Moreover
T(u1 + u2) = T(u1) + T(u2) = w1 + w2. Thus w1 + w2  ImT as there exists a
vector v  V such that T(v) = w1 + w2 (v = u1 + u2).
So we have w1 + w2  ImT w1, w2  W.
iii) Let   K and w  ImT. Then there exists v  V such that T(v) = w
as w  ImT. Since V is a vector space over K,  v  V. Moreover
T(v) = T(v) = w. Hence  w  ImT. From (i), (ii) and (iii) it
follows that ImT is a subspace of W.

Example 5.2.1: Let be defined by

a) Show that G is a linear transformation
b) Find the ker G and ImG.
Solution: a) Let and
Then
=
=

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=
and
=
=
=
Therefore G is a linear transformation.

b) ker

=
=
=
So kerG is the subspace of generated by (1,-1,-1). List at least four elements of ker G.

=
=
=
=
=
Thus ImG is the subspace of generated by (1, 0) and (0, 1).
That is (why?) observe that dim (ker G) = 1 and dim (ImG) = 2 .

In the following theorem we state an equivalent condition that help us to determine

whether a given linear transformation T is one-to-one (injective) or not, using kerT.

Theorem 5.2.2: Let T: V  W be a linear transformation.

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Then T is one-to-one if and only if ker T = {Ov}.

Proof: Suppose T is one-to-one. We need to show that kerT contains only the zero
vector. Let x  kerT. Then T(x) = Ow.
But T(Ov) = Ow. So we have T(x) = T(Ov), which implies x = Ov as T is
one-to-one. Therefore kerT = {Ov}
Conversely suppose kerT = {Ov}. We wish to show that T is one-to-one.
Now let T(x1) = T(x2); x1, x2 V. Then T(x1) + -T(x2) = Ow or
T(x1) + T(-x2) = Ow. Thus we have T(x1 + -x2) = Ow, which implies
x1 + (-x2)  ker T. Since ker T contains only the zero vector by assumption,
x1 + -x2 = Ov and hence x1 = x2. Consequently T is one-to-one.
Let us illustrate how theorem 4.3.2 can be used to check whether a given linear
transformation is one-to-one or not.

Example 5.2.2: Let T: 2  3 be a linear transformation given by

T(a, b) = (a + b, a – b, b).
i) Find ker T and ImT.
ii) Is T one-to-one? Why?
Solution: (i) Ker T = { (x, y)  2 | T (x, y) = (0,0,0)}
= {(x, y)  2 | T (x +y, x-y, y) = (0, 0, 0)}
= {(x, y)  2 | x + y = 0, x – y = 0 and y = 0}
= {(x, y)  2 | x = 0 and y = 0} = {(0, 0)}
From the definition of ImT, it follows that
for some
for some
and for some
and for some
where
where

Thus

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Therefore ImT is a subspace of generated by (1, 1, 0) and (2, 0,1).

What is dim(kerT)? What is dim(ImT)?

ii) Since ker T = {(0, 0)} (contains only the zero vector of ), T is
one – to – one by theorem 4.3.2. But it is not on to why?
Notice that whenever kerT  {Ov}, we can conclude that T is not one-to-one.

Theorem 5.2.3: Let T: V  W be a linear transformation and v 1, v2, v3 …, vn be linearly

independent vectors in V. If kerT = {0 v} then T(v1), T(v2), T(v3),
…, T(vn) are linearly independent vectors in W.
Proof: Let x1, x2, x3 …, xn be scalars such that
x1T(v1) + x2T(v2) + x3 T(v3) + … + xnT(vn) = Ow
Then by linearity of T we get, T(x1v1 + x2v2 + x3v3 + …+ xnvn) = Ow.
Hence x1v1 + x2 v2 + x3v3 + … + xnvn  ker T. But ker T = {Ov}. Thus
x1v1 + x2 v2 + x3v3 + … xnvn = Ov. Since v1, v2, v3, …, vn are linearly independent
vectors in V, it follows that x1 = x2 = x3 = … = xn = 0
This completes the proof.

In the theorem we have proved that if the kernel of a linear transformation T contains
only the zero vector i.e T is 1 – 1 then T maps linearly independent vectors in to linearly
independent vectors.
The next theorem relates the dimension of the kernel and image of a linear transformation
L: V  W with the dimension of V. Before going to it let us have the following
definition.

Definition 5.2.2: Let L be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
field K.
(a) The dimension of the Kernel (the null space) of L is called the nullity
of L.
(b) The dimension of the Image (the range) of L is called the rank of L.

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Example 5.2.3: The linear transformation G: V  W with V = and of

example 4.3.1 is given by .
We have seen that its kernel is a subspace of generated by
(1, -1, 1). So dim (ker G) =1 . That is Nullity of G = 1. Its image is a
subspace of with basis {(1, 0), (0, 1)}. So dim (ImG) = 2 = Rank of
G. Since dim V= 3 and dim(ker G) + dim (ImG) = 3, we have
dim V = Nullity of G + Rank of G.

Example 5.2.4: Consider the linear transformation given in example 4.3.2.

We have seen that its kernel contains only the zero vector, so
dim (ker T) = 0. The set {(1, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1)} is a basis of its image, so
dim (ImT) = 2. Again we have dim Nullity of T + Rank of T

Theorem 5.2.4: (Rank-nullity theorem) Let V and W be vector spaces over the same
field K. Let L: V  W be a linear transformation. If V is finite
dimensional vector space then dim V = nullity of L + rank of L
i.e dim V = dim (ker L) + dim (ImL)
Proof: Since V is finite dimensional vector space, it is obvious that Ker L and
ImL =L (V) are finite dimensional. Moreover dim (Ker L), dim (ImL)  dim V
(Verify)
Let {u1, u2, …, up} and {w1, w2, …, wq} be basis of kerL and ImL respectively
(p, q  dim V) Then there exist v1, v2, …, vq  V such that L(vi) = wi for i = 1, 2,
3,…q as wi  ImL.
Claim:  = {u1, u2, …, up, v1, v2, …, vq} is a bais of V.
Now we show that
i)  generates V
ii)  is linearly independent.
i) Let v  V. Then L(v)  ImL and hence there exist unique scalars b 1, b2, …, bqin
K such that L(v) = b1w1 + b2w2 + … + bqwq.
So L(v) = b1L(v1) + b2L(v2) + … + bqL(vq) as L(vi) = wi for i = 1, 2, ..q

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= L(b1v1 + b2v2 + … + bqvq)

Thus L(v-b1v1 – b2v2 - … - bqvq) = Ow. Which implies v – b1v1 – b2v2- … - bqvq  ker L.
Hence v – b1v1 – b2v2- … -bqvq = a1u1 + a2u2 + …+apup for some unique
scalars a1, a2, …, ap in K. Therefore v = a1u1 + a2u2 + …+apup + b1v1 + b2v2+…+bqvq
From the this we conclude that  generates V.

ii) Suppose 1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2+ … + rqvq = Ov ……… (1)
where 1, 2 …,pr1, r2, …, rq  K
Then L(1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2 + … + rqvq) = L(Ov) = Ow
So we have 1L(u1) + 2L(u2) + …+pL(up) + r1L(v1) + r2L(v2) + … + rqL(vq) = Ow
 r1w1 + r2w2 + … + rqwq = Ow since L(uj) = Ow and
L(vi) = wi j = 1, 2, …, p and i = 1, 2, …,q
 r1 = r2 = … = rq = 0, since {w1, w2, …, wq} is basis of ImL.
 1u1 + 2u2 + … + pup = Ov (replace r1, r2 … rqby 0 in (1)
 1 = 2 = … = p = 0, since {u1, u2, …, up} is a basis of Ker L.
Thus we have shown that
1u1 + 2 u2 + … + pup + r1v1 + r2v2 + … + rqvq = Ov
 1 = 2 = … = p = r1 = v2 = … = rq = 0
That is  is a linearly independent set in V. From (i) and (ii) it follows that
 = {u1, u2, …, up, v1, v2, …, vq} is a basis of V.
Hence dimV = p + q = dim (kerL) + dim (ImL)
Therefore dim V = Nullity of L + Rank of L.

Example 5.2.5 : 1) Let T: 4  3 be a linear transformation defined by

T(a, b, c, d) = (a – b + c + d, a + 2c – d, a + b + 3c – 3d) a, b, c, d  
i) Find the rank and nullity of T.
ii) Is T one-to-one? Is T on to?
Solution: i) First let us find nullity of T.
Let (x, y, z, w)  ker T
Then T(x, y, z, w) = (0, 0, 0)

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 (x – y + z + w, x + 2z – w, x + y + 3z – 3w) = (0,0,0)

Adding (1) and (3) we get 2x + 4z – 2w = 0

By dividing both sides of this equation by 2, we get equation (2)
i.e. x + 2z – w = 0. So w = x + 2z, and y = x + z + w = 2x + 3z
Thus (x, y, z, w) = (x, 2x + 3z, z, x + 2z)
= (x, 2x, 0, x) + (0, 3z, z, 2z)
= x(1, 2, 0, 1) + z(0, 3, 1, 2)
Hence the vectors (1, 2, 0, 1) and (0, 3, 1, 2) generate ker T as every (x, y, z, w) in
ker T can be written as a linear combination of (1, 2, 0, 1) and (0, 3, 1, 2).
Moreover they are linearly independent vectors in ker T. Therefore
{(1, 2, 0, 1),(0, 3, 1, 2)} is a basis of ker T and hence dim ker T = 2. That is
nullity of T is 2. Now by using rank-nullity theorem, we can easily determine the
rank of T.
dim(4) = Nullity of T + rank of T
4 = 2 + Rank of T
Rank of T = 2
ii) T is not one-to-one because kerT  {0}. Since Rank of T = 2 which is
different from dim(3), ImT  3. So T is not on to.
Find the rank and nullity of T.
5.3. Algebra of Linear transformations

In the study of linear transformation from vector space V in to W, it is of fundamental

importance that the set of these transformations possesses a natural vector space
structure.
The set of linear transformations from a vector space V into itself has even more
algebraic structure because of ordinary composition of function, provides a multiplication
of such transformations. We shall explore these ideas in this section.

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Notation: We denote the set of all linear transformations from a vector space V in to W
over the field K by L(V, W). While using the notation L(V, W), it should
be noticed that V and W are vector spaces over the same field . Let T, S 
L(V, W) and   K. Then T and S are linear transformations from V in to
W and hence they are functions from V in to W. Thus
i) the sum of T and S, T + S is a function from V in to W defined by
(T + S) (v) = T(v) + S(v) v  V
ii) the scalar multiple of T by , T is a function from V in to W
defined by (T) (v) = (T(v)) v  V.
We now state a theorem that asserts T + S and T are linear transformations form V in to
W for any T, S  L(V, W) and   K; and L (V, W) is a vector space with addition and
multiplication by scalars defined as above.
We shall prove the first two assertions and leave the last one as an exercise.

Theorem 5.3.1: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let T and S be linear
transformations from V in to W and   K. Then
i) the function T + S is a linear transformation from V in to W.
i.e T + S  L (V, W).
ii) the function T is a linear transformation from V in to W.
i.e T  L (V, W).
iii) L (V, W) the set of all linear transformations from V in to W with
respect to the operation of vector addition and scalar multiplication
defined as (T + S) (v) = T(v) + S(v) and (T (v) = T(v) for all v  V,
is a vector space over K.

Proof: i) We need to show that T + S is a linear transformation from V in to W for

any linear transformation T and S from V in to W. For this let
v1 , v2  V and   K.
Then (T + S) (v1 + v2) = T(v1 + v2) + S(v1 + v2) why?
= T(v1) + T(v2) + S(v1) + Sv2) why?

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= T(v1) + S(v1) + T(v2) + S(v2) why?

= (T + S) (v1) + (T + S) (v2) why?
Moreover (T + S) (v1) = T(v1) + S(v1)
= T(v1) + S(v1) why?
= (T(v1) + S(v1)) why?
= (T + S) (v1)
Therefore T + S is a linear transformation.
ii) Let T be a linear transformation form V into W and   K
Then for any v1, v2  V and   K.
We have (T) (v1 + v2) = (T(v1 + v2))
=  (T(v1) + T(v2) ) why?
= (T(v1)) + (T(v2)) why?
= (T) (v1) + (T) (v2)
and (T) (v1) = (T(v1))
= (T(v1)) why?
= () (T(v1))
= () (T(v1))
= ((T(v1)))
= (T)(v1)
Therefore T is a linear transformation.
iii) Here we need to verify that all the conditions in the definition of a vector
space are satisfied. We leave this to the students.

Note: In the above theorem, we have asserted that L(V,W) is a vector space over K.
With this we can consider every linear transformation in L(V, W) as a vector. The
zero vector in this vector space will be the zero transformation that sends every
vector of V in to the zero vector in W.

Example 5.3.1: Let T : 32 and H : 32 be linear transformations given by

T(x, y, z) = (3x, y + z) and H(x, y, z) = (2x – z, y)

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a. Are T + H and 3T – 4H linear transformations form 3 in to 2

b. Find (i) T + H (c) 3T – 4H
Solution: a) Since T and H are linear transformation from 3 in to 2, we have
T, H  L(3, 2) and hence T + H, 3T – 4H  L (3, 2) as
L(3, 2) is a vector space over . So T + H and 3T – 4H are
linear transformations from 3 in to 2.
b) i) (T + H) (x, y, z) = T (x, y, z) + H(x, y, z)
= (3x, y + z) + (2x-z, y)
= (5x – z, 2y + z)
ii) (3T – 4H) (x, y, z) = (3T + (-4H)) (x, y, z)
= (3T) (x, y, z) + (-4H) (x, y, z)
= 3.T(x, y, z) + (-4) H(x, y, z)
= 3(3x, y + z) + (-4) (2x – z, y)
= (9x, 3y + 3z) + (-8x + 4z, -4y)
= (x + 4z, 3z – y)

Theorem 5.3.2: Let V, W and Z be vector spaces over the field K. Let T and S be linear
transformations from V in to W and from W into Z respectively. Then
the compose function SoT defined by (SoT) (v) = S(T(v)) for all v V
is a linear transformation.
Proof: Let T and S be as in the hypothesis of the theorem Let v1, v2  V and r  K
Then (SoT) (v1 + v2) = S(T(v1 + v2))
= S(T(v1) + T(v2)) why?
= S(T(v1)) + S(T(v2)) why?
= (SoT) (v1) + (SoT) (v2)
and (SoT) (rv1) = S(T(rv1))
= S(rT(v1)) because T is a linear transformation.
= rS(T(v1)) why?
= r(SoT) (v1)
Therefore SoT is a linear transformation.

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Notation: For the sake of brevity we shall simply denote the composition SoT of S and T
by ST.
Activity 5.3.1:
1) Give two linear transformation S and T from 3 in to it self such that ST  TS.
From this you may conclude that composition of linear transformations is not
commutative.
2) Is composition of linear transformations associative? Justify your answer!
3) Let U, V and W be vector spaces over the field K.
Let S, S'  L (U,V) and T, T'  L (V, W)
Verify each of the following.
i) T(S + S') = TS + TS'
ii) (T + T')S = TS + T'S
iii) (T S) = ( T)S = T( S) for all   K

Remember that by a linear operator on vector space V we mean a linear transformation

from a vector space V in to itself.
If T is a linear operator on vector space V, we can compose T with T to get TT which is
again a linear operator on V. We shall use the notation T2 = TT, T3 = TTT and in general
Tn = T.T … T (the composite of T with itself n times) for n = 1, 2, 3, …. We define T o = I
(identity mapping) if T  0 (the zero mapping).

Example 5.3.2: Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V over the field F.
(i) If T2 = O the zero mapping then what can you say about the
relation of the range of T to the kernel of T?
ii) Give an example of a linear operator on 2 such that
T2 = O but T  O.
Solution: i) Method 1: T2 = O  T2(v) = O(v), v  V
 T(T(v)) = Ov – zero vector in V.
 T(v)  ker T v  V
But T(v) is an arbitrary element of Range of T for any v  V.
Therefore Range of T  ker T.

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Method 2: Let w  Range of T. Then T(v) = w for some v V.

So T(w) = T(T(v)) = T2(v) = Ov as
T2(v) = Ov v  V. Hence T(v) = wkerT
Therefore, Range of T is a subset of kerT

ii) Consider the linear map T: 2  2 such that

T(a, b) = (0, a) (a, b)  2
Then T  O as T(1, 1) = (0, 1)  (0, 0)
Now T2 (a, b) = (T.T) (a, b)
= T(T(a, b))
= T(0, a)
= (0, 0)
So, T2(a, b) = (0, 0) (a, b)  2
Hence, T2 = O

Example 5.3.3: Let T:22 be a linear operator on 2 given by

T(a, b) = (a + b, a + b). Show that T(T – 2I) = O, where I is the identity
mapping on 2 and O is the zero mapping on 2.
Solution: (T – 2I) (x, y) = T(x, y) - 2I (x, y)
= (x + y, x + y) – 2(x, y) = (y – x, x – y)
So, [T(T – 2I)] (x, y) = T((T – 2I) (x, y))
= T(y – x, x – y)
= (y – x + x – y, y – x + x – y)
= (0, 0)
Thus T(T – 2I) =O

Activity 5.3.2:
1. Let T and S be linear operators on 2. Does TS = O imply either T = O or S = O?
Explain! Give a counter example if your answer is No.
2. Let V be finite dimensional vector space over the field F and T be a linear
operator on V. Suppose that rank (T 2) = rank T. Prove that the range and null

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space of T have only the zero vector in common.

Now let us discuss about inverse of a linear transformation. Recall that a function T from
V in to W is called invertible if there exists a functions S from W in to V such that ST is
the identity function on V and TS is the identity function on W. If T is invertible the
function S is unique and is denoted by T-1and is called the inverse of T.
T-1(w) = v  T(v) = w whenever T -1 exists. Furthermore we know that T is invertible iff
T is one- to- one and on to.
Theorem 5.3.3: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F and Let T be a linear
transformation from V in to W. If T is invertible then the inverse
function T-1 is a linear transformation.
Proof: Suppose T : V  W is invertible then there exists a unique function
T-1: W  V such that T-1(w) = v  T(v) = w for all w  W. Moreover
T is 1-1 and on to. We need to show that T-1 is linear. Let w1, w2  W and  F
Then there exist unique vectors v1, v2  V such that T(v1) = w1 and T(v2) = w2
as T is 1-1 and on to. So T-1(w1) = v1 and T-1(w2) = v2.
T(v1 + v2) = T(v1) + T(v2) because T is linear
= w1 + w2
Thus T-1(w1 + w2) = v1 + v2 = T-1(w1) + T-1(w2) for any w1, w2  W.
Since T( v1) = w1, T-1 (w1) =  v1 =  T-1(w1). Therefore T-1 is a linear
transformation.

Remark: Let T : V  W and S : W  Z be invertible linear transformations. Then

i) T-1 : W  V is also invertible and
ii) ST : V  Z is also invertible and (ST)-1 = T-1S-1

Example 5.3.4: Let T : 3  3 be a linear transformation given by

T(x, y, z) = (x, 3y, z). Is T invertible? If so, find a rule for T-1 like the
one which defines T.
Solution: We know that if kerT = {} then T is one to-one

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KerT =

=
= .
Therefore T is one to one.
Moreover from rank-nullity theorem, dim(3) = dim (kerT) + dim (ImT).
3 = 0 + dim(ImT). So dim(ImT) = 3. Since ImT is a subspace of 3
and dim(ImT) = 3, we have ImT = 3. Hence T is on to as ImT = 3.
Therefore T is invertible as it one to- one and on to.
To find T-1, let T (x, y, z) = (u, v, w).

Then (x, 3y, z) = (u, v, w). So x = u, .

But T(x, y, z) = (u, v, w)  T-1 (u, v, w) = (x, y, z).

Thus T-1 (u, v, w) = .

Whenever V is a finite dimensional vector space, one – to – oneness can be related to

linear independence and rank as stated in the theorem below.

Theorem 5.3.4: Let T : V  W be a linear transformation and V be finite

dimensional vector space with dimV = n. Then the following
statements are equivalent.
i) T is 1 – 1
ii) If v1, v2, v3, …, vk are linearly independent vectors in V then T(v 1), T(v2),
T(v3), …, T(vk) are linearly independent vectors in ImT
iii) If {v1, v2, v3, …, vn} is a basis of V then {T(v1), T(v2), T(v3), …, T(vn)} is
a basis of ImT.
iv) Dim (ImT) = n
Proof: Left for students

Activity 5.3.3:

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Prove theorem 4.4.4. Follow the following steps

1. Show that (iv)  (i)
2. Show that (i)  (ii)
3. Show that (ii)  (iii)
4. Show that (iii)  (iv)
5. Form 1, 2, 3 and 4, can we conclude that (i)  (ii)  (iii)  (iv)? How?
Remark: For finite dimensional vector spaces V and W over the field K with
dimV = dimW, we have the following results about any linear
transformation T : V  W.
a) T is 1 – 1  T is invertible
b) T is on to  T is invertible.

Example 5.3.5: Let L : V  V be a linear operator such that L 2 = O. Show that I – L is

invertible. (I is the identity mapping on V.)
Solution: Clearly I – L is a linear operator on V.
Let x  ker(I-L). Then (I - L) (x) = Ov
That I(x) – L(x) = Ov. So we have L(x) = x and L2(x) = L(x).
But L2 = O and hence L2 (x) = Ov. Thus x = L(x) = Ov.
Therefore ker (I – L) = {Ov}. Consequently I – L is one to one. In this case
it is not sufficient to have I – L is 1 – 1 to conclude that it is invertible as
V can be infinite dimensional. (Nothing is assumed about V whether it is
finite or infinite dimensional). So we need to show that I – L is on to. For
this let v  V. Then L(v)  V and L(v) + v  V. Moreover
(I – L) (L(v) + v) = I(L(v)+v) – L(L(v) + v)
= L(v) + v – L2(v) – L(v)
=v (L2(v) = Ov )
Thus L(v) + v is the pre-image of v under I – L. So for any vector v  V
there exists a vector x = L(v) + v in V such that (I – L) (x) =v. From this
it follows that (I – L): V  V is on to. Therefore I – L is invertible as it is
1 – 1 and on to.

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Exercise:
1. Let T and S be linear operators on 2 defined by T(x, y) = (y, x) and S(a, b) = (a, 0)
i) How do you describe T and S geometrically?
ii) Give rules like the one defining T and S for each of the linear
transformations S – 2T, ST, TS, T2, S2.
2. Let T be the linear operator on 3 defined by
T(x1, x2, x3) = (3x1, x1 – x2, 2x1 + x2 + x3). Is T invertible? If so, find a rule for T-1.
3. For the linear operator T of exercise 2, Show that (T2 – I) (T – 3I) = O
(I – identity aping and O zero mapping)
4. Let T be a linear transformation from 3 in to 2 and Let U be a linear transformation
from 2 in to 3. Prove that the linear transformation UT is not
invertible.
5. L : 3  3 be a linear transformation. Show that L is invertible and find L-1 for:
a)
b)
6. a) Let S : V  V be a linear operator such that S 2 – S + I =  (where I is the identity
mapping on V and  is the zero mapping on V) Show that S -1 exists and is equal
to I – S.
b) Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V, and assume that L 3 (v) = Ov for all
v  V. Show that I – L is invertible.

7. Let F and G be linear operators on a vector space V over the set of real numbers..
Assume that FG = GF. Show that
i) (F + G)2 = F2 + 2FG + G2
ii) (F + G) (F – G) = F2 – G2

5.4. Matrix representation of a linear transformation

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In this section we shall investigate the strong relationship that exists between linear
transformation and matrices.

Linear transformation associated with a given matrix

Let us consider a matrix over a field for each i = 1,2,…,m and

for each j = 1, 2, …,n). We can associate a mapping by defining

for any column vector X in Kn.
Activity 5.4.1: Show that TA is a linear transformation

Definition 5.4.1: For any matrix over a field K. The mapping

defined by is called the linear

transformation associated with the matrix A.
Note: In this definition, each element X of Kn should be considered as column vector
otherwise AX is not defined.

Example 5.4.1: a) Let . Then is an identity linear

transformation.

b) Let . Then

Thus given by is the linear

transformation associated with matrix B.

c) Let and TA be the linear

transformation associated with matrix A.

Find i) and
ii) The image of the square with vertices

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and .

Solution:

i)

ii) deforms the given square as if the top of the square were
pushed to the right while the base is held fixed (see the figure
below).

We call such transformation shear transformation.

Activity 5.4.2:
1. Let A be a matrix. What must a and b be inorder to define by

2. Let . Give a geometrical description of the linear transformation TA

associated with A.

3. Let

i) Find the linear transformation T associated with B.

ii) Find X in whose image under TB is b

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iii) Determine whether the system has no solution, unique

solution or many solutions

In view of definition 4.5.1 we can study system of linear equations with the help of linear
transformation associated with the coefficient matrix of the system. Consider the system
AX  b where A is an real matrix. Then iff where TA is the
linear transformation associated with matrix A. Thus the system AX = b has a solution iff
b is in the range of TA. If there is exactly one element whose image is b under TA
then the system has exactly one solution. But if b has more than one pre-images
under TA then the system has more than one solution. If there is no such that
, (i.e b is not in the range of TA), then the system has no solution.

Activity 5.4.3:
Prove that if ker , then the system has at most one solution.
Further if the zero column vector in then the homogeneous system has
at least one solution. What is this solution?
The solution set of is the kernel of TA. So the solution set of is a subspace
of . Suppose dim and is a basis of ker TA. Then any
solution v of can be expressed as
where are scalars.
Now let Xo be one particular solution of the non-homogeneous system and w be
any solution of .
Then so we have, . This in turn implies
and hence . Thus
or where are scalars.
Therefore if Xo is one particular solution of the non-homogeneous system then
every solution w of is given by where
is a basis ker TA and are scalars.
This called the general solution of the non homogeneous system .

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Example 5.4.2

Let , and be the linear transformation associated

with matrix A.
i) Find ker TA ?
ii) Is ?
iii) Is there more than one X whose image under TA is b?
iv) Describe the solution set of

Solution: is given by

i)

So

Thus =

ii) Since dim(ker TA) = 1 and 3 = dim (ker TA) + dim(ImTA),

dim(ImTA) = 2. Hence TA is on to. So every element in has a pre-
image under TA . Consequently as .
iii) Since b has a pre-image under TA , there exists such that .

Moreover for any is a pre-image of b, as

= =b

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Thus we have more than one element in whose image under TA is b.

iv) is a particular solution of AX = b

as .

Therefore, is the solution set of AX = b

Exercise:

1) Let and TA be the linear transformation associated with

matrix A. Find X such that

2) Let and TA be the linear transformation

associated with matrix A.

i) Find ket TA ii) Is b in the range of TA
iii) Describe the solution set of AX = b
3) Suppose and T(X) = AX for some matrix A and each X in .
How many rows and columns does A have?

4) Use a rectangular coordinate system to plot and their images

under the linear transformation TA associated with matrix A. (Make a

separate sketch for each exercise). Give a geometric description of what

TA does to a vector in where

i) ii)

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iii) iv)

The matrix of a linear transformation

In the previous subsection we have seen that associated to any given matrix A there
is a linear transformation defined by . In this subsection we
shall see the reverse process, that is to find a matrix associated to a given linear
transformation from a finite dimensional vector space V in to finite dimensional vector
space W over the same field K.
Before going further let us recall about the coordinates of an element V of a finite
dimensional vector space V with respect to a given ordered basis of V. What do we
mean by ordered basis? Suppose is an ordered basis for a finite
dimensional vector space V over a field K and v is in V. The coordinates of v relative to
the basis (or the coordinates of v) are the scalars in K such that
.

If are the -coordinates of v then the vector in Kn,

is the coordinate vector of v relative to or the -coordinate vector of v.

Example 5.4.3: (i) The coordinates of (x, y, z) relative the standard basis
of are simply x, y and z, since
(x, y, z) = x(1, 0, 0)+ y(0, 1, 0+ z(0, 0, 1).

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ii) Consider a basis = {b1, b2} of , where and .

The coordinate vector of relative to is ,

since X = (-2)b1 + 3b2.

Activity 5.4.4:

1) Find the vector X determined by the coordinate vector where

2) Find the coordinate vector of relative to the basis

of

3) Let P2 be the space of polynomial functions from in to of degree two or less

and P be an element of P2 defined by P(t) = 1 + 4t + 7t2
a) Find the coordinate vector of P relative to the standard basis

where and .

b) Find the coordinate vector of P relative to the basis where

and

Now let us deal with the matrix of a given linear transformation.

Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field K and let W be an m-dimensional
vector space over K. Let and be ordered bases of V
and W respectively. Suppose is a linear transformation.

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Then for any x in V, and T(x) can be expressed as a linear combination of

elements of the basis . So we have,

where aij’s are scalars in K.

Writing the coordinates of T(v1),T(v2),…,T(vn) successively as columns of a matrix we

get

…. (2)

That is
The matrix M in (2) is called a matrix representation of T or the matrix for T relative
to the bases and . If and are standard bases of V and W respectively, we call
the matrix M in (2) the standard matrix for the linear transformation T.

Example 5.4.4: Define by

T(x1, x2, x3) = (3x1 - 2x2 + x3, - x1 + x2 +5x3)
a) Find the standard matrix for T.
b) Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered bases

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 Linear Algebra I

 = {(1,0,1), (0,1,1), (0,0,1)} and ’ = {(1,0), (1,1)} of and

respectively.
Solution: a) Here we use the standard basis of and .
T(1,0,0) = (3, -1) = 3(1,0) + -1(0.1)
T(0,1,0) = (-2,1) = -2(1,0) + 1(0,1)
T(0,0,1) = (1,5) = 1(1,0) + 5(0,1)
Writing the coordinates of T(1,0,0), T(0,1,0), T(0,0,1) as first, second and
third columns of a matrix we get the standard matrix M for T as

b) T(1,0,1) = (4,4) = 0(1,0) + 4(1,1)

T(0,1,1) = (-1,6) = -7(1,0) + 6(1,1)
T(0,0,1) = (1,5) = -4(1,0) + 5(1,1)

The matrix of T relative to  and ’ is

Our next task is to examine how the matrix M in (2) determines the linear transformation
T. If x = x1v1 + x2v2 + …+xnvn is a vector in V, then the coordinate vector of x relative to

and T(x) = T(x1v1 + x2v2 + …+xnvn) = x1T(v1) + x2T(v2) + …+xnT(vn) ….. (3)

Using the basis in W, we can rewrite (3) in terms of coordinate vectors relative to
as … (4)
Further the vector equation (4) can be written as a matrix equation?
…. (5)

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 Linear Algebra I

Thus if is the coordinate vector of x relative to , then the equation in (5) shows that
is the coordinate vector of the vector T(X) relative to .

Note: In case when W is the same as V and the basis is the same as , the matrix M
in (2) is called the matrix for T relative to and is denoted by .
Activity 5.4.5: Using equation (3), verify equations (4) and (5).

Example 5.4.5: Let be the linear transformation defined by

T(x, y, z) = (3x + 2y - 4z, x -5y + 3z). Find the matrix of T relative to the bases
B1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 0) of and B2 = {(1, 3), (2, 5)} of .
Solution: T(1, 1, 1) = (1, -1) = -7(1, 3) + 4(2, 5)
T(1, 1, 0) = (5, -4) = -33(1, 3) + 19(2, 5)
T(1, 0, 0) = (3, 1) = -13(1, 3) + 8(2, 5)
The matrix M of T relative to the bases B1 and B2 is:

Example 5.4.6: Let be a basis for a vector space V over the set of real
numbers. Find T(3b1 – 4b2), where T is a linear transformation
form V in to V whose matrix relative to is

Solution: Let x = 3b1 - 4b2. Then the coordinate vector of x relative to  and

the coordinate vector of T(X) relative to is

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 Linear Algebra I

= =

Hence T(x) = 24b1 - 20b2 + 11b3.

Exercise:
1. Let be defined by F(x, y, z) = (z - x, x + y). Find the matrix
associated with F with respect to the standard bases of and .
2. Let defined by T(a, b) = (a, b, a+2b). Find the matrix of T relative to
the bases B1= {(1,1), (2,0)} and B2 = {(1,1,1), (1,1,0), (0,1,1)}.

3. Let and TA be a linear mapping from 3 to 2 defined by

where v is a column vector in 3. Find the matrix of T A relative to

the bases and of 3 and 2 respectively.

4. Suppose that and be a basis for real vector spaces V

and W, respectively. Let be a linear transformation with the property
that T(b1) = 3d1 - 5d2, T(b2) = -d1 + 6d2 , T(b3) = 4d2. Find the matrix M for T
relative to and .

5.5. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a linear Transformation

In this section we look for vectors that are sent by a linear operator into scalar multiple of
themselves. Recall that a linear operator is a linear transformation from a vector space to
it self.

Definition 5.5.1:
Let T: V  V be a linear operator on a vector space V over a field K. An eigenvalue of T
is a scalar  in K such that there is a non-zero vector v in V with T(v) = v. If  is an
eigenvalue of T, then

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 Linear Algebra I

a) any vector v in V such that T(v) = v is called an eigenvector of T associated with

the eigenvalue ;
b) the collection of all vectors v of V such that T(v) = v is called the eigenspace
associated with .
Note:
1. One of the meanings of the word “eigen” in German is “Proper”. Thus eigen
values are also called proper values or characteristic values or latent roots.
2. If  and w are eigenvectors associated with eigenvalue . Then:
i)  + w is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue , because:
T( + w) = T() + T(w) =  + w = ( + w)
ii) each scalar multiple k, k  0, is also an eigenvector with
eigenvalue , because: T(k) = kT() = k() = (k).

Activity 5.5.1: Let T: V  V be a linear operator with ker T  {0}. Prove that every non
zero vector in ker T is an eigenvector of T with eigenvalue 0.

Example 5.5.1:
a) Let id: V  V be the identity operator.
Every non-zero vector in V is an eigenvector of id with an eigenvalue 1, since:
Id() =  = 1.
b) Let T: 2  2 be a linear operator which rotates each   2 by an angle of
90o.

T has no eigenvalues and hence no eigenvectors.

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 Linear Algebra I

c) Let D: V  V be the differential operator on the vector space of differentiable

functions. We have D(e5t) = 5e5t.
Hence, e5t is an eigenvector of D corresponding eigenvalue 5.

5.6. Eigenspace of a linear transformation

Let T: V  V a linear operator over a field K.
Let   K. Let V = The set of all eigenvectors of T with eigenvalue .
Claim V is a subspace of V.
Proof:
i) T(0) = 0 =  . 0, Showing that 0  V.
ii) 1, 2  V  T(1 + 2) = T(1) + T(2)
= 1 + 2
= (1 + 2)
 1 + 2  V
iii) V,   K  T() = T()= ()= ()
   V
Thus we have proved that the eigenspace associated with  is a subspace of V.

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